Unit 7 IR
Law of the sea convention
a treaty that first went into force in 1982 and then was revised in 1994; 161 states are parties to this treaty that sets rules for the use and protection of the high seas and its resources.
International Court of Justice (World Court)
this international institution was created in 1946 as part of the United Nations systems to apply international law to resolve conflicts brought voluntarily to it by states.
horizontal enforcement
those measures that states themselves can take when a state violates an international law and other states can attempt to punish the violator themselves
Why are the structures of peace and cooperation so hard to achieve in world politics?
. Structures of peace and cooperation are difficult to achieve because the three characteristics of the international system that we learned about in Chapter1: anarchy, diversity, and complexity. Though the UN has some capabilities to respond to conflicts when there is agreement among the P5 on the Security Council, for the most part, the international system is anarchic, with no higher power than states. In addition there is incredible ethnic, religious, and cultural diversity in the world with different value systems, interests, and different beliefs about governance. Finally, most big problems, like the Syria conflict, are incredibly complex with multiple actors with varying interests and international system level, state level and individual level factors that affect outcomes.
What is the total number of countries represented on the on the UN Security Council?
15 (includes 10 rotating members)
The Geneva Conventions are the most important attempt to bind states to just war practices in the post-WWII period. Today, the total number of states that have signed the four main Conventions is 194, making the Geneva Conventions universally applicable to states (although they are sometimes violated by state and nonstate actors). Read the brief summary of the Geneva Conventions below:
1: protects wounded and sick soldiers on land during war. 2: protects wounded, sick and shipwrecked military personnel at sea during war. 3: applies to prisoners of war 4: affords protection to civilians including in occupied territory
Passage of a Security Council measure requires both unanimity of the P5 and how many affirmative votes total?
9
United Nations Security Council (UNSC)
a fifteen-member council that carries the primary UN responsibilities for peace, security, and collective security operations.
Briefly describe the historical origins of the UN. What are the basic purposes of the UN (see reading). The neo-Westphalian era is marked by the declining importance of interstate war (wars between states) and increased importance of civil wars, violent ethnic and religious conflict, and asymmetric warfare. Increasingly the aims of Article I (#1) and Article II (#7) conflict with each other. Explain this statement and give an example of a recent case that reflects this dilemma.
Before WWII was even over, diplomats from the US and Britain were working on plans for the organization which derives its name from FDR's description of the allied powers as "united nations". Its roots can be traced back even further to previous attempts at international organization: the Concert of Europe and the League of Nations, both of which failed. Fifty-one countries joined and drafted the UN Charter in 1945 in San Francisco. The UN currently has 193 member countries. Basic purposes of the UN: · Maintain international peace and security through collective security arrangements · Develop friendly relations among nations · Achieve international cooperation in solving international problems (economic, social, cultural, humanitarian and other problems) · Be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations to meet common ends Article I calls for the UN to maintain international peace and security by collectively acting against aggressor states and by removing threats to peace. Article II (#7) states that nothing in the UN Charter should be interpreted to mean that it has a right to interfere in the internal, domestic matters within a state. The problem today is that conflicts often include state and nonstate actors (like ISIS or Al Qaeda). In addition, some leaders have committed gross atrocities against their own people (Syria's President Assad) that threaten world peace. The situation in Rwanda involved a conflict between two ethnic groups within a country. Over 800,000 people died while the UN failed to act. We will address this complex issue further in Unit 10 (Human Security and Global Environment).
The history of the European Union (EU) is often described as the "broadening and deepening" of ties. Broadening refers to the inclusion of more and more countries into the Union. Today the EU has 27 members spanning western and eastern Europe. What does "deepening" of ties mean? What is the Eurozone and how many countries does it include?
Deepening refers to the development of closer economic and political ties as well as cooperation on a host of policy issues. To join the EU today, a country must bring its own laws into accordance with EU laws. Today, the Euro zone, officially called the Euro Area, is a monetary union of 19 of the 27 European Union (EU) member states which have adopted the euro (€) as their currency. The Euro zone came into being in 1999.
