Unit 9

Compare and contrast models of moral development (eg Kohlberg, Gilligan)

Kohlberg says that there are three different types of morality. The first level of morality is the pre-conventional morality, which begins at age 9, and this type of morality focuses on obeying rules so that they can avoid punishments or they get rewards for certain behaviors. The next level of morality is the conventional morality, which starts in early teen years, and this stage of morality is focused on doing things to gain social approval. The final level is the post-conventional stage, which happens beyond teen years, and in this stage, people act on their basic rights to do what is right. Gilligan's has the same three levels of morality that kohlberg has, but she claims that each level is changed by a sense of self rather than changes in cognitive abilities.

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

menarche

the first menstrual period

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

Describe the influence of temperament and other social factors on attachment and appropriate socialization

> A child's temperament is something that is genetically influenced and is the attitude has towards certain situations. If both parents are active and are positive influences in their kid's life, then the kid will be influenced by them and would have a different temperament than those who were abused while growing up. Who the kid interacts with can also have an impact on their temperament. Kids who go to daycare are more likely to become aggressive quickly, but this can also be because of their temperament, parents' sensitivity, the families economic and educational levels can also affect the way kids behave and view the world.

Characterize the development of decisions related to intimacy as people mature

> As people go through their adolescent stage, they later go into the young adulthood stage, which allows them to be able to develop the ability to create deep amounts of intimacy, or the ability to form close and loving relationships. They can choose who they want to be close to, and after creating the bond, they can establish relationships that are romantic and platonic. If teens have a healthy relationship, then when they grow older, they will be able to have healthy adult relationships.

Discuss the interaction of nature and nurture (including cultural variations) in the determination of behavior

> As people grow up, what affects their behavior can be found in the way they were raised and in their genetic makeup. As they grow up, the environment a kid is raised in and how they are raised is the nurture side of this argument. The way a person is raised can affect their personality and behavior in a lot of different ways. The expectation that their culture has for them and that others have for them can change the way a person behaves, and if raised in a harsh environment, can make them more closed off than those raised in a better environment. The nature argument can be made in that no matter what environment a person in is, their genes will come into play and affect how they react to certain situations, and that this affects their behavior and personality than anything else.

Discuss maturation of motor skills

> As soon as a baby is born, they have different types of motor skills that help them grow up. These skills include the ability to move large muscles and are able to do activities such as climbing, skipping, throwing, hitting, and punching. It can also include smaller muscle movement, and kids are later able to do things such as finger paint, color, cut things, and tying their shoes. Kids aren't able to use their gross motor and fine motor skills until they are one or two years old, and these skills can get better over time.

Describe how sex and gender influence socialization and other aspects of development

> Currently there are a lot of gender roles and expectations that kids learn about as they grow up. At age 3, kids know what their gender is, and from that point, they learn what is the right and wrong way to act and look like for their gender through other people's enforcing gender roles. As they grow up, they develop gender-related interests, and in elementary school, they start to make friends of their same gender. Girls are more likely to have one best friend and a lot of other friends, while boys tend to have a group of best friends.

discuss maturational challenges in adolescence, including related family conflicts

As a teenager grows up, they face a lot of different challenges. These challenges are identity vs. role confusion. what this means is that as a teenager is growing up, they are trying to find ways to be able to identify themselves, and can either discover a sense of, or they become confused about who they are. Family can also influence how teens handle these issues because their family might not accept them for what they identify with, and since their parents don't support them, they can become confused about what their role is in the family and in society.

Predict the physical and cognitive changes that emerge as people age, including steps that can be taken to maximize function

As people age, they are able to comprehend different levels of brain processing. After the age of 12, they can think on higher levels and on abstract ideas, which helps them in their later years. their brain develops during puberty, and their bodies also change during this stage. During puberty, males and females develop primary and secondary sexual characteristics. Primary sexual characteristics are body structures that allow for reproduction. Secondary sex characteristics for females include their hips widening and the development of breasts. For males, this means that their voice change and they grow body hair.

Identify key contributors in developmental psychology( eg. Mary Ainsworth, Albert Bandura, Diana Baumrind, Erik Erikson, Signund Freud, Carol Gilligan, Harry Harlow, Lawerence Kohlberg, Konrad Lorenz, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky)

Mary Ainsworth worked on the development of attachment theory (believed attachment was an all or nothing process). Albert Bandura worked on the social learning theory, which explained how when kids socialized with adults, they imitate them and their actions. Diana Baumrind a specialist in developmental psychology who is known for her studies on parenting styles. Erik Erikson known for his creation of the issues people face in different stages of their life. Sigmund Freud claimed that the relationship between the parent(s) of the same sex affects a person's mental health. Carol Gilligan claims that Erikson's levels aren't started by the stage of a person's life, but by a sense of self. Harry Harlow used monkeys in his experiments to determine the different types of learning skills. Lawrence Kohlberg claimed that kids identify with and imitate people who have the same gender as them and develop gender-related interests based on this. Konrad Lorenz studied the attachment known as imprinting. Jean Piaget created the theory of cognitive development and epistemological views (aka "genetic epistemology). Lev Vygotsky focused on how culture affects social development.

Explain the process of conception and gestation, including factors that influence successful fetal development (eg nutrition, illness, substance abuse)

Nutrition and fetal development. What the mother eats while pregnant can change the way a baby develops. The things the mom eats while pregnant can determine the health of their kid well into adulthood. If they eat certain foods, it can determine whether the kid will have disabilities, mental disorders, and diabetes. Illness and fetal development. If a mother is sick while she is pregnant (by sick I mean a minor cold) then it won't affect the baby. The mom should just rest and try to make sure that the sickness goes away soon. Substance abuse and fetal development. If the mother has an addiction to smoking, alcohol, drugs, or any other harmful substances, this can really have a negative impact on the development of the baby. If the mother smokes while pregnant, the baby can have significant health issues and can be born early or underweight. If a mother drinks while pregnant, the baby can develop fetal alcohol syndrome, which can affect the child's learning abilities, behavior, and the kid's intelligence in the future.

Explain the maturation of cognitive abilities (eg Piaget's stages, I formation processing)

Piaget's stages include the sensorimotor stage, which is when kids from 0 to 2 learn about the world through their five senses. Next is the preoperational stage, which takes place from ages 2 to 6 or 7 and in this stage kids learn how to use a language, but can't comprehend difficult mental operations. Then is the concrete operational stage, which starts at age 6 or 7 and lasts until their 11, and in this stage, they are beginning to be able to think logically and handle complex operations. Finally, we have the formal operational stage, which is from ages 12 and up, and at this stage, they are able to think on high levels of thinking and can handle abstract ideas. As they go through the different stages, they are able to process information on different levels. Sensorimotor stage allows kids to be able to process information through their five senses, and this is the information is just about the world around them. As they go through the other three stages, they become more and more able to process more difficult information.

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Autism

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Sensorimotor

describes Piaget's stage in which the child explores the world through interaction of his mouth and hands with the environment

Zygote

fertilized egg

emerging adulthood

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood

intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

enbryo

teh cluster of cells that develop between the third and eighth weeks of pregnancy

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement