U.S. History Ch. 25+26

Malcolm X's speeches and ideas influenced a new generation of militant African American leaders who preached black power, black nationalism, and economic self-sufficiency. In 1966, in Oakland, California, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale organized the Black Panthers. Black Panther leaders called for an end to racial oppression and for control of major institutions in the African American community, such as schools, law enforcement, housing, and hospitals.

How did Malcolm X's speeches and ideas influence a new generation of African American leaders?

the French continued to struggle against the Vietminh, who used hit-and-run and ambush tactics. These are the tactics of guerrillas, irregular troops who blend into the civilian population and are difficult for regular armies to fight.

What are guerrilla tactics?

Nixon began Vietnamization. This process involved the gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops while the South Vietnamese assumed more of the fighting. He announced the withdrawal of 25,000 soldiers on June 8, 1969. At the same time, however, Nixon increased air strikes against North Vietnam and began secretly bombing Vietcong sanctuaries in neighboring Cambodia.

What was Vietnamization?

This process involved the gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops while the South Vietnamese assumed more of the fighting. He announced the withdrawal of 25,000 soldiers on June 8, 1969. At the same time, however, Nixon increased air strikes against North Vietnam and began secretly bombing Vietcong sanctuaries in neighboring Cambodia.

What was Vietnamization? What was its purpose?

China's fall to communism and the outbreak of the Korean War helped convince President Truman to aid France. President Eisenhower continued Truman's policy and defended his decision with what became known as the domino theory—the idea that if Vietnam fell to communism, the rest of Southeast Asia would follow, like a line of dominoes falling over.

What was the "domino theory"?

Dr. King's death touched off both national mourning and riots in more than 100 cities, including Washington, D.C. The Reverend Ralph Abernathy, who had served as a trusted assistant to Dr. King for many years, led the Poor People's Campaign in King's absence. However, the demonstration did not achieve any of the major objectives that either King or the SCLC had hoped it would. In the wake of Dr. King's death, Congress did pass the Civil Rights Act of 1968. This law, sometimes known as the Fair Housing Act of 1968, outlawed discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, or national origin when selling, renting, or financing housing. In many communities across the nation, racism had led to an informal segregation. People would simply refuse to sell their homes or rent property to people based on their race. Sometime banks would not approve loans because of racist attitudes or assumptions that affected the thinking of the loan officers. The Civil Rights Act of 1968 put an end to these practices.

How did Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.'s death affect the civil rights movement?

Doves wanted the United States to leave Vietnam. Hawks, however, wanted the nation to stay and fight.

How did doves and hawks differ?

Kissinger's peace negotiations broke down over disagreements about the presence of North Vietnamese troops in the South. In December 1972, to force North Vietnam to resume negotiations, the Nixon administration began the most destructive air raids of the war. In what became known as the "Christmas bombings," American B-52s dropped thousands of tons of bombs on North Vietnamese targets for 11 straight days. Then negotiations resumed. On January 27, 1973, the warring sides signed an agreement "ending the war and restoring the peace in Vietnam." The United States promised to withdraw its troops, and both sides agreed to exchange prisoners of war. After almost eight years of war, the nation ended its direct involvement in Vietnam.

What was the effect of the "Christmas bombings" of 1972 on the peace negotiations?

As a step toward ending the war, Nixon appointed Henry Kissinger as special assistant for national security affairs. Kissinger embarked upon a policy called linkage, or improving relations with the Soviet Union and China, to try to persuade them to reduce their aid to North Vietnam. In August 1969, Kissinger also entered into secret negotiations with North Vietnam's representative, Le Duc Tho.

What was the goal of the linkage policy?

In January 1965, the SCLC and Dr. King selected Selma, Alabama, as the focal point for their campaign for voting rights. Although African Americans made up a majority of Selma's population, they made up only 3 percent of registered voters. Dr. King joined with SNCC activists and organized a "march for freedom" from Selma to the state capitol in Montgomery, a distance of about 50 miles (80 km). On Sunday, March 7, 1965, the march began. The SCLC's Hosea Williams and SNCC's John Lewis led some 600 protesters toward Montgomery. As the protesters approached the Edmund Pettus Bridge, which led out of Selma, Sheriff Clark ordered them to disperse. Many protesters were beaten in full view of television cameras. This brutal attack, known later as "Bloody Sunday," left 70 marchers hospitalized and another 70 injured. The nation was stunned as it viewed the shocking footage of law enforcement officers beating peaceful demonstrators. Watching the events from the White House, President Johnson became furious. Eight days later, he appeared before a nationally televised joint session of Congress to propose a new voting rights law.

What was the significance of the Selma march of 1965, and how did it help to increase participation of minorities in the political process?

Urged on by former NAACP official and SCLC executive director Ella Baker, students established the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in 1960. African American college students from all across the South made up the majority of SNCC's members. Many whites also joined. SNCC became an important civil rights group. The group tried to help with African American voter registration.

What were the goals of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee?

When the first U.S. combat troops arrived in Vietnam in the spring of 1965, about 66 percent of Americans approved of U.S. policy in Vietnam. As the war dragged on, however, public support began to wane. Media accounts seemed to contradict government reports. People opposed the war for different reasons. Some saw the conflict as a civil war in which the United States should not interfere. Others saw South Vietnam as a corrupt dictatorship and believed defending it was immoral. Thousands of demonstrators held protests against the war. Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) organized a march on Washington, D.C., that drew more than 20,000 people. A rally at the Lincoln Memorial drew tens of thousands of protesters as well. Many protesters focused on what they saw as an unfair draft system. Until 1969, college students could often defer military service until after graduation. Young people from working-class families unable to afford college were more likely to be drafted. Draftees were most likely to be assigned to combat units, and they commonly made up more than half of the casualties. Most who served in Vietnam, however, enlisted voluntarily. In the face of growing opposition to the war, President Johnson remained determined to continue fighting, recognizing the effort as resistance to communism. - doves and hawks

Why did Americans disagree about the Vietnam War?

The assassination of Dr. King in 1968 marked a turning point in the civil rights movement. After his death, the movement began to fragment. With formal laws in place banning segregation and discrimination, and guaranteeing voting rights, the movement lost some of its unity of purpose and the vision he had given it. The shift to economic rights was already underway at the time of his death, and it was clear that the struggle to end poverty and provide more economic opportunity would be very difficult and would have to involve very different approaches than the movement had used in the past.

Why was 1968, the year of Dr. Martin Luther King's death, a turning point for the civil rights movement?

In 1896 the Supreme Court had declared segregation to be constitutional in Plessy v. Ferguson, which established the "separate but equal" doctrine. Laws that segregated African Americans were permitted as long as equal facilities were provided. The facilities provided for African Americans, however, were usually of poorer quality than those provided for whites. Areas without laws requiring segregation often had de facto segregation—segregation by custom and tradition.

Why was the struggle for civil rights more difficult because of the "separate but equal" doctrine established in the Plessy v. Ferguson case?

President Johnson appointed the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders—headed by Governor Otto Kerner of Illinois—to study the causes of the urban riots and to make recommendations. The Kerner Commission, as it became known, blamed racism for most inner-city problems. "Our nation is moving toward two societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal," it concluded. The commission recommended the creation of inner-city jobs and the construction of new public housing, but with the spending for the Vietnam War, Johnson never endorsed the recommendations of the commission.

Explain how the findings and recommendations of the Kerner Commission related to racism.

Negotiations to end the conflict were held in Geneva, Switzerland. The resulting Geneva Accords provided for a temporary division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel. Ho Chi Minh and the Vietminh controlled North Vietnam, and a pro-Western regime led by the fiercely anti-Communist Ngo Dinh Diem (ehn• GOH DIHN deh•EHM) held the South. French troops soon left, and the United States became the principal protector of the new government in South Vietnam. The accords called for elections to be held in 1956 to reunite the country under a single government. Diem refused to permit the elections, however, fearing Ho Chi Minh would win. Eisenhower approved of Diem's actions and increased American aid to South Vietnam.

Explain the difference between the two groups in Vietnam—North Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh and South Vietnam under Ngo Dinh Diem.

After World War II, the NAACP continued to challenge segregation in the courts. From 1939 to 1961, the NAACP's chief counsel and director of its Legal Defense and Educational Fund was African American attorney Thurgood Marshall. After the war, Marshall focused his efforts on ending segregation in public schools. In 1954, the Supreme Court decided to combine several cases and issue a general ruling on segregation in schools. One of the cases involved a young African American girl named Linda Brown, who was denied admission to her neighborhood school in Topeka, Kansas, because of her race. She was told to attend an all-black school across town. With the help of the NAACP, her parents sued the Topeka school board. On May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional.

Explain the events leading up to the Brown v. Board of Education decision and summarize the Supreme Court's ruling.

President Eisenhower sympathized with the civil rights movement, yet he feared the possible effect of a court ruling overturning segregation. Following the precedent set by President Truman, he ordered navy shipyards and veterans' hospitals to desegregate. At the same time, Eisenhower disagreed with using protests and court rulings. He believed segregation and racism would end gradually, as values changed. With the nation in the midst of the Cold War, he worried that challenging white Southerners might divide the nation. Publicly, he refused to endorse the Brown v. Board of Education decision, remarking, "I don't believe you can change the hearts of men with laws or decisions." Regardless, Eisenhower knew he had to uphold the authority of the federal government. As a result, he became the first president since Reconstruction to send troops into the South to protect the rights of African Americans. Faubus, the governor of Arkansas, had used the armed forces of a state to oppose the federal government—the first such challenge to the Constitution since the Civil War. Eisenhower knew that he could not allow Faubus to defy the federal government. After a conference between Eisenhower and Faubus proved fruitless, the district court ordered the governor to remove the troops. The violence finally convinced President Eisenhower that he had to act. Federal authority had to be upheld. He immediately ordered the U.S. Army to send troops to Little Rock and federalized the Arkansas National Guard.

