Unit 2 Lecture- Complete Review
Name several SOMATIC SENSES
Light touch (being touched by a feather), heat, cold, vibration, pressure, pain are SOMATIC SENSES.
What are the three regions of the brain stem?
Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata
Posterior root ganglion
Most synapses are in the CNS
Where do most tumors originate from?
Most tumors of the brain originate from glial cells.
What is myelin made of?
Mostly lipid
What kind of neurons leave the CNS?
Motor (efferent) signals are carried away from the CNS. They innervate muscles and glands
What tissues are innervated by the visceral motor neurons of the ANS?
Motor neurons to smooth and cardiac muscles (the organs and blood vessels)
Do neurons regenerate?
No
Do we have voluntary control over autonomic nerves?
No
Do glia cells process information in the nervous system?
No, the interneurons do that.
What region of the spinal cord do spinal nerves exit?
OUTSIDE of vertebral canal Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral
What is the stapes is attached to?
OVAL WINDOW
What nerve allows the diaphragm to contract? If it gets severed, the person can no longer breathe without assistance
PHRENIC NERVE
What part of the brain is the BIOLOGICAL CLOCK and is responsible for jet lag?"
PINEAL GLAND (pineal body)
what types of sensory information are conveyed toward the brain in the spinothalamic tracts?
Pain and temperature
Name the 3 parts of the Ear and its 3 functions?
Parts: 1. OUTER EAR 2. MIDDLE EAR 3. INNER EAR Function: 1. Hearing 2. Balance 3. Equilibrium
What part of the brain makes melatonin?
Pineal gland (pineal body)
What tract do they travel in?
Proprioception nerves travel up the spinocerebellar tract.
What makes the inside of a cell membrane negatively charged?
Proteins inside the cell make it negative
What are the 3 nerves that form a simple reflex arc?
Sensory, lower motor, and interneuron forms the SIMPLE REFLEX ARC.
what region of the brain interprets signals for touch and temperature?
Somatosensory association area
What is a stroke?
Something which deprives an area of the brain of oxygen; usually from a blood clot or hemorrhage in the brain (broken blood vessel)
What is the most likely cause of amnesia?"
Stroke
What neurotransmitter does it secrete?
Substatia nigra secretes DOPAMINE
The INNER EAR is in what portion of the skull?
The temporal bone (petrious portion).
Where is Cerebrospinal fluid located?
Ventricles and subarachnoid space
What is anterograde amnesia?
can't remember anything new
What is retrograde amnesia?
can't remember the past
What is the tough meningeal layer called?
dura mater
The center for vision in the cerebral cortex is located in which lobe of the brain?
occipital lobe
Scientists who are trying to find a way to make neurons divide to heal nerve injuries often studythe body's only mitotic neurons. These neurons are the
olfactory receptors
What is Wallerian Degeneration?
process that results when a nerve fiber is cut or crushed, in which the part of the axon separated from the neuron's cell body degenerates distal to the injury.
Starting at the spinal cord and preceding laterally, the subdivisions of a plexus are in what order?
rami, trunks, divisions, cords
The tibial and fibular nerves branch from the ____ nerve
sciatic nerve
What is the structure where the two ANS nerves come together?
the AUTONOMIC GANGLIA
What do PROPRIOCEPTION neurons sense?
the amount of force and movement in muscles and joints
What is the function of MYELIN SHEATHS
to speed up the rate of nerve impulse conduction.
Why is proper nutrition important to the brain, and what is the main nutrient it requires?
"The brain is one of the few organs that can only use glucose to get ATP as its energy source. Therefore, without some sugar in our bloodstream, the brain will die."
Where are the cell bodies of the proximal neuron located?
**remember these are motor nerves, so the cell bodies of the pre-ganglionic neurons are located in the anterior
What layer covers a neuron (not referring to myelin)?
1. Endoneurium 2. Perineurium 3. Epineurium
What three characteristics do all neurons share?
1. Longevity - can live and function for a lifetime 2. Do not divide - fetal neurons lose their ability to undergo mitosis (the y lose their centrioles); neural stem cells are an exception 3. High metabolic rate - require abundant oxygen and glucose
What 3 bones are attached to the tympanic membrane and what is their function?
1. MALLEUS (hammer). The malleus vibrates the incus 2. INCUS (anvil). Vibrates the stapes 3. STAPES (stirrup). Their function is to amplify sound vibrations.
What three things do all neurons do?
1. Receive a signal. Can be any type of stimulus (change in environment, signal from another neuron, etc). 2. Transmit a signal to another location. E.g. finger touching something > signal to spinal cord or brain. 3. Stimulate another cell a. Another neuron > transmit signal b. Muscle > contraction. c. Gland > secretion
What 3 structures are responsible for balance?
1. Semicircular Canals 2. Utricle 3. Saccule
What are the three structural classifications of neurons?
1. Unipolar 2. Bipolar 3. Multipolar
Which 6 structures are visible when an opthalmascope is used to look inside the eye?
