Unit 4

Battle of Rossbach

A Battle during the Seven Years War in which Frederick the Great won a spectacular victory at this battle in Saxony over combined French-Austrian forces that outnumbered his own troops. After this battle, the forces of Frederick II were being attacked from three directions. They were saved by the death of Tsarina Elizabeth of Russia which brought her nephew Peter III to power. He admired Frederick the great so Peter withdrew the Russian troops from the conflict and from the Prussian lands they occupied. This guaranteed a stalemate and led to a desire for peace.

Robert Clive

A British general who led the British to a victory in the Anglo-French struggle due to his persistence. He established the military and political supremacy of the East India Company in Bengal.

South Sea Company

A British joint-stock company founded in 1711, created as a public-private partnership to consolidate and reduce the cost of national debt. The company was also granted a monopoly to trade with South America and nearby islands, hence its name. When the company was created, Britain was involved in the War of the Spanish Succession and Spain controlled South America. There was no realistic prospect that trade would take place and the company never realized any significant profit from its monopoly. Company stock rose greatly in value as it expanded its operations dealing in government debt, peaking in 1720 before collapsing to little above its original flotation price; the economic bubble became known as the South Sea Bubble.

Frederick the Great- reforms, problems faced, outlook, leadership

A Prussian king who was well educated and versed in Enlightenment thought. He made the Prussian bureaucracy known for its efficiency and honesty. For a time he seemed willing to listen to the philosophies calls for reform. He established a single code of laws for his territories which eliminated the use of torture except in treason and murder cases. He also granted limited freedom of speech and press as well as complete religious tolerate. Although he was well aware of the condemnation of serfdom, he was too dependent on the nobility to interfere with it. He was a conservative who made Prussian society more aristocratic and reversed the policy of allowing commoners to hold higher positions in the civil service and the upper ranks of the bureaucratic came close to constituting a hereditary case. He took a great interest in military affairs and enlarged the Prussian army. He took advantage of the succession crisis of the Habsburg monarchy to seize Silesia which led to the war of Austrian succession and the seven years' war, and he succeeded in keeping Silesia. After the war he received the polish territory between Brandenburg and Prussia, bringing greater unity to Prussia. By the end of his reign Prussia was considered a world power.

Catherine the Great- reforms, problems faced, outlook, leadership

A Russian queen who emerged as a Russian autocrat after Peter III was killed by a faction of nobles. She claimed that she wished to reform Russia along the lines of Enlightenment ideas but realized that her success depended on the support of the palace guard and the gentry class from which it stemmed. She could not afford to alienate the Russian nobility. Initially she seemed eager to pursue reform and called for the election of an assembly in 1767 to debate the details of a new law code. In her Instruction, written as a guide to the deliberations, she questioned the institutions of serfdom, torture, and capital punishment and advocated for equality before the law. Her subsequent policies had the effect of strengthening the landholding class at the expense of the others, including Russian serfs. To reorganize local government she divided Russia into fifty provinces, each of which were subdivided into districts rules by officials chosen by the nobles. This allowed for the nobles to be responsible for day-to-day governing in Russia. The Gentry were now formed into corporate groups with special legal privileged, including the right to trial by peers and exemption from personal taxation and corporal punishment. The Charter of the Nobility formalized these rights. The governments attempt to impose restrictions on the peasantry caused peasant revolts, including the Pugachev revolution. In response, she strengthened her control over the peasantry. She was a worthy successor to Peter the Great by expanding Russia's territory west into Poland and South to the Black Sea. Russia spread southward by defeating the Ottoman Turks and gained land through the treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji, and Russia gained 50% of Polish territory.

Mississippi Company

A corporation holding a business monopoly in French colonies in North America and the West Indies. This company went under the influence of John Law until the bubble burst, leading to an economic crisis in France and promoting an atmosphere of economic uncertainty and causing an economic crash, causing John Law to flee.

Pragmatic Sanction

A document that Charles VI spent much of his reign negotiating due to his lack of a male heir. Different European powers agreed to recognize his daughter, Maria Theresa of Austria, as his legal heir. This document was pushed aside after Charles's death, especially by Frederick II of Prussia.

John Law

A french businessman who owned a company and tried to create a national bank and paper currency for France. When people went overboard and drove the price of the stock to incredibly high levels, the bubble burst and his company went bankrupt, leading to a loss of confidence in paper money that prevented the formation of a French national bank. Consequently, French public finance developed slowly in the 18th century.

General Thaddeus Kosciuszko

A general who attempted a heroic butt hopeless rebellion in 1794-1795 in an attempt to save Poland from Russia. After his failure, the remaining Polish state was obliterated by Austria, Prussia, and Russia in the third partition of Poland.

Orangists

A group in the Dutch Republic consisting of the House of Orange who were in a struggle with the oligarchs that governed the Dutch Republic's towns. The House of Orange acted as stadholders that headed the executive branch of government. The stadholders sought to reduce the power of this group but became divided when Dutch burghers called the Patriots advocated for democratic reforms that would open up municipal councils to greater participation than just the oligarchs. After these Patriots were successful, the Prussian king sent troops to protect his sister who was the wife of the Orangist stadholder and crushed the Patriots. Then this group and the regents reestablished the old system.

Patriots

A group of Dutch burghers of artisans, merchants, and shopkeepers who began to agitate for democratic reforms that would open up municipal councils to greater participation than that of the oligarchs. Their success led to foreign intervention when the Prussian king sent troops to protect his sister who was the wife of the Orangist stadholder. This group was crushed and the old system was reestablished.

Jacobites

A group of individuals who led a series of uprisings, rebellions, and wars in Great Britain and Ireland occurring between 1688 and 1746. Tehy aimed to restore the Roman Catholic Stuart King James II of England and Ireland and his heirs to the thrones of England, Scotland, France and Ireland.

Credit

A method of finance which was used to back paper banknotes. This allowed for a paper substitute for gold and silver currency and increased the capital for financing large armies and other government undertakings which could be raised in ever-greater quantities.

enlightened absolutism

A new type of monarchy which emerged in the late 18th century and included monarchs such as Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria who supposedly followed the advice of the philosophies and ruled by enlightened principles, establishing a path to modern nationhood.

Infanticide

A practice in which children were married which was often a result of the economic crisis where mothers saw children as such a burden to some families that they turned to this practice of abandoned their children at foundling homes.

Patronage

A practice used by many wealthy landed aristocrats to gain support by those who could vote in the boroughs which resulted in a number of "pocket boroughs" who were controlled by a single person.

Robert Walpole

A prime minister who served from 1721 to 1742 and pursued a peaceful foreign policy to avoid new land taxes. New forces emerging in the 18th century England as growing trade and industry led an ever-increasing middle class to favor expansion of trade and world empire.

Pugachev's rebellion

A rebellion under Catherine the great in which a man used discontent to star a mass revolt. His revolt spread across southern Russia from the Urals to the Volga River. Initially successful, he won the support of man peasants when he issued a manifesto in July 1774 freeing all peasants from oppressive taxes and military service. They were encouraged to seize their landlords' estates and the peasants responded by killing more than 1,500 estate owners and their families. This rebellion soon faltered, however, as government forces rallied and became more effective. Betrayed by his own subordinates the leader was captured, tortured, and executed and the rebellion collapsed, causing Catherine to respond with greater supression of the peasants.

Diplomatic Revolution of 1756

A shift in the traditional European alliance system in which two new rivalries of Britain and France over colonial empires and Austria and Prussia over Silesia. France abandoned Prussia and allied with Austria. Russia, which saw Prussia as a hindrance to its goals in central Europe, joined the new alliance. In return, Great Britain allied with Prussia. his led to another war, with three major areas of conflict: Europe, India, and North America and the seven years' war, which could be considered the first world war.

reason of state

A theory created through the work of Giovanni Botero. It denotes a way of thinking about government that emerges at the end of the fifteenth century and remains prevalent until the eighteenth century. Putting the interests of the people and the government above personal interests.

Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji

A treaty between Russia and the Ottoman Turks in 1774 in which the Russians gained some land and the privilege of protecting Greek Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. This allowed for Russian expansion westward which occurred at the expense of a neighboring Poland which was partitioned, Russia getting 50%.

Treaty of Paris

A treaty which ended the French and Indian War after the British forced the French to take peace. The French ceded Canada and the lands east of the Mississippi to Britain. Their ally Spain transferred Spanish Florida to British control and in return the French gave their Louisiana territory to the Spanish. By 1763, Great Britain became the world's greatest colonial power.

Italian states

After the Treaty of Utrecht, Austria replaced Spain as the dominant force here during the eighteenth century. The duchy of Milan, Sardinia, and the kingdom of Naples were all surrendered to the Habsburg emperors but Sicily was given to the northern Italian state of Savoy that was emerging as a state trying to expand. In 1734, the Bourbons of Spain reestablished control over Naples and Sicily. Some of the Italian sates like Venice and Genoa remained independent but they all grew more impotent in international affairs.

Enlightened despotism

An 18th century type of monarchy which took influence from the philosophies and were ruled by enlightenment principles, establishing a path to modern nationhood.

Silesia

An Austrian territory which was lost to Prussia in the war of Austrian Succession. In preparation to allow for it to return, Maria Theresa rebuilt her army and worked to separate Prussia from France. France abandoned Prussia and allied with Austria and Russia joined the new alliance, leading the the seven years' war. However, this conflict only reaffirmed Frederick's conquest of this well sought-after territory.

Cottage industry

An economic system in which capitalist entrepreneurs sold the finished product, made a profit, and used it to manufacture more. The finished product was made from the domestic or putting out system in which the merchant-capitalist entrepreneur bought raw materials, mostly wool and flax, and put them out to rural workers who spun the raw material into yarn and then wove it into cloth on simple looms. This system got this name because spinners and weavers worked in their own cottages. It was a family enterprise because women and children spun while men worked on looms, allowing rural people to supplement their agricultural wages.

Balance of power

An eighteenth century concept that was an attempt to counterbalance the power of state by another to prevent any one state from dominating the others. It did not imply a desire for peace, however, as large armies used to defend a state's securit was also often used for offensive purposes.

The "45"

Bonnie Prince Charlie assembled troops and supporters made up of the Jacobites and made it nearly to London before being stopped.

Tithe

Compulsory services that peasants owed that consisted of 1/3 of their crops. They were intended for parish priests but in France, only 10% of priests received them. Instead, they ended up in the hands of towns and aristocratic landowners.

Maria Theresa

Due to the pragmatic sanction, this Habsburg was able to inherit the Austrian hereditary possessions. She was the empress of the Austrian empire who was stunned by the loss of Austria Silesia to Prussia in the war of the Austria Succession who resolved to reform her empire in preparation for the seemingly inevitable next conflict with Prussia. She curtailed the role of the diets or provincial assemblies in taxation and local administration. Now clergy and nobles were forced to pay property and income taxes to royal officials rather than the diets. The Austrian and Bohemian lands were divided into en provinces and subdivided into districts, all administered by royal officials rather than representatives of the diets, making Austria more centralized and bureaucratic. However, these reforms were for practical reasons which strengthened the Habsburg state and were accompanied by an enlargement and modernization of the armed forces. She remained staunchly Catholic and conservative and was not open to the wider reforms of the philosophies. However, her successor Joseph II was enlightened. She refused to accept the loss of Silesia and prepared for its return by rebuilding her army while working diplomatically with her foreign minister Wendell von Kaunitz to separate Prussia from France which achieved a diplomatic revolution.

European industry

European cottage industry grew during the 17th century. The cottage industry relied on traditional methods through a family domestic system, or putting out system which was a family enterprise and supplemented agricultural wages. New methods and machines were also introduced, including the water frame, power loom, and mechanized loom which sped up the manufacturing process of cotton while simultaneously and allowing for industrialization to be introduced.

France's issues-domestically and internationally

France had a variety of problems. Internally they saw a revival of strength yet the monarchy resisted enlightenment reforms. Louis XIV left France with enlarged territories, enormous death, unhappiness, and a five-year-old as his successor. The governing of France fell into the hands of the Duke of Orleans and pulled back from foreign adventures while commerce and trade expanded. The government encouraged the growth of industry and while it was balanced, when Cardinal Fleury died, Louis XV decided to rule alone and his laziness weakened the empire. The seven years' war caused devastating economic losses and burdensome taxes. Finally, Louis XV was succeeded by an incompetent king and caused further devastation to France.

George I, II, III

George I- The first Hanoverian king of Great Britain who did not speak English and did not have much familiarity with the British system, allowing for his chief minister to handle parliament. George II-The Hanoverian king who did not have much familiarity with the British system and allowed for his chief minister to handle parliament. Many historians believe that this exercise of ministerial power was an important step in the development o the modern cabinet system in British government. Robert Walpole was the chief minister. George III- A Hanoverian king who dismissed William Pitt the Elder and replaced him with Lord Bute. Discontent over the electoral system and the loss of the American colonies led to public criticism of the king and in 1780 the house of commons affirmed that the influence of the crown had increased and should be diminished, leading to the new prime minister William Pitt the Younger who helped avoid parliamentary change through gaining the support of the merchants, industrial classes, and the king.

House of Commons vs. House of Lords

House of Commons- The section of parliament who served as justices of peace in the counties and were made up of the landed gentry, House of Lords- the peers, who sat for life in this group of parliament

natural rights

Inalterable privileges that ought not to be withheld from any person. They included equality before the law, freedom of religious worship, freedom of speech and press, and the right to assemble ,hold property, and seek happiness. These rights were summarized in the American Declaration of Independence.

The "15"

James III wanted to form a league of supporters to take control of the English throne. However, his efforts were unsuccessful.

Enclosure Act and Parliament

Legislation enacted by Parliament in England after small landholders resisted the process of the end of the open-field system and the demise of cooperative farming of the village commune. This series of acts allowed agricultural lands to be legally enclosed, and as a result England gradually became a land of large estates in which many small farmers were forced to become wage laborers or tenant farmers.

Destruction of Polish state

Poland was an excellent example of why a strong monarchy was needed. The Polish king was elected by the Polish nobles and forced to accept drastic restrictions on his power, including limited revenues, a small bureaucracy, and a standing army of no more than 20,000 soldiers. For Polish nobles, these limitations eliminated an absolute king and gave Poland's neighbors an opportunity. The total destruction of the Polish state resulted from rivalries of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. To avoid war, these leaders decided to compromise by diving Poland and to maintain balance of power they agreed to the acquisition of roughly equal territories at Poland's expense. In 1772 Poland lost 30% of land and 50% population. Austria gained agriculturally rich Galicia, and Russia took the largest slice of land in Eastern Poland while Prussia acquired West Prussia, the smallest but most valuable territory because it united two of the chief sections of Prussia. the remaining Polish state was supposedly independent but it was dominated by the Russians who kept troops there. After the Poles attempted to establish a stronger state under a hereditary monarchy, the Russians gained the support of Austria and Prussia and intervened militarily. In the following year, Russia and Prussia undertook a second partition and under General Thaddeus Kosciusko, the remaining Polish state was obliterated by Austria, Prussia, and Russia in the third partition of Poland and many historians showed Poland's demise as a cogent example of why building a strong, absolutist state was essential to survival in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Situation in Portugal, Italian States, Dutch Republic

