Unit 4 Topic 7 - Learning Part 2
Explain what trial and error learning is.
A kind of learning in which one response after another is tried and rejected as ineffective, until eventually a successful response is made. It involves: Motivation - to attain the desired goal Exploration - an increase in activity (purposeful or random) Responses - may be correct or incorrect Reward - the correct response is made and rewarded
What is a reinforcer?
A reinforcer is a pleasant stimulus that strengthens behaviour (positive reinforcer - pleasant stimulus applied negative reinforcer - unpleasant stimulus removed).
At what point in the process of classical conditioning can it be said that a response has been learned (i.e. becomes the conditioned response)?
A response has been learned when the stimulus that is neutral at the start of conditioning process and does not normally produce the unconditioned response, triggers a very similar response to that caused by the UCS. This occurs through repeated association with the UCS.
What is a 'Skinner box?
A skinner box is a small soundproof chamber in which an experimental animal learns to make a particular response for which the consequences are controlled.
What is a token economy? Explain with reference to key operant conditioning principles and processes.
A token economy is a setting in which an individual receives token (reinforcers) for desired behaviour. These tokens can then be collected and exchanged for other reinforces in the form of actual or 'real' rewards. Tokens can also be withdrawn and an individual is 'fined' for inappropriate behaviour.
Explain the meaning of the term acquisition in relation to classical conditioning.
Acquisition is the process during which the organism learns to associate two events (the CS and UCS). The CS is always presented first followed 1/2 a second later by the UCS.
Explain Bandura's experiment conducted on observational learning of aggressive behaviour: aim and participants.
Aim - To investigate if social behaviours can be acquired by observation and imitation Participants - 3 - 5 year old children.
To which objects did Albert demonstrate stimulus generalisation?
Albert demonstrated stimulus generalisation to a white rabbit, a dog and a sealskin coat (fearful reaction). He showed slightly less fearful reactions to cotton-wool balls and a Santa Claus mask (reactions still shown).
Consider Watson and Rayner's (1920) study from an ethical perspective. Explain how informed consent was breached
Albert's mother was not fully aware that her son was being used in experiments on conditioning of a fear response despite giving her consent
Consider Watson and Rayner's (1920) study from an ethical perspective. Explain how voluntary participation, was breached.
Albert's mother wasn't given the opportunity to willingly agree to allow her son to take part in the experiment - she may have felt pressured into doing so because Watson was a colleague of hers
Consider Watson and Rayner's (1920) study from an ethical perspective. Explain how withdrawal rights was breached
Albert's mother wasn't given the right to withdraw her son from the experiment at any time
Consider Watson and Rayner's (1920) study from an ethical perspective. Explain how confidentiality was breached
Albert's name was released to the public. His identity and results were not kept private.
Consider Watson and Rayner's (1920) study from an ethical perspective. Explain how respect for persons was breached
Albert's welfare wasn't protected or respected
Explain Bandura's experiment conducted on observational learning of aggressive behaviour: Conclusion
All of the 3 - 5 year old children learned from the aggressive model's behaviour regardless of the consequences observed The children made cognitive representations of what they had learned and these behaviours were demonstrated when a reward was given (either vicarious or external reward)
Why is observational learning also referred to as modelling?
As it involves the learner observing a model's actions, remembering it and imitating it.
What is aversion therapy?
Aversion therapy is a form of behaviour therapy that applies classical conditioning processes to inhibit or discourage undesirable behaviour by associating it with an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus such as feelings of disgust, pain or nausea.
What do positive and negative reinforcers have in common in terms of their consequences?
Both result in the strengthening of a response (more likely to occur).
Explain Bandura's experiment conducted on observational learning of aggressive behaviour: Results
Children who watched the aggressive model either being reinforced or experiencing no consequences for their aggressive behaviour showed more aggressive responses than children who watched the aggressive model being punished. When the children were offered a reward for imitating the models' aggressive behaviour, they tended to behave more aggressively in all conditions than children who weren't rewarded. Boys behaved more aggressively than girls in all three conditions Girls behaved almost as aggressively as boys when offered a reward
Summarise the key differenced between classical and operant conditioning in Stimulus Discrimination
Classical - After several trials when a stimulus similar to the CS is presented but never associated with the UCR. The CR only occurs with the CS. Operant - When the behaviour is never reinforced in environments that are similar to the discriminative stimulus. Eventually the behaviour occurs only when the discriminative stimulus is present.