How did President Eisenhower respond to the civil rights movement?

When President Kennedy took office in 1961, he continued to support South Vietnam, believing the country was vital in the battle against communism. From 1961 to late 1963, the number of U.S. military personnel in South Vietnam jumped from about 2,000 to around 15,000. Just three weeks after Diem's death, Kennedy was assassinated. The presidency—and the growing problem of Vietnam—now belonged to President Lyndon B. Johnson. Although he approached Vietnam cautiously at first, Johnson wanted to keep the country from falling to the Communists. Johnson asked Congress for the authority to defend American forces and allies in Southeast Asia. Congress readily agreed, and on August 7, 1964, it passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. This authorized the president to "take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression." Soon after, the Vietcong began to attack bases where American advisers were stationed in South Vietnam. After one particularly damaging attack, Johnson sent American aircraft to bomb North Vietnam. In March 1965, Johnson again expanded American involvement by ordering a sustained bombing campaign against North Vietnam. That same month, he sent the first U.S. combat troops into Vietnam. - many blamed democrats for china's fall to communism and Johnson did not want to be blamed for Vietnam's either

How did U.S. involvement in Vietnam change during the Kennedy and Johnson administrations?

Although it convinced many African Americans that the time had come to challenge segregation, it also angered many white Southerners. Some became even more determined to defend segregation, regardless of what the Supreme Court ruled. Although some school districts in the Upper South integrated their schools, anger and opposition was a far more common reaction. Senator Harry F. Byrd of Virginia called on Southerners to adopt "massive resistance" against the ruling. Across the South, hundreds of thousands of white Americans joined citizens' councils to pressure their local governments and school boards into defying the Supreme Court. Many states adopted pupil assignment laws, which established elaborate requirements other than race that schools could use to prevent African Americans from attending white schools. Orval Faubus, the governor of Arkansas, ordered troops from the Arkansas National Guard to prevent nine African American students from entering the Central High School.

How did many white southerners react to the Brown v. Board ruling? What actions did they take in response? Identify two southern governors who sought to preserve the status quo in southern schools. What did they do?

Nevertheless, Johnson worked to get Kennedy's civil rights legislation through Congress. The bill passed the House of Representatives in February 1964. Then it stalled in the Senate for several weeks. Its opponents used a filibuster, a tactic in which senators speak continuously to prevent a vote. In June the Senate voted for cloture—to end debate and take a vote—with a vote of 71 for and 29 against.

How did opponents of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 use the filibuster to try to block its passage?

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was the most comprehensive civil rights law Congress had ever enacted. The law made segregation illegal in most places of public accommodation, and it gave citizens of all races and nationalities equal access to public facilities. The law gave the U.S. attorney general more power to bring lawsuits to force school desegregation and required private employers to end discrimination in the workplace. It also established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) as a permanent federal agency. The law also went further than simply banning discrimination based on race. It also banned discrimination based on religion, gender, and national origin. For religious minorities, for immigrants, and for women, the act represented a dramatic step forward in expanding their political rights and economic opportunities as well.

How did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 allow the federal government to fight racial discrimination?

The law also benefited immigrants and religious minorities. Historically, in many places in the United States, Jewish Americans had encountered rules preventing them from buying or renting property in certain neighborhoods. The Civil Rights Act of 1968 expanded their economic opportunities as well.

How did the Civil Rights Act of 1968 expand economic opportunities for religious minorities?

On August 2, 1964, Johnson announced that North Vietnamese torpedo boats had fired on two U.S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin. Two days later, he reported another attack. Insisting that these were unprovoked, he ordered American aircraft to attack North Vietnamese ships and naval facilities. Johnson then asked Congress for the authority to defend American forces and allies in Southeast Asia. Congress readily agreed, and on August 7, 1964, it passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. This authorized the president to "take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression." Soon after, the Vietcong began to attack bases where American advisers were stationed in South Vietnam. After one particularly damaging attack, Johnson sent American aircraft to bomb North Vietnam.

How did the Gulf of Tonkin incident and the subsequent congressional resolution contribute to U.S. involvement in Vietnam?