For each of the following key international economic organizations describe the organizations broad purpose, how the organization came about, and the voting procedure each uses:
International Monetary Fund (IMF) - one of the international economic organizations established in 1946 at the Bretton Woods Conference to help maintain a cooperative international economic and financial system. The IMF helps countries facing balance-of-payments problems (a country temporarily cannot pay its bills) with short term loans and also helps countries reschedule their debts. It is also involved in the resolution of financial crises. weighted voting at IMF World Bank - one of the international economic organizations established in 1946 at the Bretton Woods Conference to help maintain a cooperative international economic and financial system. The primary mission of the World Bank is to help nations achieve their long-term development goals. To do so, it provides loans to its members. Most of its efforts today are focused on less developed countries (LDCs). weighted voting at World Bank World Trade Organization (precursor was GATT) -replaced GATT in 1995 and now has 159 member countries. It is a central body governing of world trade with enforcement powers over free trade rules and practices. It has a dispute settlement body which determines if trade rules are broken by member states. Voting - Operates in a consensus oriented fashion
What is international law? Realists are skeptical of the usefulness of international law. Why? Liberals argue that most states follow international law most of the time. How does international law differ from law as we typically think of it in the US?
International law is a body of rules that binds states and other agents in world politics in their relations with one another. Realists are skeptical of international law. They argue that since there is no single international governmental authority to make, enforce, and interpret the law, there is no true "international law" and no institution to enforce compliance. Liberals argue that every day states across the world are in voluntary compliance with most international laws. International law is different from how we think of domestic law in the US because there is no central international authority (e.g., there is no international supreme court with an executive branch behind it to enforce its rulings)
Just War tradition is also an important component of international law. We covered this material in Unit 5 but please review.
Jus ad bellum (which means under what conditions is war justified) and the related terms: Just cause - Is the reason to go to war just, such as an act of aggression by one state toward another? Competent authority - Is a legitimate government making the decision to go to war? Right intention - Is the war being waged for the purpose identified such as aggression by another state? Last resort - Have all peaceful means of conflict resolution been exhausted? Proportionality - Do the benefits of going to war exceed the harm to which it is a response? Jus in bello (which refers to conduct during war) and the related terms: Combatants/noncombatants - force and violence should not be used against noncombatants (civilians) Proportionality of level of force - level of force should not be excessive and should be proportional to the act of aggression Treatment of prisoners of war - prisoners of war should be treated with dignity and respect and should be free from torture and other forms of abuse Prohibited weaponry and targets - use of WMD and targeting of civilians is prohibited
Explain why the enforcement of international law is so difficult. Define the following terms and give an example of each:
National enforcement - states enforce some international law through their own national legal systems Horizontal enforcement - those measures that states themselves can take when a state violates an international law and other states can attempt to punish the violator themselves Vertical enforcement - the enforcement of international law by international institutions. Compulsory jurisdiction - in international law, the condition in which parties to a dispute must submit the case to a court. Enforcement of international law is difficult because central international institutions are weak (compared to domestic courts) and because actors in world politics cannot always rely on them to enforce decisions because often they do not have good enforcement mechanisms.
There are over 6,000 international organizations (IOs) in the world today. Why do so many international organizations exist? Explain the difference between power-based explanations and problem-based explanations. Be familiar with the key functions of international organizations. What is the difference between a single issue and multiple issue international organization? Give an example of a regional, single issue IO and an example of a global, multiple issue IO.