Portugal: Experienced decline since glorious days of empire in 16th century. However, during the long ministry of the marquis of Pombal, who was the chief minister to many Portuguese kings, the nobility and Catholic Church were curtailed and the empire was temporarily revived. After Pombal was removed from office, the nobility and church regained much of their power. Italian States: After the Treaty of Utrecht, Austria replaced Spain as the dominant force here during the eighteenth century. The duchy of Milan, Sardinia, and the kingdom of Naples were all surrendered to the Habsburg emperors but Sicily was given to the northern Italian state of Savoy that was emerging as a state trying to expand. In 1734, the Bourbons of Spain reestablished control over Naples and Sicily. Some of the Italian sates like Venice and Genoa remained independent but they all grew more impotent in international affairs. Dutch Republic: After its century in the sun, the Dutch Republic had a decline in economic prosperity. Local and national politics were dominated by the oligarchies that governed the Dutch Republic's towns. In the 18th century, the struggle continued between these oligarchs and the house of Orange who were the stadholders that headed the executive branch of government. The regents sought to reduce the power of Orangists but got divided when the Patriots, or Dutch burghers, started to try for democratic reforms to open up municipal councils to greater participation. The success of the Patriots led foreign interference wen the Prussian king sent troops to protect his sister the wife of the Orangist stadolder. The Patriot were crushed and Orangists and regents reestablished the old system.

Increase in poverty-why? How to address it?

Poverty grew in the cities and countryside. In Venice, 3-5% of the population were licensed beggars and unlicensed beggars could have been as much as 13-15%. Beggars in Bologna were 25% of the population and in Mainz it was 30% of the population that were beggars or prostitutes. Prostitution was an alternative to begging. In France and Britain, about 10% of people relied on charity or begging to get their food. Earlier in Europe, the poor were seen as blessed children of God and assisting them was a Christian duty. A change in attitude occurred in the sixteenth century and became apparent in the eighteenth century. Charity to poor beggars was believed to encourage laziness and led them to vice and crime. Private charitable institutions like the religious Order of Saint Vincent de Paul and the Sisters of Charity were founded to help people but they got overwhelmed quickly. Some enlightened officials argued that the state should get involved to help but no action occurred. in the eighteenth century, French authorities tried to round up vagrants and beggars and put them in jail for eighteen months as a deterrent. It didn't work since the basic problem was socioeconomic. In the 1770s, the French tried to use public work projects like road building to give people jobs, but not enough funds were available to accomplish much, resulting in continuing problems of poverty.

Country house vs. peasant villages

The Country House was where the majority of aristocrats who did not participate in court society lived. They were large houses and showed the nobles' domination of the surrounding countryside. English aristocrats invested a lot of time, energy, and money in their rural estates, resulting in the country house holding an important role in English social life. Many of these houses in the 18th century were built in the Georgian style that was influenced by classical serenity of the architect Andrea Palladio. It used elegance and domesticity. It also had privacy with separate upper and lower floors. The lower floors were for public activities like dining, entertaining, and leisure, with the largest being the drawing room used for dances and card games. The entrance hall had a large staircase leading to the private upstairs that had bedrooms for husbands and wives, sons, and daughters. They were used for sleeping and private activities like playing for children and sewing, writing, and reading for wives. Servants also had their own wing of the house. The house arrangement usually reflected male interest but women also has special elements like the drawing room becoming more feminine. Many aristocratic landowners, especially in Britain, also expanded the open space around their country houses by creating walls and parks for more privacy, sometimes they even destroyed whole peasant villages for it. The peasant village were small, local villages that were the centers for peasants' social lives. Especially in western Europe, the village maintained public order, provided poor relief, a village church, and sometimes a school master; collected taxes for the central government; maintained roads and bridges; and established common procedures for sowing, plowing, and harvesting crops. Wealthier peasants usually dominated and they were resistant to innovations such as new agricultural practices.