Kennedy allowed the Justice Department, run by his brother Robert, to actively support the civil rights movement. The department tried to help African Americans register to vote by filing lawsuits across the South. Robert Kennedy ordered the Justice Department to take legal action against Southern cities that maintained segregated bus terminals. By late 1962, segregation in interstate bus travel had virtually ended.

How did the Kennedy administration's Justice Department help the civil rights movement?

An angry Congress began to work to end the president's control of the war. In December 1970, it repealed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which had given the president nearly complete power in directing the conflict. The following year, a former employee of the Department of Defense, Daniel Ellsberg, leaked what became known as the Pentagon Papers to the New York Times. The documents contained details about decisions to expand the war, and confirmed what many Americans had long believed: the government had not been honest with them.

How did the Pentagon Papers increase support for the antiwar movement?

In early May 1961, teams of African American and white volunteers who became known as Freedom Riders boarded several southbound interstate buses. Buses were met by angry white mobs in Anniston, Birmingham, and Montgomery, Alabama. The mobs slit bus tires and threw rocks at the windows. In Anniston, someone threw a firebomb into one bus. Fortunately, no one was killed. After the attacks on the Freedom Riders in Montgomery, both Kennedys publicly urged them to have a "cooling off" period. CORE leader James Farmer rejected the idea and announced that the riders would head into Mississippi. To stop the violence, President Kennedy made a deal with Mississippi senator James Eastland. No violence occurred when buses arrived in Jackson, but Kennedy did not protest the riders' arrests. The cost of bailing the Freedom Riders out of jail used up most of CORE's funds. When Thurgood Marshall learned of the situation, he offered Farmer the use of the NAACP Legal Defense Fund's huge bail-bond account to keep the rides going. When President Kennedy found that the Freedom Riders were still active, he ordered the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to tighten its regulations against segregated bus terminals.

How did the arrests of Freedom Riders in Mississippi begin a chain of decisions and actions that ultimately led to the collapse, or near collapse, of segregated busing?

America paid a heavy price for its involvement in Vietnam, far more than the estimated $173 billion in direct costs. Approximately 58,000 young Americans died, and some 300,000 were injured. An estimated 1 million North Vietnamese and South Vietnamese soldiers died, as did millions more civilians. Back home, some soldiers had trouble readjusting. Because many people considered the war a defeat and wanted to put it behind them, the veterans' sacrifices often went unrecognized. They received relatively few welcome-home parades and celebrations. The war remained unresolved for the American families whose relatives and friends were classified as prisoners of war (POWs) or missing in action (MIA). Despite many official investigations, these families were not convinced that the government had told the truth about POW/MIA policies. The war also left a mark on national politics. In 1973, Congress passed the War Powers Act as a way to reestablish some limits on executive power. The act required the president to inform Congress of any commitment of troops abroad within 48 hours, and to withdraw them in 60 to 90 days, unless Congress explicitly approved the troop commitment. No president has recognized this limitation, however, and the courts have tended to avoid the issue. On the domestic front, the Vietnam War increased Americans' cynicism about their government. Together with Watergate, Vietnam made many Americans feel that the nation's leaders had misled them.

How was the political and cultural aftermath of the Vietnam War different from previous international conflicts?

Both Johnson and the war had become increasingly unpopular. With the presidential election of 1968 on the horizon, some Democratic politicians made surprising moves. Both Eugene McCarthy and Robert Kennedy saw Johnson's unpopularity due to the war and decided to enter the race. With both the country and his own party deeply divided, Johnson appeared on television on March 31, 1968. He announced, "I have concluded that I should not permit the presidency to become involved in the partisan divisions that are developing in this political year. Accordingly, I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your President." The violence that seemed to plague the country in 1968 culminated with a chaotic and well-publicized clash between antiwar protesters and police at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago. Thousands of young activists surrounded the convention center to protest the war. Despite these protests, the delegates selected Vice President Hubert Humphrey as the Democratic nominee. Meanwhile, in a park not far from the convention hall, protesters and police began fighting. Demonstrators taunted police with the chant, "The whole world is watching!" as the officers tried to force them to disperse. Violence between protesters and police aired on national television.

In what way did the Vietnam War shape the American presidential election in 1968?

The Freedom Riders were civil rights activists who rode segregated buses hoping to end this practice. However, After the attacks on the Freedom Riders in Montgomery, both Kennedys publicly urged them to have a "cooling off" period. CORE leader James Farmer rejected the idea and announced that the riders would head into Mississippi. To stop the violence, President Kennedy made a deal with Mississippi senator James Eastland. No violence occurred when buses arrived in Jackson, but Kennedy did not protest the riders' arrests. The cost of bailing the Freedom Riders out of jail used up most of CORE's funds.

Use the notes you completed during the lesson on challenges to segregation to write a paragraph summarizing how the Freedom Riders helped the civil rights movement.