Power-based explanations for international organizations suggest that IOs simply reflect the interests of states and often the most powerful states. These explanations suggest that IOs exist to support the norms and practices and encourage the types of state behavior that powerful states prefer. The World Trade Organization, for instance, helps keep international commerce moving along, which benefits economically powerful states. Marxists argue that IOs act in the interests of economic elites, while realists believe they act in the interests of powerful states. Problem-based explanations emphasize the need and desire among states to cooperate to address problems together in order to produce a benefit for all and reduce conflict. In our current era, these explanations seem to explain the continued increase in the number of IOs. Many problems now have a global dimension such as the environment, international crime, human trafficking, etc. No single state can solve these problems individually. Many IOs exist to enable technical cooperation and linkages that help states solve problems. A single issue IO deals with one specific issue or set of issues while a multiple issue IO deals with many issues. Single issue, regional IO: Andean Common Market (economic organization in South America) Multiple issue, international IO: UN See PPT Notes for more examples.
what might contribute to progress in these areas
Strengthening international intergovernmental organizations like the UN will help as well as the continued growth of an international civil society that promotes shared norms across a range of issues like human rights and human security. We will learn more about international civil society and transnational advocacy networks that promote cooperation and peace and human security later in the semester. Also, cooperation and improved ties among the P5 powers on the Security Council would make international action to address problems like Syria in a manner similar to the response to Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait more feasible. IR Liberals would say that international cooperation will involve successes and failures and that forward progress means strengthening ties among countries and strengthening institutions by learning from mistakes like Rwanda.
Read the box attached at the end of this document (on page 9) about the United States and the World Court. How would you describe the relationship between the US and the World Court?
The 15-member International Court of Justice, or World Court, is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, seated at The Hague in the Netherlands. It is charged with settling legal disputes submitted to it by states and giving advisory opinions on legal questions from U.N. bodies and agencies. The world court does not have compulsory jurisdiction. Both parties to a dispute must voluntarily agree to bring a case before the court. The US has a tenuous relationship with the World Court (and many other international institutions). After the court ruled that the US covert war against Nicaragua in the 1980s was in violation of international law, the United States withdrew from compulsory jurisdiction in 1986 to accept the court's jurisdiction only on a case-by-case basis. The UN authorizes the UN Security Council to enforce Court rulings. However, such enforcement is subject to the veto power of the five permanent members of the Council, which the United States used in the Nicaragua case. Also review the two cases related to Iran which illustrate the difficulty the World Court has in getting states (including the US) to comply with its verdicts.
What is the world's most powerful regional international organization? Why do you think Europe has had so much more success than other regions in building a regional organization? Briefly summarize the origins of the European Union
The European Union (EU) is the world's most powerful regional IO by far. Reasons for the success of this organization include: · Deliberate policy choices by leaders of European countries · Basic power dynamics among states in the region · Common identities based on things such as culture, religion, and historical experience · Common external threats · Similar governments that are able to cooperate · Economic connections and interdependence The European Union began after WWII as the European Coal and Steel Community, a common market based on trading French coal for German steel. It originally included just six countries. The goal of the founders was not just economic cooperation, but to make war unthinkable and materially impossible. Over time, a conscious effort was made by European leaders to broaden the EU (add countries) and deepen the ties between them.
What is the Law of the Sea Convention? Why is it an important agreement? Give four examples of its importance. Why has the US Senate not ratified the Law of the Sea Treaty, even though the US has signed the agreement and chooses to follow its rules?
The Law of the Sea Convention is a treaty that first went into force in 1994 after being signed by a sufficient number of member states at the UN; 161 states are parties to this treaty that sets rules for the use and protection of the high seas and its resources. In particular, the Law of the Sea Convention: 1. Sets rules about navigation and territorial waters 2. Sets rules regarding piracy 3. Sets rules related to the protection of fishing stocks 4. Sets rules related to the regulation of deep-sea mining This Convention is essential to the conduct of international trade and commerce. The US Senate has not ratified it because some US senators believe the convention would undermine US sovereignty and our ability to do what we want on the high seas. However, The United States recognizes that the 1982 Convention reflects customary international law and complies with its provisions.
Where is the UN headquarters? Why is it in this location?
The UN headquarters is in New York City. This choice reflects conditions at the end of WWII. The US was by far the most powerful country and the only major power not facing the massive destruction caused by the war. In addition, The US was the main force behind the creation of the UN. An American billionaire, John D. Rockefeller, donated the very valuable land in New York City for the UN headquarters.