1. optic disc 2. fovea centralis 3. macula 4. the lens 5. retina 6. blood vessels
The OUTER EAR consists of 2 parts. What are they?
1. pinna 2. external auditory canal
How many spinal nerves are there?
31 Pairs
What is VEGF?
A chemical our cells make that causes blood vessels to grow toward the cell to feed it. This chemical is made in excess by cancer cells which need excess nutrients
What is the motor homunculus?
A drawing of a man that represents how many neuron cell bodies we have that innervate each region of our body.
What is the other cause for Sciatica?
A herniated lumbar disc, in which case stretching exercises make it worse
What muscle can cause Sciatica and how does it cause it?
A short, thick muscle covering the sciatic notch (piriformis), and when it contracts, it pinches on the sciatic nerve, causing irritation known as sciatica. Can be alleviated by stretching exercises.
What meningeal layer is between the dura mater and pia mater?
ARACHNOID MATER
What area of the brain interprets signals from sounds?
AUDITORY ASSOCIATION AREA
The middle ear is open to the nasopharynx by way of what structure and what is its function?
AUDITORY TUBE The function of the auditory tube is to equalize the pressure of the middle ear and the outside air, so the ear bones can vibrate.
What has the function of transmitting signals from the cell body to the area with neurotransmitters?
AXON
What is an action potential?
Action Potential = depolarization + repolarization
What are delta waves?
Active during deep sleep
What are alpha waves?
Active during wakeful relaxation (meditation, prayer)
What are theta waves?
Active when just falling asleep
What are beta waves?
Active when learning, thinking
Transmission of sound vibrations through the OUTER EAR occurs through what substance?
Air.
What is the middle ear normally filled with?
Air.
Are ganglia in the CNS, PNS, or both?
All ganglia are in the PNS only
What does melatonin do in humans?
Allows circadian rhythms (sleep cycles; what time of day you feel like sleeping or waking)
What are the functions of CSF?
Allows the brain to float. It cushions. Acts as the lymphatic system of the brain (it doesn't have one).
What are the 4 types of brain waves?
Alpha Beta Theta Delta
What is Alzheimer's Disease?
Alzheimer's Disease is the most common form of dementia.
What type of injection is between L3 and L4, above the dura mater, so only the nerves are affected?
An epidural.
What nerve is damaged that produces foot drop?
An injury to the deep branch of the fibular nerve.
What does the deep fibular nerve supply?
Anterior leg muscles
What is the function of the iris?
As the iris constricts or dilates the pupil, it regulates the amount of light passing to the visual receptors of the eye.
What is astigmatism?
Astigmatism is when the cornea has an irregular shape.
What disorder has problems with communication between the right and left halves of the brain?
Autism is a neurological disease that includes problems with communication between the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
20. Describe the correct path an impulse takes across a synapse.
Axon of presynaptic neuron > SYNAPTIC CLEFT > dendrite of post synaptic neuron
What is movement of nutrients, wastes, and organelles between the cell body and axon terminals
Axoplasmic transport
Bell's Palsy is damage to what nerve? Whatother disorder does it look like?
BELL'S PALSY is damage of the facial nerve Needsto be distinguished from a stroke.
What does Avastin do?
Blocks VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor)
Bony Labyrinth is filled with what fluid?
Bony Labyrinth is filled with PERILYMPH
What are the two parts of the CNS?
Brain and Spinal cord
Define closed head injury
Brain hits inside of the skull
What are the three parts of the brain stem?
Brain stem: PONS, MIDBRAIN, and MEDULLA OBLONGATA
What region of the brain allows for speech? Stroke in this area can cause what?
Broca's area Stroke here can cause aphasia (unable to speak)
What is the spinal cord called beyond L1-2?
CAUDA EQUINA ("Horse's tail"), which exit through the intervertebral foramina.
CROSS SECTION OF THE SPINAL CORD
CENTRAL CANAL, GREY MATTER, WHITE MATTER, POSTERIOR MEDIAN SULCUS, ANTERIOR MEDIAN FISSURE, DORSAL HORN, VENTRAL HORN, DORSAL ROOT, DORSAL ROOT GANGLION, VENTRAL ROOT, and SPINAL NERVE
What are the two halves of the cerebrum called?
CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES.
What is the largest portion of the brain?
CEREBRUM is the largest portion of the brain
"What cranial nerve carries information for hearing?"
CN VIII VESTIBULAR COCHLEAR NERVE
The majority (90%) of the parasympathetic outflow from the head is by which nerve?
CN X (vagus)
What structure contains receptors for hearing?
COCHLEA
What area connects the right and left halves of the brain?
CORPUS CALLOSUM
What two types of organisms cause MENINGITIS? Which one is worse?
Can be caused from virus (not that bad) or bacteria (can be fatal)
Symptoms of a lower motor neuron disease
Cannot move extremity on their own (paralysis) and reflexes are also not present
Symptoms of an upper motor neuron disease
Cannot move extremity on their own (paralysis) but reflexes are present
Median nerve injury is called what?