The United States wanted to aid France in Vietnam because they had an interest in keeping communism at bay, not allowing it to spread throughout Asia. United States also had an interest in helping France simply because they are an ally

Use the notes you completed during the lesson to summarize the reasons the United States aided France in Vietnam.

Publicly, he refused to endorse the Brown v. Board of Education decision, remarking, "I don't believe you can change the hearts of men with laws or decisions." Regardless, Eisenhower knew he had to uphold the authority of the federal government. As a result, he became the first president since Reconstruction to send troops into the South to protect the rights of African Americans. In the same year that the Little Rock crisis began, Congress passed the first civil rights law since Reconstruction. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 was intended to protect the right of African Americans to vote. Eisenhower believed firmly in the right to vote, and he viewed it as his responsibility to protect voting rights. He also knew that if he sent a civil rights bill to Congress, conservative Southern Democrats would try to block the legislation. In 1956 he did send the bill to Congress, hoping not only to split the Democratic Party but also to convince more African Americans to vote Republican. Several Southern senators did try to stop the Civil Rights Act of 1957. Senate majority leader Democrat Lyndon Johnson, however, put together a compromise that enabled the act to pass. Although its final form was much weaker than originally intended, the act still brought the power of the federal government into the civil rights debate. It created a Civil Rights Division within the Department of Justice and gave it the authority to seek court injunctions against anyone interfering with the right to vote. It also created the United States Commission on Civil Rights to investigate any denial of voting rights. After the bill passed, the SCLC announced a campaign to register 2 million new African American voters.

What actions did President Eisenhower take to address minority rights? Be sure to discuss direct presidential actions as well as legislation he supported. Be sure to explain the obstacles he faced in Congress and explain why he was able to get legislation passed.

In 1965, approximately 70 percent of African Americans lived in large cities. Even if African Americans had been allowed to move into white neighborhoods, many were stuck in low-paying jobs with little chance of advancement. In 1960, only 15 percent of African Americans held professional, managerial, or clerical jobs, compared to 44 percent of whites. The average income of African American families was only 55 percent of that of the average income for white families. Almost half of African Americans lived in poverty, with an unemployment rate typically twice that of whites. Poor neighborhoods in the nation's major cities were overcrowded and dirty, leading to higher rates of illness and infant mortality. Juvenile delinquency rates rose, as did the rate of young people dropping out of school. Complicating matters even more was a rise in the number of single-parent households. - their overall treatment from society and the racism that was still present

What conditions led to riots in urban African American communities in the 1960s?

The sit-in movement brought large numbers of idealistic and energized college students into the civil rights struggle. Many were discouraged by the slow pace of segregation. Sit-ins offered them a way to dictate the pace of change. At first, the leaders of the NAACP and the SCLC were nervous about the sit-in campaign. Those conducting sit-ins were heckled, punched, kicked, beaten with clubs, and burned with cigarettes, hot coffee, and acid. Most did not fight back. - helped segregate restaurants and other public places - done in 100 cities

What made the sit-in strategy an effective form of protest?

Lacking the firepower of the American forces, the Vietcong used ambushes, booby traps, and other guerrilla tactics. These techniques could be greatly destructive. The Vietcong also frustrated American troops by blending in with the general population and then quickly vanishing. "It was a sheer physical impossibility to keep the enemy from slipping away whenever he wished," explained one American general.

What military tactics did the Vietminh use in Vietnam?

Lacking the firepower of the American forces, the Vietcong used ambushes, booby traps, and other guerrilla tactics. These techniques could be greatly destructive. To counter these tactics, American troops tried to find enemy troops, bomb their positions, destroy their supply lines, and force them out into the open for combat. American planes dropped napalm, a jellied gasoline that explodes on contact. They also used Agent Orange, a chemical that strips leaves from trees and shrubs, turning farmland and forest into wasteland.

What military tactics were used by the Vietcong, and how did U.S. troops respond?

In April 1970, Nixon announced that American troops had invaded Cambodia to destroy Vietcong bases there. Many believed this invasion expanded the war, which set off many protests. On May 4, Ohio National Guard soldiers armed with tear gas and rifles fired on demonstrators at Kent State University, killing four students. Days later, police killed two student demonstrators at Jackson State College in Mississippi.

What news triggered additional protests against the war, including the Kent State University demonstration, which resulted in student deaths?

As a step toward ending the war, Nixon appointed Henry Kissinger as special assistant for national security affairs. Kissinger embarked upon a policy called linkage, or improving relations with the Soviet Union and China, to try to persuade them to reduce their aid to North Vietnam. In August 1969, Kissinger also entered into secret negotiations with North Vietnam's representative, Le Duc Tho.Nixon began Vietnamization. This process involved the gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops while the South Vietnamese assumed more of the fighting. He announced the withdrawal of 25,000 soldiers on June 8, 1969. At the same time, however, Nixon increased air strikes against North Vietnam and began secretly bombing Vietcong sanctuaries in neighboring Cambodia.