The most recent two-year budget of the UN was about $14 billion. It sounds like a lot of money, but the annual US federal government budget is about $4 trillion. What are the main sources of funding for the UN? Which three countries pay the most?
The main sources of funding are member state dues (calculated based on GDP) and, for the specialized programs, voluntary contributions from states and nonstate actors (including individuals). The US pays the most followed by Japan and Germany.
Why isnt the rule of law the norm in relations between countries?
The rule of law is often not the norm between countries because countries have different interests and will act on those interests to the detriment of other countries sometimes. It should be noted, however, that every day an incalculable number of exchanges and transactions go on among countries without incident—for example, the massive volume of global trade.
How did they come to be the P5?
They are the main founders of the UN and the first five nuclear states; this arrangement also reflects the balance of power in the early post-WWII period.
international law
a body of rules that binds states and other agents in world politics in their relations with one another
Briefly summarize the major sources of international law
Treaty - formal, written agreements among states; thousands of treaties exist, touching on just about every aspect of world politics Custom - the general practice of states accepted as law; for example, it has become custom that when rivers are borders between two states, the border is at the midpoint of the deepest channel of the river through which ships can navigate. General Principles - laws and practices that many states have adopted in their own societies; for example laws against assault, murder and damaging the property of others are common in nearly all states. Court decisions and writings of jurists - looks at what other courts, domestic and international, have identified as laws in their decisions Decisions of international organizations - norms and principles that come from charters of international organizations such as the UN charter.
Briefly describe and explain the main purpose of the following principle organs of the UN:
UN General Assembly - the plenary body of the UN in which all UN member countries have a seat. Functioning on a majority rule decision process, it is the central forum for discussion of global issues. UN Security Council - a fifteen-member council that carries the primary UN responsibilities for peace, security, and collective security operations. The Secretariat & Secretary General - the bureaucracy and administrative arm of the UN; the head of the UN Secretariat is the Secretary- General, the UN's administrative leader elected by the UNGA at the recommendation of the UNSC. The current Secretary-General is Ban Ki-moon from South Korea. The day-to-day operations are run from the Secretariat. ECOSOC - by far the largest and broadest of the UN's organs, it has responsibility for all problems of an economic, social, and cultural nature; it has 54 rotating members. It supervises some of the most well-know parts of the UN including UNICEF, the World Health Organization and the International Atomic Energy Agency. International Court of Justice (World Court) - also known as the World Court, this international institution was created in 1946 as part of the United Nations systems to apply international law to resolve conflicts brought voluntarily to it by states.
name the p5 countries
US, UK, France, Russia, China
What is the principle of universal jurisdiction, and where is it most extensively developed?
Universal jurisdiction - emerging principle of international law asserting that states themselves can prosecute violators of certain international laws, even if the alleged violator is from another country; the former dictator of Chile, Augusto Pinochet, who was responsible for many human rights abuses, was indicted by Spain for these abuses. The principle of universal jurisdiction is most developed in the European Union where there are EU laws that supersede the laws of member states.
The UN record of effectiveness is mixed. There have been successes and many failures (especially on security issues). On which policy issues has the United Nations been most effective?
Weakness: collective action on peace and security especially in the last 20 years as more conflicts are civil wars and involve nonstate actors Strengths: fighting disease, protecting the environment, caring for refugees, promoting and protecting human rights, promoting economic and technical cooperation, acting as a voice for children's issues and women's issues, partnering with NGOs and strengthening international civil society.
Concept of Europe (1815-1854)
a 19th century multilateral organization composed of Great Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia, and France to promote stability, cooperation, and multilateral diplomacy.
League of Nations
an international institution created after World War I for collective security and the resolution of disputes between states.
United Nations
an international institution established after World War II to promote peace and security, the development of friendly relations and harmony among nations, and cooperation on international problems.
diplomats
individuals occupying positions in the foreign policy establishments of states or the management of other organizations who represent and negotiate on behalf of their country or employer.
conference diplomacy
large diplomatic meetings of many officials from states, international organizations, nongovernmental organizations, academia, and other non-state actors.