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome, Hand of Benediction or Ape hand
What does the fornix do?
Carries signals from the hippocampus to the mammillary bodies
What do lower motor neurons do?
Carry motor commands to the skeletal muscles
What are ependymal cells?
Cells that line the ventricles of the brain and produce cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)
3 parts of the Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS): brain and spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): nerves of the body Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): has parts of the CNS and PNS.
What part of the brain is first affected by alcohol?
Cerebellum
What is the second largest portion of the brain?
Cerebellum is the second largest portion of the brain
What region of the brain is responsible for logical thought and conscious awareness?"
Cerebrum
What region of the brain is responsible for the highest sensory and motor activity?
Cerebrum
Is the CEREBRUM made of grey matter or white matter?
Cerebrum is made of grey matter
An example of a test for proprioception is...?
Close eyes and touch finger to nose.
What are cataracts?
Clouding of the lens that leads to a clinical condition known as CATARACTS.
Where are hair cells found?
Cochlea and Semicircular Canals
What does the Autonomic Nervous System control and what are its two divisions?
Controls autonomic function (blood pressure, digestion, etc). a. Sympathetic division b. Parasympathetic division
What does the left side of the brain control?
Critical thinking. NOTE: planning and judgment are NOT in the left side of the brain...that is the entire frontal lobe.
What receives the signal and carries the nerve conduction toward the cell body?
DENDRITES
What does damage to Cranial Nerve XII cause?
Damage causes impairment of speech.
What does damage to the median nerve result in?
Damage is called carpal tunnel syndrome, "ape hand" or "hand of benediction""
What is the effect of damage to Brodmann areas 18 and 19?
Damage to Brodmann areas 18 and 19 causes inability to recognize what one sees
What are four ways that aging affects the nervous system?
Decline in sensory functions, motor function, short term memory, and insomnia
What is dementia?
Dementia is loss of memory. It is a symptom, not a disease
What effect does cocaine have on the brain?
Depletes dopamine (causes Parkinson's symptoms)
When does Depolarization occur?
Depolarization: Enough sodium ions flow into the cell to make the membrane potential become positive
What machine is used to measure brain wave activity?
EEG (electroencephalogram)
What is infection of the brain called and how is it caused?
ENCEPHALITIS It can be caused by mosquito-borne illnesses, or bacteria
What does the right side of the brain control?
Emotions
What type of fluid and what receptors are within each semi-circular canal?
Endolymph and hair cells.
What sheath covers the axon (not referring to myelin)?
Endoneurium
What makes CEREBRAL SPINAL FLUID?
Ependymal cells in the choroid plexus, which is in the ventricles.
What sheath covers a bunch of fascicles?
Epineurium
Where does spinal cord begin and end?
FORAMEN MAGNUM. It goes to L1-2.In infants, it ends at L4-5, because it doesn't grow as fast as the rest of the body.
What does alcohol do to a fetus
Fetal alcohol syndrome (most common cause of mental retardation in the USA)
What is the symptom of an injury to the deep branch of the fibular nerve?
Foot slap: The foot cannot be dorsi-flexed.
Which lobe coordinates PLANNING AND JUDGMENT?
Frontal lobe
What procedure was done to people who were overly aggressive?
Frontal lobotomy
What are the supporting cells of the nervous system?
GLIA
What is the portion of the CNS that is unmyelinated (cell bodies of neurons, glia, and dendrites)?
GREY MATTER
What are two main therapies for brain tumors?
Gamma knife radiation therapy Tumor-starving medicines (Avastin)
What is a collection of cell bodies in the PNS?
Ganglion
Define a GANGLION (plural is ganglia)
Ganglion = a group of neuron cell bodies.
What is glaucoma?
Glaucoma is increased pressure within the anterior chamber of the eye. It leads to blindness.
Where is the site of neuronal integration?
Grey matter
What is grey matter made up of?
Grey matter is made of cell bodies, dendrites, neuroglia, and unmyelinated axons.
What part of the brain controls memory of events?
HIPPOCAMPUS
Hair cells are receptor cells for what 2 things?
Hearing and equilibrium
How do hyperopia and presbyopia differ?
Hyperopia and presbyopia have some features in common, but a key difference between these two conditions is that in hyperopia the lens can accommodate, but in presbyopia it cannot
Describe Hyperopia
Hyperopia is when the eyes are too short. The person will be far-sighted. They can see far away, but cannot focus close up because of the shape of their eyeball. This is not the same as presbyopia.
What region of the brain provides homeostatic control over the body?"
Hypothalamus
What is Cranial Nerve II called, and what does it do?
II. OPTIC NERVE: Transmits visual information from the eye's retina.
What is Cranial Nerve III called, and what does it do?
III Occulomotor Nerve: this controls most of the extrinsic muscles of the eye (that move the eyeball). They also have parasympathetic innervation in theiris (pupil) and cilliary (controls the lens).
What is a small neuron found only in the CNS?
INTERNEURON
What is Cranial Nerve IX called, and what three things does it do?
IX: GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL · signals the pharynx to constrict (along with X) during swallowing. · Innervates top of tongue · Carries information from baroreceptors
How can someone cause damage to The BRACHIAL PLEXUS?
If a person leans their armpits on their crutches, they can damage this plexus and lose the use of their arms. The nerves in the brachial plexus change names as they go to different regions in the arm."
Why is retinal detachment considered a medical emergency?
If not lasered back into place immediately, permanent blindness can result.
Example of a withdrawal reflex.Simple reflex behavior involves how many nerves? Any brain involvement? Are the automatic or voluntary events?
If you touch a hot stove, the sensory input comes into the spinal cord, the association neurons send the information to the lower motor neurons, the muscle contracts, and you take your hand off the stove before your brain even knows it.Simple reflex behavior involves three nerves, and no brain involvement. Reflexes are automatic events.
Where is the primary gustatory (taste) cortex?
In the insula of the temporal lobe of the cerebrum
What is VERTIGO or LABYRINTHITIS?
Inflammation of the semi-circular canals that give a sense of motion when you're not moving. This can be debilitating.
At resting membrane potential, is the inside of the cell membrane positive or negative? What about the outside of the cell membrane?
Inside is negative, outside is positive
What is the difference between a nerve and a tract?
Inside the brain nerves are called tracts; outside the brain, they are called nerves (for example, optic and olfactory nerves are outside the CNS, while optic and olfactory tracts are inside the CNS)
What is Sciatica?
Irritated sciatic nerve - irritation by muscle pinch (piriformis syndrome) or a ruptured disc
How is the Otoliths play an essential process in stimulating the hair cells?
It allows the hair cells in this region to act as receptors by telling you what position your head is in and provide you a sense of equilibrium.
It has a large branch that passes through the foramen ovale of the skull.
It has a large branch that passes through the foramen ovale of the skull.
What hole does Cranial Nerve V pass through in the skull?
It has a large branch that passes through the foramen ovale of the skull.
What are some problems with nicotine?
It is highly addictive. It also increases the heart rate and blood pressure. Withdrawal symptoms include headache, irritability, and insomnia.
What happens if a neuron's supply of neurotransmitters is exhausted?
It might be temporarily unable to transmit an impulse to another cell
Why does potassium want to get back into a cell?
It wants to get back into a cell because it is attracted to the negative charges on the protein inside the cell
Why does potassium constantly want to leave a cell?
It wants to leave to diffuse down its concentration gradient
What is an example of a three-neuron reflex?
KNEE-JERK REFLEX
Where does the SACRAL PLEXUS exit the
L4-S5
Regarding LOWER MOTOR NEURONS: - Where is their cell body - Where does their axon exit the spinal cord - Where do they synapse
LMN's have their cell body in the anterior horn (of the gray matter), and their axon goes out the anterior root, and synapses in a muscle.
Name the main ventricles of the brain, and which is largest?
Lateral ventricle (largest) Third ventricle Cerebral Aqueduct Fourth ventricle
What does the PRIMARY MOTOR ASSOCIATION AREA do?"
Leaned motor skills and Planning movement
What structure separates the two cerebral hemispheres?
Longitudinal fissure
What is a LOWER (SOMATIC) MOTOR NEURON?
Lower motor neuron: cell body is in the spinal cord, and synapses on skeletal muscle.
What part of the brain controls autonomic functions such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate?
MEDULLA OBLONGATA (note: it does NOT control hunger and sleep)
What part of the brain controls automatic behaviors, such as fight-or-flight?
MIDBRAIN
What are the neurons that leave the CNS to effect a muscle or gland?
MOTOR NEURONS
What is an autoimmune disease where the oligodendrocytes (the myelin sheaths) are destroyed, interfering with the neuron functions in the CNS and brain?
MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
What is the most common neurological disease of young adults?
MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
What are the 4 main conditions that cause blindness?
Macular degeneration Cataracts Glaucoma Diabetic retinopathy
What conducts impulses faster - myelinated or unmyelinated axon?
Myelinated
What causes Myopia?
Myopia (nearsightedness) is caused by eyes which are too long. The person can see close up, but not far away.
What is a network of nerves called?
NERVE PLEXUS
What is a collection of axons in the PNS?
NERVE; No cell bodies, dendrites, or synapses; just axons.
What are the BARE regions of axonal membranes found only in myelinated axons called?
NODES OF RANVIER
Gray matter in the CNS contains what structures?
Neuroglia, neuron cell bodies, dendrites. Everything except myelinated neurons
Where are unmyelinated axons found?
Neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons in the PNS and CNS.
Does potassium leave the cell because of neuron stimulation?
No, it can leave anytime because its channel is leaky.
Are all body parts equally represented by cell density in the motor area in proportion to their size in the body?
No. For instance, the lips and hands are drawn large to represent the many cells in the motor area that innervate those regions.
Are somatic senses (including pain) and proprioception considered
No. Somatic senses (including pain) and proprioception are NOT considered special senses.
Do glia cells carry nerve impulses?
No. The impulses jump over the oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells, and astrocytes and microglia are not involved in nerve impulses at all.
What is Cranial Nerve I called, and what does it do?
OLFACTORY nerves Transmits the sense of smell.
Which cells provide the myelin sheath for neurons in the CNS?
OLIGODENDROCYTES
What are calcium deposits in the inner ear called?They are an essential part of the utricle and saccule for what purpose?
OTOLITHS ("ear rocks"). Equilibrium
What nerve supplies the adductor muscles
Obturator nerve
Scientists who are trying to find a way to make neurons divide to heal nerve injuries often study the body's only mitotic neurons. These neurons are?
Olfactory receptors.
What are 4 types of glia cells?
Oligodendrocyte Schwann Cell Astrocyte Microglia
Photo of two of the 4 types of glial cells
Oligodendrocytes Schwann Cell
What is the neurolemma?
Outermost covering of a neuron (plasma membrane)
Damage to the substantia nigra causes
PARKINSON'S DISEASE
What part of the brain relays sensory information between the cerebellum and cerebrum?
PONS
What area of the brain contains the motor homunculus?
PRECENTRAL GYRUS
Describe Presbyopia.
PRESBYOPIA ("old eyes"). Occurs around age 45-50. The lens cannot accommodate .With age, the lens loses flexibility, and is less likely to round up. It stays in the position for seeing far, so there is trouble focusing on things that are near.
What area of the brain receives signals from sounds from the cochlear nerve?
PRIMARY AUDITORY CORTEX
The PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX contains what type of neurons?
PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX : UPPER MOTOR NEURONS
What area of the brain interprets signals for touch, temperature, pressure, and pain?
PRIMARY SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX
What area of the brain receives signals from the eyes by way of CN II?"
PRIMARY VISUAL CORTEX
What are proprioceptors; and how is proprioception tested?
PROPRIOCEPTORS are found in the muscles, joints, and tendons. They measure the amount of movement, force, and position of the body. Proprioception is often tested by having the patient close their eyes and saying if their fingers are up or down.
What is the nerve that can be anesthetized during childbirth as an alternative to an epidural? What type of nerve block is this called?
PUDENDAL NERVE saddle block
PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION does what to the following? - Metabolic activity - blood glucose levels
Parasympathetic Division: · decreased heart rate and blood pressure · decreased metabolic activity (decreased blood glucose), · increased peristalsis (increased food digestion) · constriction of bronchioles in lungs · increases blood flow to the skin, · does not influence sweating.
Are the axons of the pre-ganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic division short or long? Are the axons of the post-ganglionic
Parasympathetic Division: Most pre-ganglionic neurons are long. Most post-ganglionic neurons are short.
What are "unicate fits".
People who experience imaginary odors have that are called "unicate fits".
What sheath covers a fascicle (bundle of neurons)
Perineurium
What does the superficial fibular nerve supply?
Peroneal muscles of the lateral leg
Where are the cell bodies of the sensory neurons of the spinal nerves located?
Posterior root ganglion
What region of the brain contains the upper motor neurons?
Primary motor cortex
Irritation of CN V is called what?
Problems with CN-V are called TRIGEMINALNEURALGIA, which is excruciating pain in the face from nerve inflammation.
What part of the brain plays a role in rousing and maintaining consciousness? Where is it located?
RETICULAR FORMATION. It is located throughout the brainstem
31. Radial nerve injury is called what?
Radial nerve injury: Wrist drop
What is the correct path of a simple spinal reflex?
Receptor, afferent neuron, integration center, efferent neuron, effector
What does the word "innervates" mean?
Refers to a nerve supplying a muscle or organ. For example, "The phrenic nerve innervates the diaphragm muscle".
When does Repolarization occur?
Repolarization: Enough sodium ions flow out of the cell to make the membrane potential become negative
What causes retinal detachment? Does it cause blindness immediately? Does the detached portion contain capillaries?
Retinal detachment is usually caused by a blow to the eye. It does not cause blindness immediately, it takes a few hours. The detached portion still has some capillaries supplying oxygen for a few hours.
Which cells provide the myelin sheath for neurons in the PNS?
SCHWANN CELLS
What structure determines movement in three planes?
SEMI-CIRCULAR CANALS
What neurons go from body to CNS, carrying sensory information?
SENSORY NEURON
Define SENSORY NEURONS: - Where do they come in to the spinal cord? - Where is their cell body - Where do they synapse - What pathway do they take to the brain - In what part of the brain do they terminate?
SENSORY NEURONS come in through the posterior root, their cell body is in the posterior root ganglion, and its axon goes into the posterior horn and synapses in the grey matter.It also sends a branch to an area of the white matter called the DORSAL COLUMN PATHWAY, which goes into the brain (thalamus).
How does a sensory signal get from a finger to the brain?
SENSORY TOUCH > SPINAL NERVE > POSTERIOR ROOT GANGLION > POSTERIOR ROOT > POSTERIOR HORN > TRACT >THALAMUS
What area of the brain receives signals for touch, temperature, pressure, and pain?
SOMATOSENSORY ASSOCIATION AREA
What test is done to diagnose meningitis?
SPINAL TAP
Where is most information processed?
SYNAPSES in the CNS
What part of a neuron stimulates another cell?
SYNAPTIC KNOBS
What are the two differences between SCHWANN CELLS and OLIGODENDRICYTES?
Schwann cells are in PNS and each cell only forms one myelin sheath. Oligodendricytes are in CNS and each cell can form more than one myelin sheaths.
What is the nerve to the posterior thigh?
Sciatic nerve
What kinds of neurons enter the CNS?
Sensory (afferent) signals picked up by sensor receptors. They are carried by nerve fibers of PNS to the CNS
What three types of nerves are in the somatic nervous system?
Sensory nerves (somatosensory neurons) Reflexes (sensory, interneuron, lower motor neuron) Motor nerves to skeletal muscle (somatic motor neurons)
Define CSF: What fluid is it similar to? Where is it made? What structure makes it? What type of capillaries does it come out of, and to where does it spread
Similar to plasma be/c it is derived from plasma Made in the 3rd and 4th ventricle by the CHOROID PLEXUS There are fenestrated capillaries there; the fluid spreads into the subarachnoid space
Name the 5 SPECIAL SENSES.
Smell, taste, vision, hearing, and equilibrium (balance) are SPECIAL SENSES
When a cell is at resting membrane potential and is then stimulated by a neuron, what is the first thing that happens to start the change in the overall charge on the inside of the cell?
Sodium channels open and sodium enters the cell.
Are ganglia motor or sensory?
Some are motor, some are sensory.
What could cause a person to be unable to easily taste sweet, sour, or salty substances?
Someone with a damaged facial nerve cannot easily taste sweet, sour, or salty substances. (Taste buds are the only part of the nervous system that can regenerate completely).
What part of the brain controls balance and coordination?
CEREBELLUM
What fluid is in the MEMBRANOUS LABYRINTH?
ENDOLYMPH.
What is Cranial Nerve IV called, and what doesit do?
IV. Trochlear Nerve: supplies one of the extrinsiceye muscles
Where are the cell bodies of motor neurons and interneurons located?
In gray matter
What is another term for the zonule?
Suspensory ligament of the lens
SYMPATHETIC DIVISION does what to the following?
Sympathetic Division: · ↑ heart rate and blood pressure · ↑ metabolic activity (increased blood glucose) · decreased peristalsis (decreased food digestion) · dilation of bronchioles in lungs (open up) · decreases blood flow to the skin · innervates sweat glands in the skin to increase sweating. *Parasympathetic is opposite of this list: decreases heart
Are the axons of the pre-ganglionic neurons of the sympathetic division short or long?
Sympathetic Division:Most pre-ganglionic neurons are short. Most post-ganglionic neurons are long. The sympathetic peripheral ganglia are further from the organs and have long postganglionic fibers
What part of the brain sorts out all the unnecessary sensory information?
THALAMUS
What is a collection of axons in the CNS
TRACT
The oil component found in tears is produced by which glands?
Tarsal glands. TARSAL GLANDS are sebaceous glands on the inside of the eyelid, and produce sebum, which is an oil to lubricate the eyeball.
What does the hypothalamus control?
Temperature, autonomic nervous reflexes, glucose and hormone levels, and the visceral reflexes (digestion, sweating, hunger, thirst, and sleep). It does NOT control blood pressure directly.
The primary gustatory (taste) cortex is located inwhich lobe of the brain?
Temporal lobe (in the insula)
Axons in the DORSAL COLUMN PATHWAY go to what part of the brain?
Thalamus
What are the two regions in the diencephalon?
Thalamus and hypothalamus
Does the ANS have sensory neurons, interneurons, or motor neurons?
The ANS has motor neurons only (there are no sensory neurons in the ANS).
What is the major group of nerves that supply the upper limbs?
The BRACHIAL PLEXUS
Where are the nucleus, ribosomes, and most organelles located?
The CELL BODY
What is the second largest portion of the brain? What's its function?
The CEREBELLUM is the second largest portion of the brain, and is responsible for being able to balance.
Ordinarily, it is not possible to transplant tissues from one person to another without rejection, yet corneas can be transplanted...why?
The CORNEA is avascular (no blood supply) except around the periphery. Therefore, there is no tissue rejection when it is transplanted into another person.
What part of the brain controls visual and audio REFLEXES?"
The CORPORA QUADRAGEMINI They send the information to the MIDBRAIN for processing
What is the main nerve to the anterior thigh?
The Femoral nerve.
What is the name of the region of the retina which has the highest amount of cones?
The Fovea Centralis. This is a region on the retina that has the highest concentration of cones. This is the very center point of the macula
In what system of the brain is memory, emotion, and smell linked?
The LIMBIC SYSTEM
Where does the SACRAL PLEXUS exit the spinal cord?
The SACRAL PLEXUS is made up of the spinal nerves exiting the spinal cord from the level of L4 toS5.