What policies did Nixon employ to end the war?

Many draftees argued that if they were old enough to fight, they were old enough to vote. In 1971 the Twenty-sixth Amendment to the Constitution was ratified, giving all citizens age 18 and older the right to vote in all state and federal elections.

What political rights were conferred by the Twenty-sixth Amendment? Explain why this amendment was introduced, and how it expanded the rights of certain people to participate in the democratic process.

On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks left her job as a seamstress in Montgomery, Alabama, and boarded a bus to go home. In 1955, buses in Montgomery reserved seats in the front for whites and seats in the rear for African Americans. Seats in the middle were available to African Americans only if there were few whites on the bus. Parks took a seat just behind the white section, and soon all of the seats on the bus were filled. When the driver noticed a white man standing, he told Parks and three other African Americans in her row to get up so the white man could sit down. When Parks did not move, the driver called the police. News of Parks's arrest reached the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which asked Parks whether her case could be used to challenge segregation. Parks replied, "If you think it will mean something to Montgomery and do some good, I'll be happy to go along with it." Parks's decision would spark a new era in the civil rights movement.

What role did Rosa Parks play in the bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama?

The civil rights movement had been building for a long time. Since 1909, the NAACP had supported court cases aimed at overturning segregation. African Americans also enjoyed increased political power. Northern politicians increasingly sought their votes and listened to their concerns. During World War II, African American leaders began to use their political power to help end discrimination in wartime factories. They also increased opportunities for African Americans in the military. CORE began using sit-ins, a form of protest popularized by union workers in the 1930s, to desegregate restaurants that refused to serve African Americans. Using the sit-in strategy, members of CORE went to segregated restaurants. They sat down and refused to leave. The sit-ins were intended to shame managers into integrating their restaurants. CORE successfully integrated many public facilities in Northern cities, including Chicago, Detroit, Denver, and Syracuse. Bus boycotts were also a common technique.

What techniques did the civil rights movement use to challenge segregation?

In the Vietcong's war effort, North Vietnamese support was a major factor. Although the Vietcong included many South Vietnamese, North Vietnam provided arms, advisers, and leadership. As Vietcong casualties mounted, North Vietnam began sending North Vietnamese Army units to fight. North Vietnam sent arms and supplies south by way of a network of jungle paths known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The trail wound through Cambodia and Laos, bypassing the border between North Vietnam and South Vietnam.

What was the Ho Chi Minh Trail, and what was its importance in the Vietnam War?

After Ngo Dinh Diem refused to hold national elections, Ho Chi Minh and the Communists began an armed struggle to reunify the nation. They organized a new guerrilla army of South Vietnamese Communists, which became known as the Vietcong. Eisenhower sent hundreds of military advisers to train South Vietnam's army, but the Vietcong continued to grow more powerful because many Vietnamese opposed Diem's government. By 1961, the Vietcong had established control over much of the countryside.

What was the Vietcong? Why was its influence significant to what President Eisenhower was trying to do near the beginning of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War?

millions of people saw images of American casualties on television in their living rooms each day as Vietnam became the first "television war." For many people, a credibility gap had developed—they had a hard time believing what the Johnson administration said about the war. The credibility gap was lack of trust or believability

What was the credibility gap?

In March 1965, a group of faculty members and students at the University of Michigan joined together in a teach-in. They discussed the issues surrounding the war and reaffirmed their reasons for opposing it. In May 1965, 122 colleges held a "National Teach-In" by radio for more than 100,000 antiwar demonstrators. A Teach-in was an extended meeting or class held to discuss a social or political issue. People opposed the war for different reasons. Some saw the conflict as a civil war in which the United States should not interfere. Others saw South Vietnam as a corrupt dictatorship and believed defending it was immoral.

What were the "teach-ins," and what viewpoints were represented among war protestors?

Many young African Americans called for black power, a term that had many meanings. A few, including Robert F. Williams and H. Rap Brown, interpreted black power to mean that physical self-defense was acceptable. To most, including Stokely Carmichael, the leader of SNCC in 1966, the term meant that African Americans should control the social, political, and economic direction of their struggle. Black power stressed pride in the African American cultural group. It emphasized racial distinctiveness rather than adapting to the dominant culture. African Americans showed pride in their racial heritage by adopting new "Afro" hairstyles and African-style clothing. Many also took African names. Dr. King and some other leaders criticized black power as a philosophy of hopelessness and despair.

What were the main ideas of black power?

In 1940, Japan invaded Vietnam, becoming one of a series of foreign nations to rule the Asian country. The Chinese had controlled the region for hundreds of years. Then, from the late 1800s until World War II, the French ruled Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia—a region then known as French Indochina. Ho Chi Minh's activities forced him to flee Indochina and spend several years in exile in the Soviet Union and China. In 1941 he returned to Vietnam. By then, Japan had seized control of the country. Ho Chi Minh organized a nationalist group called the Vietminh, which united Communists and non-Communists in the effort to expel the Japanese. Soon afterward, the United States began sending aid to the Vietminh. When Japan surrendered to the Allies in 1945, it gave up control of Indochina. Ho Chi Minh quickly declared Vietnam's independence. France had no intention of losing its former colony, however. French troops returned to Vietnam in 1946 and drove the Vietminh into hiding.

Who controlled Vietnam prior to 1954, and how did this affect the coming of the Vietnam War?

Johnson worked to get Kennedy's civil rights legislation through Congress. The bill passed the House of Representatives in February 1964. Then it stalled in the Senate for several weeks. Its opponents used a filibuster, a tactic in which senators speak continuously to prevent a vote. In June the Senate voted for cloture—to end debate and take a vote—with a vote of 71 for and 29 against. The Senate then easily passed the bill. On July 2, 1964, Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law.

Who tried to stop the Civil Rights Act of 1964 from passing the United States Senate and what tactic was used? How was their opposition overcome?

Many protesters focused on what they saw as an unfair draft system. Until 1969, college students could often defer military service until after graduation. Young people from working-class families unable to afford college were more likely to be drafted. Draftees were most likely to be assigned to combat units, and they commonly made up more than half of the casualties. Most who served in Vietnam, however, enlisted voluntarily. Nevertheless, a disproportionate number of working-class and minority youths went to war. Between 1961 and 1966, African Americans constituted about 10 percent of military personnel. Because African Americans were more likely to be assigned to combat units, however, they accounted for almost 20 percent of combat-related deaths. This skewed death rate angered African American leaders. By war's end, African Americans made up about 12 percent of America's dead. As the war escalated, an increased draft call put many college students at risk of being drafted. An estimated 500,000 draftees refused to go. Some burned their draft cards, did not show up for induction, or fled the country.

Why did many Americans question the fairness of the military draft during the Vietnam War?

Dr. King's lack of progress in Chicago seemed to show that nonviolent protests could do little to solve economic problems. After 1965, many African Americans, especially urban young people, began to turn away from King. Some leaders called for more aggressive forms of protest. Some organizations, including CORE and SNCC, believed that African Americans alone should lead their struggle. Many young African Americans called for black power, a term that had many meanings. A few, including Robert F. Williams and H. Rap Brown, interpreted black power to mean that physical self-defense was acceptable. Black power stressed pride in the African American cultural group. It emphasized racial distinctiveness rather than adapting to the dominant culture. African Americans showed pride in their racial heritage by adopting new "Afro" hairstyles and African-style clothing. Many also took African names. Dr. King and some other leaders criticized black power as a philosophy of hopelessness and despair.

Why did many young African Americans join the black power movement?

Despite the passage of civil rights laws in the 1950s and 1960s, racism was still common in American society. Changing the law could not change people's attitudes, nor did it end urban poverty.Just five days after President Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act, a riot erupted in Watts, an African American neighborhood in Los Angeles. Allegations of police brutality served as the catalyst for this uprising. It lasted for six days and required more than 14,000 members of the National Guard and 1,500 law officers to restore order. Riots broke out in dozens of other American cities between 1964 and 1968. In Detroit, burning, looting, and conflicts with police and the National Guard resulted in 43 deaths and more than 1,000 wounded in 1967. Property loss was estimated at almost $200 million.

Why did riots break out in dozens of American cities in the late 1960s?

The Vietminh fought back against the French-dominated regime and slowly gained control of large areas of the country. As the fighting escalated, France appealed to the United States for help. The request put American officials in a difficult position. The United States opposed colonialism. It had pressured the Dutch to give up their empire in Indonesia and supported the British decision to give India independence in 1947. American officials, however, did not want Vietnam to be Communist. China's fall to communism and the outbreak of the Korean War helped convince President Truman to aid France. President Eisenhower continued Truman's policy and defended his decision with what became known as the domino theory—the idea that if Vietnam fell to communism, the rest of Southeast Asia would follow, like a line of dominoes falling over.

Why did the United States provide military aid to the French in Indochina?

The most turbulent year of the chaotic 1960s was 1968. The year saw a shocking political announcement, two traumatic assassinations, and a political convention held amid strident antiwar demonstrations. First, however, the United States endured a surprise attack in Vietnam. - On January 30, 1968, during Tet, the Vietnamese New Year, the Vietcong and North Vietnamese launched a massive surprise attack. In what was called the Tet Offensive, guerrilla fighters attacked most American airbases in South Vietnam and most of the South's major cities. Vietcong even blasted their way into the American embassy in Saigon. - Johnson appeared on television on March 31, 1968. He announced, "I have concluded that I should not permit the presidency to become involved in the partisan divisions that are developing in this political year. Accordingly, I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your President." - Assassinations: Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert Kennedy - clash between antiwar protesters and police at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago

Why was 1968 considered the most turbulent year of the 1960s?

Despite the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, voting rights remained an issue. The Twenty-fourth Amendment, ratified in 1964, helped somewhat. It eliminated poll taxes in federal (but not state) elections. The Voting Rights Act of 1965, like the Civil Rights Act of 1964, immediately raised constitutional questions. Historically, each state had been allowed to set the rules regarding eligibility to vote. Article 1 section 2 of the Constitution only specifies that each state has to use the same rules for choosing members of Congress as it uses for choosing members of its state legislature. Article 2 section 1 specifies that each state gets to choose how to select the electors who vote for the president. By banning literacy tests, Congress was imposing a rule on voting, and it was unclear whether this violated the rights of the states to set voting rules. In 1966, in Katzenbach v. Morgan, the Supreme Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment gave Congress the authority to ban literacy tests and impose voting rules on the state governments.

Why was it so difficult for African Americans in Southern states to register to vote?

The Montgomery bus boycott had a successful outcome. Several African American leaders formed the Montgomery Improvement Association to run the boycott and to negotiate with city leaders. They elected a 26-year-old pastor named Martin Luther King, Jr., to lead them. King's powerful words stirred African Americans in Montgomery to continue their boycott for over a year. In November 1956, the Supreme Court declared Alabama's laws requiring segregation on buses unconstitutional. After the Court's ruling, the Montgomery boycott was ended. Many other cities in the South, however, successfully resisted integrating their public transportation systems for years.

Why was the Montgomery bus boycott successful?

Despite the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, voting rights remained an issue. The Twenty-fourth Amendment, ratified in 1964, helped somewhat. It eliminated poll taxes in federal (but not state) elections. Convinced that a new law was needed to protect African American voting rights, Dr. King decided to hold another dramatic protest.

Why was the Twenty-fourth Amendment passed? How did the amendment expand the right to participate in the democratic process and help ensure equal political rights for African Americans and others?

Despite the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, voting rights remained an issue. The Twenty-fourth Amendment, ratified in 1964, helped somewhat. It eliminated poll taxes in federal (but not state) elections. Convinced that a new law was needed to protect African American voting rights, Dr. King decided to hold another dramatic protest. On August 3, 1965, the House of Representatives passed the voting rights bill by a wide margin. The following day, the Senate also passed the bill. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 authorized the U.S. attorney general to send federal examiners to register qualified voters, bypassing local officials who often refused to register African Americans. The law also suspended discriminatory devices, such as literacy tests, in counties where less than half of all adults had been registered to vote. The results were dramatic. By the end of the year, almost 250,000 African Americans had registered as new voters. The number of African American elected officials in the South also increased. In 1960, for example, no African American from the South held a seat in the U.S. Congress. By 2011, there were 44 African American members of Congress. The passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 marked a turning point in the civil rights movement. The movement had now achieved two major legislative goals. Segregation had been outlawed, and new federal laws were in place to prevent discrimination and protect voting rights. After 1965, the movement began to shift its focus. It turned its attention to the problems of African Americans trapped in poverty and living in ghettos in many of the nation's major cities.

Why was the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 a turning point in the civil rights movement?

- Vietnamization: announced the withdrawal of 25,000 soldiers on June 8, 1969. At the same time, however, Nixon increased air strikes against North Vietnam and began secretly bombing Vietcong sanctuaries in neighboring Cambodia. (kinda replaced soldiers with weapons, so it did not slow the war down) - Invading Cambodia: In April 1970, Nixon announced that American troops had invaded Cambodia to destroy Vietcong bases there. Many believed this invasion expanded the war, which set off many protests. ( protests at Kent State and Jackson State College) - "Christmas Bombing": In December 1972, to force North Vietnam to resume negotiations, the Nixon administration began the most destructive air raids of the war. In what became known as the "Christmas bombings," American B-52s dropped thousands of tons of bombs on North Vietnamese targets for 11 straight days. Then negotiations resumed. On January 27, 1973, the warring sides signed an agreement "ending the war and restoring the peace in Vietnam." (a bit brutal but it ended the war)

the effectiveness of the various strategies Nixon pursued in Vietnam.

People opposed the war for different reasons. Some saw the conflict as a civil war in which the United States should not interfere. Others saw South Vietnam as a corrupt dictatorship and believed defending it was immoral.

the reasons why many people opposed the Vietnam War.