Explain the significance of the following types of voting in IOs and give an example of each type in an existing IO:
majority rule (UN General Assembly) - each member country gets one vote and majority rules on most issues (except peace and security issues at UN which require 2/3 to affirm action) weighted voting (International Monetary Fund, World Bank) - a country's share of the vote is based on the size of its contribution; the United States has almost 17 percent of the vote at the IMF because it contributes the most unit veto (UN Security Council P5) - each member of the P5 may veto Security Council resolutions
multilateral diplomacy
diplomacy involving more than three states at a time; typically many states are involved.
summit meetings
diplomatic meetings involving the top officials of their respective states (hence "the summit").
universal jurisdiction
emerging principle of international law asserting that states themselves can prosecute violators of certain international laws even if the alleged violator is from another country.
Treaty
formal, written agreements among states.
linkage strategy
in diplomacy, the strategy of connecting solutions on one issue to proposals on another to facilitate agreement.
compulsory jurisdiction
in international law, the condition in which parties to a dispute must submit the case to a court.
reciprocity
in international law, the principle that a state follows international law so that others will do so in return.
Unit veto
in international organizations a decision rule in which some or all members can block decisions with their votes: in a pure unit veto decision rule every member exercises a veto; in a modified unit veto, only some members have the veto power (e.g., P5).
majority rule
in international organizations, a decision process that relies on voting with one vote per member, in which gaining a majority of the votes prevails.
weighted voting
in international organizations, a decision rule in which member votes are weighted according to some factor related to size, power, or wealth.
national enforcement
states enforce some international law through their own national legal systems
track II diplomacy
the activities and involvement of private individuals, nongovernmental organizations such as civil society organizations, and religious and business leaders in dialogue and negotiation to facilitate conflict resolution.
diplomacy
the art and practice of conducting negotiations between nations.
United Nations Secretariat
the bureaucracy and administrative arm of the UN; runs day-to-day operations
settlement gap
the difference between the minimal preferences of two parties to a negotiation
vertical enforcement
the enforcement of international law by international institutions.
third-party diplomacy
the engagement of an outside party in the negotiations between the actual parties to a dispute to facilitate a resolution of the disagreement
P-5
the five permanent members of the UN Security Council— the United States, Britain, France, China, and Russia—each of which holds veto power.
custom
the general practice of states accepted as law; a source of international law
United Nations Secretary-General
the head of the UN Secretariat, the UN's administrative leader elected by the UNGA at the recommendation of the UNSC.
United Nations General Assembly (UNGA)
the plenary body of the UN in which all UN members have a seat. Functioning on a majority rule decision process, it is the central forum for discussion of global issues.
Briefly describe the history of the EU in terms of the broadening and deepening of ties.
} EU develops in stages since the end of WWII with the general pattern of broadening ties (more member states join) and deepening ties (closer ties on multiple issues). } Jean Monnet - Schuman Plan (1951) Helped create the European Coal and Steel Community (1951) Fostered economic growth, cooperation and peace in aftermath of WWII signed by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany. } European Economic Community (EEC) • Created a broader common market for goods and services. • France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg sign a treaty in Rome in 1957 establishing the European Economic Community (EEC), also known as the Common Market } European Monetary Union (EMU) • Harmonized the currencies of member states and tied their values to the German Deutschmark; Collapsed due to fiscal and monetary crises • Pillars of the today's EU established in 1992 by the Treaty of the European Union (also known as Maastricht Treaty) • Maastricht Treaty - Strengthened European political and legal structures and laid the groundwork for the Euro } The euro (currency) was introduced in 1999 • Has now replaced the national currencies of 19 member states in Eurozone } The Schengen Area is an area comprising 26 European states that have officially abolished passport and all other types of border control at their mutual borders. The area mostly functions as a single jurisdiction for international travel purposes, with a common visa policy. } EU currently consists currently of 27 members (Post-Brexit) and now includes many Eastern European countries formerly in Soviet Bloc during Cold War
How many countries are in the EU? How many countries are in the European Monetary Union (EMU)? What is Brexit? What impact is the Brexit likely to have on the UK economically? What other policy issues are important in the EU today?