What part of the brain is involved in addictions and in initiating body movement? Where is it located?
The SUBSTANTIA NIGRA, which is in the MIDBRAIN
What changes the overall charge on the inside and outside of the cell membrane?
The charges change when sodium channels open during neuron stimulation
The complexity of the CNS can be attributed to what?
The complexity of the CNS can be attributed to Interneurons
Define subdural or subarachnoid hemorrhage
The dura and arachnoid mater both have lots Of blood vessels, which might rupture Potentially fatal - blood accumulates and squeezes the brain. Tx = drill a hole
What is the proximal ANS neuron called?
The first nerve is the PRE-GANGLIONIC NEURON. The second nerve is the POST-GANGLIONIC NEURON.
What is the purpose of having gyri and sulci in the brain?
The gyri and sulci increase the surface area, and the surface is where the information processing is.
What part of the brain that exerts more control over autonomic functioning than any other part?
The hypothalamus
What is the function of the Lacrimal gland?
The lacrimal glands produce tears, which drain into the nasal cavity via the lacrimal duct. The function is to moisten and lubricate the eye surface, and it has enzymes to kill bacteria (which thrive in warm, moist conditions).
What makes the CNS complex?
The large number of interneurons in the CNS
What is the main symptom of meningitis?
The main symptom is a headache
What is the main nerve to the muscles of the anterior forearm and palm?
The median nerve.
What is the correct sequence of events at a synapse?
The nerve impulse arrives at the synaptic knob of the presynaptic cell, then the neurotransmitter is released. The NT binds to receptors on the postsynaptic cell, generating an action potential in the postsynaptic cell axon. Then the NT is removed from the receptors of the postsynaptic cell, either by an enzyme, or they are taken back up into the presynaptic terminal knob and recycled.
After traveling through the optic chiasma, which section of the brain receives the visual information?
The occipital region of the brain, where the information is processed.
What is the only function of the blood-brain barrier BBB?
The only function of the blood-brain barrier is to help protect the central nervous system.
Visual information travels from the retina deep into the brain via which pathway? Is it visible with an opthalmascope in this region?
The optic chiasma. (This is on the brain surface, therefore it is not visible with an opthalmascope).
Are the ganglia of the parasympathetic division closer to the organs or closer to the vertebral column? Are the postganglionic
The parasympathetic peripheral ganglia are near the organs and have short postganglionic fibers
What is the PINNA made up of and what is its function?
The pinna is the cartilage of the ear; it acts as a funnel to capture the sound.
The primary gustatory (taste) cortex is located in which lobe of the brain?
The primary gustatory (taste) cortex is located in the insula (under the temporal lobe) of the brain.
What is the resting membrane potential of a cell? Why does potassium constantly want to leave a cell?
The resting membrane potential is how negative or positive the charge of the cell membrane is when it is not being stimulated by a neuron. The resting membrane potential is Minus 70-minus 90 mV
What would be the effect of cutting the corpus callosum?
The right cerebral hemisphere cannot communicate directly with the left hemisphere. It does not interfere with vision or hearing, and does not cause paralysis. However, it does interfere with being able to speak for a while after the surgery.
What are synaptic knobs filled with?
The synaptic knob has vesicles filled with a neurotransmitter that carries the signal.
Where are the cell bodies of interneurons?
Their cell bodies are in the dorsal half of the graymatter in the spinal cord.
Name the cranial nerves and their Roman numeral.
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves, numbered with Roman numerals. Make sure you know the NAME AND the Roman numerals! (OOOTTAFVGVAH) "OOOTommy Turtle Always Finds Vegetable Gardens Very Attractive, Heavenly" I Olfactory II Optic III Occulomotor IV Trochlear V Trigeminal VI Abducens VII Facial VIII Vestibulocochlear IX Glossopharyngeal X Vagus XI Accessory Nerve XII Hypoglossal
How does the ANS differ from the PNS?
There are two lower motor neurons in the periphery of the ANS and one lower motor neuron in the PNS.
What spinal nerve has a number that does notcorrespond to a vertebra?
There is a spinal nerve C8, although there is no C8vertebrae.
How can you damage the mammillary bodies, and what disorder does it cause?"
They are damaged by thiamine (vitamin B) deficiency or by alcohol. The disorder is Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome (anterograde amnesia)
What is the function of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?
They are involved in digestion, blood flow, urination, defecation, glandular secretion. Therefore, the ANS supplies the glands, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle, but NOT the skeletal muscle.
Define MICROGLIA and their function
They are macrophages They pick up bacteria and debris
Are spinal nerves motor or sensory or both?
They are motor and sensory
The mammillary bodies are part of what region of the brain?
They are part of the diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus area). They are also part of the limbic system.
Where are memories stored in the brain?"
They are stored throughout the brain, especially in the cerebral cortex and cerebellum.
What can a spinal cord injury in the cervical region mean?
They could have quadriplegia (arms and legs paralyzed). Paraplegia (just legs are paralyzed).