Agricultural Revolution-inventions

The agricultural revolution saw many new advancements which led to an increase in food production due to more farmland, increased yields per acre, healthier and more abundant livestock, and an improved climate. The amount of land under cultivation was increased by abandoning the old ope-field system and the formerly empty fields were planted with new crops which stored nitrogen in their roots and restored the soil's fertility. They also provided winter fodder for livestock, allowing for landlords to have a larger umber of animals. The more numerous livestock increased the amount of meat in the European diet and enhanced food production through manure. Increased yields were also encouraged by landed aristocrats who shared in the scientific experimentation of the age. The hoe was used as well as a drill to plant seeds in rows instead of scattering them. There was a greater yield of vegetables, including the potato and maize and new agricultural techniques were considered best suited to large-scale farms. Consequently, a change in landholding accompanied the increased food production as large landowners and cooperative farming grew. Parliament enacted legislation allowing agricultural lands to be legally enclosed, and as a result of these enclosure acts, England became a land of large estates. The English were the leaders in adopting the new techniques which made the world of industrialization and urbanization possible.

"Bubbles" effect on economy

The bubble "burst" was when people went overboard and drove the price of stock to incredibly high levels which caused detrimental economic effects such as inflation, bankruptcy, and loss of faith in the national bank and money systems.

Marquis of Pombal

The chief minister to a series of Portuguese king who helped curtail the power of the nobility and Catholic Church, helping revive the Portuguese Empire. After he was removed from office, the nobility and church regained much of their power.

Count Kaunitz

The foreign minister of Maria Theresa of Austria who worked diplomatically to separate Prussia from its chief ally, France, during the Seven Years War.

"Family economy"

The idea that each member of a household has active participation in benefiting the economic status of the family. Men, women, and children all participated in the economic conditions of the house and held jobs or did other crucial work to maintain the well being of the house.

New machines-technology

The introduction of raw cotton from slave plantations encouraged the production of cotton cloth in Europe with cheaper, lightweight cotton clothes. This resulted in English cloth entrepreneurs developing new methods and new machines. The flying shuttle sped up the process of weaving on a loom an increased the need for more yarn which resulted in Richard Arkwright's water frame powered by hose or water that turned out yarn very quickly. This abundance of yarn led to the development of mechanized looms. By the time they were popular, Britain was starting the Industrial Revolution.

Christian VII of Denmark

The king of Denmark whose chief minister, John Frederick Struensee aided him in attempting enlightenment reforms modeling after those of Gustavus III. However, those efforts failed due to aristocratic opposition.

Philip V - Spain

The king of Spain who initiated reforms in laws, administrative institutions, and language of the Castile by establishing them in the other Spanish kingdoms, making the King of Castile truly the king of Spain. Moreover, French style ministries replaced the old conciliar system of government and officials similar to the French intendants were introduced into the various Spanish provinces. Since the treaty of Utrecht took away the Italian territories and Netherlands away from Spain, the latter had fewer administrative problems and less drain on its already overtaxed economic systems.

Charles XII of Sweden

The king of Sweden who was primarily interested in military affairs. He was defeated in the battle of Poltava and became a second rate power due to the Russians achieving victory under Peter the Great. His grandiose plans and strategies, which involved Sweden in conflicts with Poland, Denmark, and Russia proved to be Sweden's undoing. By the time he died in 1718, he had lost much of Sweden's northern empire to Russia, and Sweden's status as a first class power ended.

King Gustavus III

The king of Sweden who was probed by the pro-russian and pro-french factions to restate the power of the monarchy and was one of the most enlightened monarchs of the time. He established freedom of religion, speech, and press and instituted a new code of justice eliminating torture. His economic reforms consisted of laissez-faire, reduced tariffs, abolished tolls, and encouraged trade and agriculture. He was assassinated by a small group of nobles.

Natural laws

The laws which governed all human beings. This is a philosophy asserting that certain rights are inherent by virtue of human nature, endowed by nature—traditionally by God or a transcendent source—and that these can be understood universally through human reason.

Cardinal Fleury

The minister to King Louis XV who allowed for France to pull back from foreign adventures while commerce and trade expanded and the government promoted the growth of industry, especially in coal and textiles. The budget was even balanced for a while. However, when he died Louis XV decided to rule alone which lead to the destruction of the monarchy.