· 27 countries today (2020), now that the UK has left the EU. · 19 countries are in the European Monetary Union (they use the Euro as currency). · Brexit was the long drawn out process of the UK coming to terms with a referendum in which its citizens voted (52% - 48%) to leave the EU. Many of its citizens were disgruntled over EU refugee policies, immigration policies more generally, and economic hardships faced by working class voters. · In the short run, Brexit is more likely to hurt the UK economically than it is to hurt the EU. In the long run, the UK is likely to make the necessary adjustments and trade agreements to maintain a healthy economy (though it is difficult to predict the future). · Refugee policy, economic policy, fighting terrorism, right-wing populist movements in some EU countries, Russian meddling, the global pandemic
How big is the economy of the European Union? How do the countries within the EU vary in the size of their economies (GDP) and gross national income per capita (GNI per capita)? Again, draw a parallel with the Unites States and the economies of various states.
· At the end of 2018, prior to Brexit, the gross domestic product or GDP of the EU (all member countries combined) was around $19 trillion. · At the end of 2018, the gross domestic product or GDP of the United States was around $19.3 trillion. · Within the EU, countries like Germany have a massive GDP (almost $4 trillion compared to small countries like Greece ($200 billion GDP). · You see similar patterns in the US. California has a GDP of over $3 trillion, while Wyoming has a GDP of $38 billion. · Gross national income per capita also varies widely within the EU. The richer countries of Western and Northern Europe have higher annual per capita income ($50,000+). More modest incomes are found in the Eastern European and some Southern European states ($25,000 - $30,000). · You see the same kinds of income variations in the US. We have very rich states like Connecticut or Maryland where per capita income is around $75,000 per year and poorer states like Mississippi where per capita income is around $42,000 per year. · The significance from the standpoint of economic policy is that some states are better able to weather economic downturns and bounce back than others, as we saw during the last Great Recession. In the next recession, Europe is going to need more coordinated cooperation among its member states, and the bigger, richer countries may have to come to the aid of the not-as-rich countries.
What is the Council of the European Union (usually called the Council of Ministers)? Why is it often called the "upper house" like the US Senate? What powers does it have that distinguish it from the European Parliament? Why does Council membership vary?
· Ministers of each of the EU's 28 member states (27 Post-Brexit) gather at the Council of the European Union, where they debate policy proposals from the EU Commission and help decide which proposals, or which elements of proposals, become law. They share these budgetary and legislative powers with the EU Parliament. Ministers are the equivalent of cabinet secretaries in the US like the Secretary of the Treasury or the Secretary of State. · Membership in the Council varies based upon the topic of debate. So, for instance, if the topic being discussed is agriculture, each of the 28 member states sends their Minister of Agriculture to represent them. That is why we describe the membership as rotating. · Like the US Senate, the Council (similar to an upper house in this legislative body) is a much more exclusive governing body compared to its Parliamentary counterpart. The Council is made up of ministers from each country who are appointed by their respective governments as opposed to elected representatives. The Council requires a larger majority to pass legislation than the Parliament.They also have some exclusive powers under special legislative procedures. Under certain procedures, the Council can sometimes act on Commission proposals without corresponding action from Parliament
What is the population of the European Union? How do the countries and states in the European Union vary in size? Draw a parallel with the population distribution of the US.
· Population of the EU in 2018 was about 508 million; population of the US is about 325 million. · The EU has some very large states like Germany (82 million) or France (67 million); it has many smaller states like Hungary, Czech Republic, and Greece (10-11 million) and a few very small states like Cyprus (850,000). · The US has a similar pattern with big states like California (40 million) and small states like Wyoming or Alaska (<1 million).
Describe the importance of our alliance with the EU in terms of both national security and trade.