Define reflexes: - Are they motor, sensory, or both? - Are they fast or slow? - Are they voluntary or involuntary? - Do they involve one or multiple synapses?
They involve both motor and sensory neurons, they are rapid, involuntary, and they involve multiple synapses.
What is the function of the mammillary bodies?
They relay recognition memory and add the sense of smell to memories.
What area is supplied by the tibial and fibular nerves?
They supply the leg and foot.
What is the function of glia cells?
They support the neurons
What causes HYDROCEPHALY?
This is usually congenital, caused by a blockage of the cerebral aqueduct. Can be caused by a tumor in adults
What is the 20-20 rule?
To protect your eyesight throughout your life, use the 20-20-20 rule: Every 20 minutes look up for 20 seconds at something 20 feet away
What are two symptoms of Parkinson's Disease?"
Trouble starting movements Pill-rolling tremor at rest
What are the two joined structures attached to the semi-circular canals?
UTRICLE and the SACCULE.
Ulnar nerve injury is called what?
Ulnar nerve injury: Claw hand (cannot adduct or abduct fingers).
Are unmyelinated axons thinner or thicker than myelinated?
Unmyelinated axons are thinner.
What are the two types of somatic motor
Upper and lower motor neurons
WHAT IS AN UPPER MOTOR NEURON?
Upper motor neuron: cell body is in the brain, synapses on a lower motor neuron (in the spinal cord)
What is Cranial Nerve V called, and what does itdo?
V. Trigeminal Nerve: This is the main sensory nerveof the face.
What is Cranial Nerve VI called, and what does it do?
VI: Abducens controls one of the eye muscles (lateral rectus).
A person who cannot blink or smile may have damage to what nerve?
VII Facial Nerve
What is Cranial Nerve VII called, and what does it do?
VII Facial Nerve: This innervates the muscles of facial expression and salivary glands.
A person who cannot easily taste sweet, sour, or salty substances has damage to what nerve?
VIIFacial Nerve
What is Cranial Nerve VIII called, and what does it do?
VIII. VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR nerve transmitshearing and balance.
What area of the brain interprets signals from the eyes?
VISUAL ASSOCIATION AREA
Where is CSF located?
Ventricles and the subarachnoid space.
What are the neurons in the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?
Visceral motor neurons
What is the portion of the CNS with myelin
WHITE MATTER
What region of the brain allows for understanding of words?"
Wernicke's area
What is white matter made up of?
White matter is made of myelinated axons
The majority of all parasympathetic fibers arefrom what cranial nerve?
X Vagus Nerve
Which cranial nerve travels into the abdomen?
X Vagus Nerve
What is Cranial Nerve X called, and what four things does it do?
X Vagus Nerve · Parasympathetic supply to organs · Moves the larynx during speech · Signals pharynx to constrict during swallowing (with CN IX) · Carries information from baroreceptors
What is Cranial Nerve XI called, and what does it do?
XI: ACCESSORY NERVE enters the skull through foramen magnum and leaves through the jugular foramen. It just supplies the shoulder muscles.
What is Cranial Nerve XII called, and what does it do?
XII. HYPOGLOSSAL NERVE (hypo=under; glossal=tongue) - supplies the under surface of the tongue.
When the nerves leave the spinal cord, they travel together in what? Give one example
a plexus. One of these is known as the brachial plexus (in the armpit; innervates the muscles of the arm).
Why does sidedness exist (inside of cell negative, outside positive)?
a) The cell membrane has different permeabilities to each ion b) Pumps exist which force particular ions into or out of the cell c) Channels made out of protein selectively allow particular ions into or out of the cell.
For a substance to diffuse across a semipermiable membrane, what two conditions must be met?
a) The membrane must be permeable to the substance b) The substance must have a concentration gradient
What are the 3 functions of an ASTROCYTE?
a. Physically supports the neurons b. Transmits materials from capillaries to neurons. c. Forms blood-brain barrier (BBB), which keeps out harmful substances and many medicines
What are some negative effects of marijuana on the nervous system?
alteration in vision, judgment, and motor coordination
The subaracbnoid space lies between what two layers of meninges"
arachnoid and pia
What is another name for interneurons?
association neurons
What are the types of synapses?
axosomatic neuroeffector synapses axodendritic axoaxonic
What is the main visceral control center of the brain?
hypothalamus
54. What is the function of interneuron?
it connects two other neurons in the spinal cord
Where do interneurons synapse?
on the cell body of the motor neuron
Which one of the meninges follows the brain surface into a cerebral sulcus?
pia mater
What are the withdrawal symptoms of heroin?
sweating, shakes, abdominal cramps, and an increase in heart rate
What is the ANS also called and why?
the general visceral motor system (be/c it supplies the glands, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle, but NOT the skeletal muscle).
What are the structural classification of neurons based on ?
the number of processes that project from the cell body.
Characteristics of the ANS motor unit:
· Has more than one lower motor neuron · the axons may be myelinated or unmyelinated · conduction is slow · the axons are thin.