Peter III

The nephew of Tsarina Elizabeth of Russia who came into power after he death. This was in the European front of the Seven Years War. He admired Frederick the Great so he withdrew his Russian troops from the conflict and from Prussian lands that they occupied. His withdrawal guaranteed a stalemate and led to a desire for peace which allowed for Prussia to permanently control Silesia after the Peace of Hubertusburg. His wife was Catherine the Great and after he was murdered by a faction of nobles, Catherine II the Great became the autocrat of all Russia.

New classes -conditions and its changes

The pattern of European social organization continued into the 18th century. Social status was still largely determined by the division into the traditional estates determined by hereditary. Although Enlightenment intellectuals challenged thee traditional distinctions, they did not die easily. However, some forces were at change in traditional society due to the ideas of the enlightenment. The peasant- because society was still mostly rural, the peasantry constituted the largest social group yet the most distinctions were between the free peasant and the serf. Small peasant proprietors or tenant farmers in western Europe were also not free from compulsory services as many owed tithes which went to the aristocratic landowners. They also owed a variety of dues and fees. Eastern Europe continued to be dominated by large laded estates owned by powerful lords and remained dependent on serfdom and feudalism. The local villages in which peasants lived were the center of their lives. The village maintained public order, provided poor relief, a village church, and sometimes a school master, collected taxes for the central government, maintained roads and bridges, and established common procedures for sowing, plowing, and harvesting crops. The diet consisted of dark bread, water, beer, and wine and soups and gruel made of grains and vegetables. Nobility- 2-3% of the European population who had a dominating role in society. They had a place at the top of the social order and their legal privileges included judgement by their peers, immunity from severe punishment, and exemption from many forms of taxation. The rights of landlords over serfs was overwhelming. They lived off the yields of their estates and loved to profit through exploitation. Nobles also played an important role in military and governmental affairs. They also played a role in the administration of the state. Nobles lived in the country house and lived on large estates isolated from their servants and the peasantry. It fulfilled the desire for privacy and classical serenity. Many aristocrats went on the grand tour in order to achieve an education, although this privileged was often abused. The diet of the nobility included meats and cheeses and fine wines and beer.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

The peace treaty that ended the War of Austrian Succession. It promised the return of all occupied territories except Silesia. Prussia refused to return Silesia which guaranteed another war, at least between Prussia and Austria, which occurred with the Seven Years War.

William Pitt the Elder

The prime minister under George III who was replaced by Lord Bute. He was a spokesperson for the exponents of the empire and furthered imperial ambitions by acquiring Canada and India in the seven years' war.

Joseph II-reforms, problems faced, outlook, leadership

The successor of Maria Theresa who was determined to make changes and to carry on his chief goal of enhancing Habsburg power within the monarchy and Europe. He wanted to sweep away anything standing in the path of reason. His reform program was far-reaching and he abolished serfdom and tried to give the peasants hereditary rights to their holdings. A new penal code was instituted that abrogated the death penalty and established the principle of equality of all before the law. He introduced drastic religious reforms as well, including complete religious toleration and restriction on the church. Altogether he issued 6,000 decrees and 11,000 laws in his efforts to transform Austria. His reform program proved overwhelming for Austria. He alienated the nobility by freeing the serfs and alienated the church by his attacks on the monastic establishment. Even the serfs were unhappy and his attempt to rationalize the administration by appointing German as the the official language alienated non-German. His sucessors undid many of his reform efforts.

Electoral system

The system of choosing monarchs used in Poland. The king was elected by the Polish nobles and was forced to accept huge restrictions on his power including limited revenues, a small bureaucracy, and a standing army of no more than 20,000 soldiers. For the nobles, this eliminated an absolute king and for Poland's neighbors, it allowed for them to meddle in Polish affairs, leading to the dissolution of Poland.

Treaty of Hubertusburg

The treaty that ended the European conflict during the Seven Years War. All occupied territories were returned and Austria officially recognized Prussia's permanent control of Silesia.