· The EU is extremely important from the standpoint of national security. With our European and Canadian partners, we have by far the strongest military alliance in the world, NATO. NATO has 29 member states and among its members are some of the world's best trained militaries. · That alliance provides all of the member countries with the collective security and is a huge deterrent to any hostile power. The US nuclear umbrella protects those partners from nuclear attack as well through extended deterrence. · NATO's military power, along with the enormous political and economic power of Europe, make the EU our most important ally, along with Canada. · If you look at trade statistics country by country, then the top three trading partners of the US in 2018 were China, Canada, and Mexico. § China - $636 billion. § Canada - $582.4 billion. § Mexico - $557 billion. · If you take the European Union as a whole and count it as one entity, then the EU was by far our largest trading partner with a gross volume of trade of $1.3 trillion. · That collective economic strength of the EU and the US, which between them have roughly $40 trillion worth of economic spending power serves as a bulwark against China and China's often self-serving trade and commercial practices.
Describe the European Commission in a few sentences. How many members does the cabinet have? The European Commission has proposal power; explain what that means.
· The European Commission has 28 different ministers (27 Post-Brexit), one from each member state, and each commissioner focuses on a specific policy area. · The Commission acts as the executive branch of the EU. As such, it is responsible for carrying out the day-to-day operations of the EU. It has two very important powers: 1) it proposes legislation (proposal power) to the legislative bodies of the EU; and 2) it enforces existing EU laws. This proposal power means that it is the only body that can make official policy recommendations, which the Council of Ministers and Parliament would then have to consider and vote on for them to become EU law. They also have the power to evaluate EU budgets and take an active role in trade issues
Describe the European Council. What is its main role? Why is it the most highly visible governing body of the EU, even though it has little executive or legislative power? Can you guess what ongoing crisis the Council has had to address in the last few months (in the news a lot)?
· The European Council is a summit meeting of EU heads of government without any formal legislative power; these heads of government represent the interests of their respective states. The European Council has a strategy and agenda-setting role. · They typically meet two to four times a year depending on the urgency of issues at hand. Since all of the heads of government attend, these meetings are high-profile and attract a lot of media attention in Europe. · Some of the key issues that the European Council has had to address in the last year include: Brexit (the UK possibly leaving the EU), the refugee crisis, and terrorism in Europe.
What is the European Court of Justice? Why is it considered a "supranational" institution and a great success in terms of international courts?
· The European Court of Justice is the highest court of law in the European Union. It is comprised of two courts: 1. Court of Justice: 1 judge from each EU country, plus 11 advocates general 2. General Court: 47 judges. In 2019 this will be increased to 56 (2 judges from each EU country). · Each judge and advocate general is appointed for a renewable 6-year term, jointly by national governments. In each Court, the judges select a President who serves a renewable term of 3 years. · It is a supranational institution because EU law is superior to the laws of member states. In other words, if member state law is not in compliance with EU law, the member state law must be changed. · The EU Court has been a very successful international court due to the willingness of member states to defer to its judgement. Member states have also accepted its broad jurisdiction; the Court has continued to see its case load increase in recent years.
The European Parliament is one of two legislative bodies of the EU. It is often called the "lower house" like the House of Representatives in the US. Describe the European Parliament in a few sentences. Which country has the most representatives and why? What kinds of policy issues does the European Parliament address? How are the members seated when the Parliament meets?
· The European Parliament is the only EU institution which requires direct elections, and, in total, it's comprised of 751 members (prior to Brexit completion). With 96 MEPs, Germany has the largest number of representatives, which follows as representation is largely determined by population. There is some weighting to give small states a fair voice at the table, so each state is guaranteed a minimum number of seats (six currently). · The Parliament has the ability to review and debate policy proposals from the European Commission, and, in tandem with the Council of Ministers (officially known as Council of the European Union), it has the ability to set budgets and pass legislation. They handle legislation on a range of policy issues including economic and monetary policy, education policy, and employment policy. See the list of the 20 committees of the EP on the EU website for more information. · When Parliament meets, MEPs sit in different sections based upon their political affiliation or political party; they are divided into one of eight political groups. So, for instance, all the members affiliated with Green parties sit together, regardless of which country they are from. Fourteen MEPs are unaffiliated (see ABCs handout).