Summarise the key differenced between classical and operant conditioning in Extinction
Classical - Occurs by continued presentation of the conditioned stimulus (CS) alone (no UCS) Operant - occurs when the behaviour occurs but reinforcement is never given.
Summarise the key differenced between classical and operant conditioning in the Role of Leaner
Classical - Passive — the behaviour occurs without any deliberate action from the learner Operant - Active — the behaviour must be initiated by the learner
Summarise the key differenced between classical and operant conditioning in the Nature of response (reflexive or voluntary)
Classical - Reflexive or involuntary - the learner has no control over the behaviour Operant - Voluntary or involuntary - the learner is usually in control of the behaviour but at times may not be
Summarise the key differenced between classical and operant conditioning in Stimulus generalisation
Classical - The conditioned response (CR) occurs when a stimulus similar to the CS is presented Operant - Refers to the discriminative stimulus (antecedent condition). Occurs when the behaviour occurs in an environment similar to that which led to reinforcement.
Summarise the key differenced between classical and operant conditioning in the Timing of stimulus and response
Classical - The stimulus (CS/UCS) is presented before the response Operant - The discriminative stimulus is the environment that provokes the behaviour that occurs before the behaviour (response. The consequence occurs after the response and consists of a reinforcing event or an aversive event.
Summarise the key differenced between classical and operant conditioning in Spontaneous recovery
Classical - When the CR has been extinguished — after a time delay, the CS is presented and again elicits the CR. Operant - After the response has not been reinforced in environments that are similar to the discriminative stimulus. Eventually the behaviour occurs only when the discriminative stimulus is present.
Summarise the key differenced between classical and operant conditioning in the process of Acquisition.
Classical -Occurs by pairing the neutral stimulus (NS/CS) with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Operant - the establishment of a response through reinforcement (or removal of a response through punishment)
Define classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning is a form of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli.
Which stimulus is neutral at the beginning of the conditioning process?
Conditioned stimulus
What is conditioning?
Conditioning is the process of learning associations between a stimulus in the environment and a behavioural response. Conditioning focuses on the process involved in learning (how learning occurs)
Distinguish between continuous and partial reinforcement.
Continuous reinforcement is reinforcing every response as it occurs. This type of reinforcement is necessary early in the conditioning process as learning is most rapid if a response or behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs. Whereas partial reinforcement is reinforcing some correct response but not all of them. This schedule can be more effective in maintaining a response.
Give an example of the three-phase model in relation to teaching a dog how to shake hands using dog treats.
Discriminative Stimulus - the command behaviour - dog shakes hand consequence - treat
What is being acquired during classical conditioning?
During classical conditioning, the association between two events (CS & UCS) is acquired.
Explain Bandura's experiment conducted on observational learning of aggressive behaviour: Experimental conditions and Type of experimental design
Experimental conditions - Condition 1 - watched the model in the film being rewarded for behaving aggressively Condition 2 - watched the model i the film being punished for behaving aggressively Condition 3 - watch the model in the film receive no consequences for behaving aggressively. Design - Independent Groups design
Explain the meaning of exposure therapy with reference to the key feature of graduated exposure and that of flooding.
Exposure therapy involves the application of classical conditioning processes for treating phobias and other mental health problems in which fear and/or anxiety play a prominent part. This type of therapy involves exposing the patient to the fear-producing stimulus - either gradually or all at once until extinction of the fear response occurs. Several types of exposure therapies include: graduated exposure (a type of exposure therapy) and flooding.
Describe the 3 types of reinforcement
External reinforcement - earning by consequences (directly experience consequences from the model or a third person) Vicarious reinforcement - occurs indirectly by observing the modelled behaviour being reinforced without personally experiencing the reinforcement Self reinforcement - we are reinforced by meeting certain standards of performance we set for ourselves
When is extinction evident in classical conditioning?
Extinction is evident in classical conditioning when a CR no longer occurs following presentation of the CS.
What is the key difference between extinction and spontaneous recovery?
Extinction is the complete loss of the connection between the CR and the UCS whereas spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of the CR when he CS is presented.
What does extinction mean in classical conditioning?
Extinction is the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a CR that occurs when the UCS is no longer presented (i.e. only the CS is presented). It is said to have occurred when a CR no longer occurs following presentation of the CS.
Define flooding with reference to a detailed example.