Treaty of Utrecht

The treaty that ended the War of Spanish Succession. It confirmed Philip V as the Spanish ruler which created a Spanish Bourbon dynasty and it also affirmed that the French and Spanish thrones remain separate. Austria gained the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, and Naples. Brandenburg-Prussia gained more territories. The main winner was England which received Gibraltar and French possessions in America of Newfoundland, Hudson Bay Territory, and Nova Scotia.

Landed gentry

The upper middle class in Britain who made up the House of Lords and had great control over the government and benefited economically from new reforms and mercantilism theory in the economy.

War of Austrian Succession

The war that occurred after the Pragmatic Sanction was ignored by European powers, especially Frederick II of Prussia. He took advantage of Maria Theresa, the new empress, to invade Austrian Silesia. Maria Theresa's vulnerability encouraged France to enter war against Austria, its traditional enemy. Maria then made an alliance with Great Britain because they feared a French hegemony over Continental affairs. This resulted in a war that was fought in Europe where Russia seized Silesia and France occupied the Austrian Netherlands, in the East where France took Madras in India from the British, and in North America where the British captured the French fortress of Louisbourg at the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River. The peace treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war and resulted in the return of all occupied territories except Silesia to the original landowners. Prussia refused to return Silesia.

King vs. Parliament

There was a power struggle between these two groups in England. After the glorious revolution, parliament gained control over the king and the king chose ministers responsible to himself who set policy and guided parliament while parliament made laws, levied taxes, passed the budget, and indirectly influenced the king's rule. The landed aristocracy dominated this first groups and challenges between the two of them led to corruption in the government.

New trade relations

Trade within Europe erupted, although colonial trade emerged as colonies were seen as valuable sources of raw materials and markets for finished goods. Mercantilism theory on the role of colonies was matched in practice by European overseas expansion. Although trade within Europe still dominated total trade, overseas trade boomed with African trade producing the greatest profits. Trade between the European states and their colonies increased dramatically and flourishing trade had a significant impact on the European economy, especially visible in the growth of towns and cities. The rise of Atlantic trade added to the prosperity of sea-port cities.

"National debt"

a notion created by the Bank of England and the London financial community which was a public debt, separate from the monarch's personal debt. This process meant that capital for financing larger armies and other government undertakings could be raised in ever-greater quantities.

William Pitt the Younger

he prime minister following Lord Bute who helped to avoid drastic change. He was supported by the merchants, industrial classes, and the king and managed to stay in power. Thanks to his successes, serious reform of the corrupt parliamentary system was avoided for another generation.

Parliamentary reform

reforms were instituted in the British government after the glorious revolution in which parliament gradually gained the upper hand. The king chose ministers himself and helped to guide parliament and parliament had the power to make laws, levy taxes, pass the budget, and indirectly influence the king's ministries. the parliament was dominated by the aristocracy of the peers and landed gentry and they were both landowners with similar economic interests. The practice of pocket boroughs acquired through patronage and bribery caused corruption in the parliamentary system up until the Hanoverian were elected.

Global economy-causes and impacts

the global economy expanded to include the colonial empires as mercantilism theory supported the use of gold and silver and the acquisition of colonies. Colonies were seen as valuable sources of materials and markets for finished goods and they helped to encourage overseas expansion. Although trade within Europe still dominated total trade, overseas trade boomed and the most profitable were the African slaves. During the 18th century, trade between European states and their colonies increased dramatically. Flourishing trade also impacted the European economy and was especially visible in the growth of town and cities, especially port cities due to Atlantic trade.

Lord Brute

the new prime minister under George III who replaced William Pitt the Elder. Discontent over the electoral system and the loss of the American colonies led to public criticism of the king. In 1780 the House of Commons affirmed that the influence of the crown has increased, is increasing, and ought to be diminished. George III managed to avoid drastic change by appointing William Pitt eh Younger.

Hanoverians

the ruling dynasty of England established in 1714 following the death of the last Stuart leader, queen Anne. The crown was offered to the Protestant rulers of the German state of Hanover and the first in this dynasty was George I, followed by George II and George III.