Flooding involves bringing the client into direct contact with the anxiety or fear-producing stimulus and keeping them in contact with it until the conditioned response is extinguished. Contact may be for 2 hours or longer.
Define extinction in operant conditioning.
Gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a conditioned (learned) response following consistent non reinforcement or non-punishment (no reinforcement or punishment is given) of the response. The conditioned response is no longer present.
Define graduated exposure with reference to a detailed example.
Graduated exposure involves presenting successive approximations of the CS until the CS itself does not produce the conditioned response. The technique involves progressively or gradually introducing or exposing the client to increasingly similar stimuli that produce the conditioned response requiring extinction and ultimately to the CS itself. The client is gradually desensitised to the fear or anxiety-producing object or event. Phase 1 - therapist works with client to break down then organise the anxiety or fear producing situation into a hierarchy of increasingly difficult encounters. Phase 2 - involves step-by-step exposure to each of the fear-producing situations starting with the least frightening. It may involve either imagining each situation using visual imagery, real-life exposure or the use of virtual reality technology (real-life has best results). While exposed to the fear-producing situation the therapist would help the person remain calm and engage in muscle relaxation.
Briefly outline a procedure for an experiment using a Skinner box to operantly condition a rat not to produce a particular.
If the rat produces an undesired behaviour, the Skinner box can shock the rat or not allow it food.
Why is Bandura's theory of observational learning often referred to as a form of operant conditioning?
In observational learning we learn through observing the consequences of others behaviours, whether they were reinforced or punished. Learning in which behaviour becomes controlled by its consequences is called operant conditioning.
During which phase of operant conditioning is it most advantageous to use continuous reinforcement?
It is most advantageous to use continuous reinforcement early in the conditioning process as learning is most rapid if a response or behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs.
Consider Watson and Rayner's (1920) study from an ethical perspective. Explain how psychological harm was breached
It is possible that Albert was more vulnerable to psychological harm as a result of the experimental procedures than another infant might have been. Watson and Rayner made no attempt to end the experiment and attend to his distress in some way
Distinguish between learning and performance.
Learning can occur without there being an immediate change in behaviour (performance).
Define negative reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement is the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus. Because the outcome is pleasant, the behaviour that removes or avoids the unpleasant stimulus is strengthened (more likely to occur).
Consider Watson and Rayner's (1920) study from an ethical perspective. Explain how debriefing was breached
No attempt was made to extinguish Albert's fear response even though Watson and Rayner knew a month in advance that Albert's mother leaving. There is also no evidence that Watson debriefed Little Albert's parents
Define observational learning.
Observational learning is when someone uses observation of another person's actions and their consequences to guide their future actions (modelling).
Define Stimulus generalisation in operant conditioning.
Occurs when the correct response is made to another stimulus that is similar (but not necessarily identical) to the stimulus that was present when the conditioned response was reinforced or punished.
What is the main limitation of aversion therapy
Once an individual stops taking nausea-inducing drug, they are likely to return to bad habits. Learned aversion often fails to generalise to situations other than those under which the learning took place.
Explain the meaning of the term operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning is a type of learning whereby the likelihood of a particular behaviour occurring is determined by the consequence of that behaviour. The organism will tend to repeat behaviour which has a desirable consequence (reinforcement) and tend not to repeat behaviour that has an undesirable consequence (punishment).
Explain 3 factors that influence the effectiveness of punishment and reinforcement.
Order of presentation - the consequences (reinforcement or punishment) should be presented immediately after the response has occurred to be most effective Timing - the consequences (reinforcement or punishment) should be presented immediately after the desired response Appropriateness - the reinforcer must provide a pleasant consequence and the punisher must provide an unpleasant consequence to the leaner (this may not be known until after the consequence has been administered). Some punishers may act as a reinforcers (if it unintentionally strengthens behaviour).
Provide an explanation as to how aversion therapy may be used to treat cigarette smoking or alcoholism.
Pair alcohol (CS) with a drug such as Antabuse (UCS) that causes nausea (UCR) repeatedly so an association is established between alcohol and nausea. The association becomes so strong that the person begins to anticipate nausea as an inevitable result of drinking alcohol.
Which is more effective in strengthening a response once it has been acquired - continuous or partial reinforcement?
Partial reinforcement
What observation led Pavlov to study classical conditioning?
Pavlov discovered that the dogs would salivate whenever the lab technician who fed them appeared.
Define positive reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement is the application of a pleasant stimulus following a response. The behaviour (response) is strengthened or more likely to occur.
Distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement is the application of a pleasant stimulus following a response. The behaviour (response) is strengthened or more likely to occur. Whereas negative reinforcement is the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus. Because the outcome is pleasant, the behaviour that removes or avoids the unpleasant stimulus is strengthened (more likely to occur).
How are positive and negative reinforcers different?
Positive reinforcers adds a pleasant stimulus whereas a negative reinforcement takes away an unpleasant stimulus.
What is punishment and how is it intended to change behaviour?
Punishment is the delivery of an unpleasant stimulus following an undesirable response that decreases or weaken the likelihood of a response occurring again.
Give a description, effectiveness and example of the fixed-interval schedule.
Reinforce a correct response after a set (fixed) period of time has elapsed since the previous reinforcer. Second slowest acquisition of response and not very resistant to extinction. e.g. Reinforce every 30 seconds if the behaviour occurs at least once in the 30 second period
Give a description, effectiveness and example of the variable-ratio schedule.
Reinforce a correct response after a variable, or fluctuating number of correct responses. There is also a constant average number of correct responses required. Second fastest acquisition of response and very resistant to extinction. e.g. The average is 3 but reinforcement is given after 2 correct responses, then 4, then 3, then 4, then 2, then 3 so over the period of reinforcement the average is 3
Give a description, effectiveness and example of the variable-interval schedule.
Reinforce after an average, but variable, unpredictable time has passed since the previous reinforcer, and only after a correct response is made. Slowest acquisition of response and very resistant to extinction. e.g. reinforce on average every 30 seconds but not exactly every 30 seconds - reinforce after 20 seconds, 40 seconds, 30 seconds, 30 seconds, 20 seconds, 40 seconds so the average is 30 seconds
Describe Reinforcement (element of observational learning)
Reinforcement influences motivation. When there is the prospect of a positive result for imitating the behaviour it is likely that the learner will do so. If there is a prospect of punishment for reproducing the learnt behaviour, it is less likely that the behaviour will be imitated. Reinforcement influences the likelihood that a learner will imitate an observed model's behaviour. The expectation of reinforcement or punishment influences the cognitive processes of the observer and this affects how well the learner pays attention to and retains the memory of the model's behaviour.
Define the term reinforcement.
Reinforcement is any event which strengthens, increases the frequency or increases the likelihood of a particular response occurring.
What is response cost?
Response cost is the removal or loss of pleasant or valued stimulus that decreases or weakens the likelihood of a response occurring again. The stimulus removed doesn't necessarily cause the behaviour.
What does the term schedule of reinforcement refer to?
Schedule of reinforcement refers to a program for giving reinforcement, specifically the frequency and manner in which a desired response is reinforced.
Define the term shaping.
Shaping is a procedure in which a reinforcer is given for any response that successively approximates and ultimately leads to the final desired response, or target behaviour. Reinforcement is limited to only those responses that gradually edge towards the target behaviour. All other responses are ignored.
What is shaping also known as?
Shaping is also known as method of successive approximations.
What is a disadvantage of shaping?
Shaping is limited reinforcement to only successive responses.
Under what circumstances would shaping be used in a learning situation?
Shaping is used when the desired response has a low probability of occurring naturally.
What does spontaneous recovery mean in classical conditioning?
Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a CR when the CS is presented, following a rest period (no CS presented) after the CR appears to have been extinguished.
When is spontaneous recovery evident in classical conditioning?
Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a CR when the CS is presented, following a rest period (no CS presented) after the CR appears to have been extinguished.
Explain the meaning of the term stimulus discrimination.
Stimulus discrimination occurs when a person or animal responds to the CS only, but not to any other stimulus that is similar to the CS.
Explain the meaning of the term stimulus generalisation.
Stimulus generalisation is the tendency for another stimulus, that is similar to the original CS, to produce a response that is similar (but not necessarily identical) to the CR.)
What is the relationship between timing and acquisition in classical conditioning (i.e. order of presentation and timing between stimuli)?
The CS is always presented first, followed 1/2 a second later by the UCS.
Define acquisition in operant conditioning.
The establishment of a response through reinforcement or removal of a response through punishment
What is the law of effect?
The law of effect states that behaviour that is followed by a pleasant consequence is strengthened (more likely to occur again) and behaviour that is followed by an unpleasant consequence is weakened (less likely to occur again).
Describe Reproduction (element of observational learning)
The learner attempts to physically imitate/reproduce the observed behaviour — provided they have the skills or ability to reproduce the behaviour. The learner must have the physical and intellectual ability to convert the mental representations into actions.
Describe Attention (element of observational learning)
The learner must actively observe the model's behaviour and the consequence of the behaviour. Attention can be influenced by characteristics of the observer and characteristics of the event.
Describe Motivation (element of observational learning)
The learner/observer must be motivated or driven to perform the behaviour — they must want to reproduce what was observed.
Describe Retention (element of observational learning)
The learnt behaviour is then stored in memory as a mental representation so that the observed learning can be utilised at a later time. This is the cognitive aspect of observational learning because the memory must be stored and later retrieved to reproduce the behaviour.
Define Spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning.
The organism will once again show a conditioned response in the absence of any reinforcement or punishment following apparent extinction of the conditioned response.
Under what circumstances might the use of a token economy be ineffective?
The use of a token economy be ineffective when underlaying cause of behaviour is not altered.
Briefly outline a procedure for an experiment using a Skinner box to operantly condition a rat to produce a particular response.
To produce a particular response such as pushing a lever, the rat can be treated with food. When the particular response, in this case a lever, is pushed down, food will be given to the rat.
Explain how shaping could be used to teach a child to tie their shoelaces.
To teach a child to tie their shoelaces, a reinforcer (lollipop or praise) should be given for any behaviour that successively approximates (looping one shoe lace, the other shoe lace, then tying them together) and ultimately leads to the final desired response of tying her shoelaces.
What is vicarious conditioning?
Vicarious conditioning is when an individual watches another person displaying behaviour that is either reinforced or punished and later behaves in exactly the same way, in a modified way, or refrains from doing so as a result of the observation.
Briefly explain vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment.
Vicarious reinforcement increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model who behaviour is reinforced. Vicarious punishment occurs when the likelihood of an observer performing a particular behaviour decreases after having seen a model's behaviour being punished.
Name and describe the the three-phase model of operant conditioning.
a three-way relationship between the behaviour, it antecedents/ discriminative stimulus (what happens just before the behaviour) and its consequences (what happens just after the behaviour). Discriminative stimulus (antecedent condition or stimulus) - the stimulus (object or event) that occurs before a particular response and signals the probable consequence for the response so it influences the occurrence of the response. Behaviour (response) - voluntary behaviour that occurs in the presence of the discriminative stimulus. It may be one specific action or a pattern of actions. Consequence - the environmental event that occurs immediately after the response and determines whether or not the response will occur. The behaviour that is followed by a consequence will change in strength and frequency depending on whether the consequence is reward or punishment.
Define and explain the role of Unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning
any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, natural occurring, automatic response
Define Stimulus discrimination in operant conditioning.
occurs when an organism makes the correct response to a stimulus and is reinforced (or punished), but does not respond to any other stimulus, even when stimuli are similar (but not identical)
Give a description, effectiveness and example of the fixed-ratio schedule.
reinforce a correct response after a set (fixed) number of correct responses. Fastest acquistion of response out of all partial schedules BUT not very resistant to extinction e.g. every third correct behaviour is reinforced
Define and explain the role of Conditioned response in classical conditioning
the learned response that is produced by the CS. The CR occurs after the CS has been associated with the UCS. The CR is similar to the UCR but is triggered by the CS alone
Consider Watson and Rayner's (1920) study from an ethical perspective. Explain how beneficence was breached
the negative impact on Little Albert outweigh the knowledge gained about the development of phobias
Define and explain the role of Unconditioned response in classical conditioning
the response that occurs automatic when the UCS is presented. Is a reflexive, involuntary response that is caused by a UCS
Define and explain the role of Conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning
the stimulus that is neutral at the start of conditioning process and does not normally produce the unconditioned response. However, through repeated association with the UCS, the CS triggers a very similar response to that caused by the UCS
According to Bandura, what characteristics of models are we more likely to pay attention to?
to models who are perceived positively, are liked and have a high status. Who have perceived similarities between model and observer. Who are familiar and known. Who demonstrate behaviour that is visible and stands out clearly against 'competing' models and who demonstrate behaviour that the observe believes that are able to imitate.
