US History I Unit VIII (Ch. 13-14)

12th amendment

- "The person having the greatest Number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President". - In the 1824 Presidential election, Andrew Jackson won the popular vote but did not get a majority of the electoral votes, so the House of Representatives followed this, which says that must choose among the top three presidential candidates. - Speaker of the House Henry Clay was thus eliminated, leaving three candidates.

Pet banks

- After killing Biddle's Bank of the United States, Jackson placed surplus federal funds in several dozen of these pro-Jackson state institutions. - Some of them collapsed during the panic of 1837, carrying down millions in federal funds.

Revolution of 1828

- Andrew Jackson, who had support from the south and west, defeated John Quincy Adams in the 1828 presidential election by 178-83 electoral votes. - This shifted the political center of gravity away from the conservative eastern coast and towards the emerging states in the west. - Jackson was the first president from the west and his victory was seen as a victory for the common man. - influence of common people

Stephen Austin

- Before the Spanish authorities could populate Texas, the Mexicans won their independence. The new regime in Mexico City concluded arrangements in 1823 for granting a lot of Texan land to him, with an understanding that he would bring three hundred Roman Catholic American families into Texas to be Mexicanized. - In 1833 he went to Mexico City to try to negotiate the differences, especially regarding slavery, between Mexico and the individualistic still-American Texans, but the dictator Santa Anna put him in jail for eight months.

Carl Schurz

- Between 1830 and 1860, the over one million and a half German immigrants came to America mostly as uprooted farmers who were displaced by crop failures and other hardships, but some were liberal political refugees who wanted to flee to democratic America after the collapse of the democratic revolutions of 1848 by autocratic Germany. - He was a zealous and public-spirited German liberal who was very anti-slavery and anti-public corruption and contributed a lot to the elevation of American political life.

Cyrus McCormick

- Born in Virginia, he contributed the most significant invention in the 1830s for western farming: a mechanical mower-reaper. - His machine was horse-drawn and was what the cotton gin was to the southern planters. - On his reaper one farmer could do the work of five men with sickles and scythes. - This invention made humble farmers into ambitious capitalists who wanted more and more land. It also turned farmers away from subsistence farming and towards large-scale, extensive, specialized cash crop agriculture in the trans-Allegheny west. - There was more debt as farmers bought more land and machinery. - It also allowed the farming businesspeople to soon harvest more crops than the south could consume and look for markets in other places.

Commonwealth v. Hunt

- By 1830, labor's efforts at organization had netted some 300,000 trade unionists, but the severe depression of 1837 and resulting unemployment shriveled union membership. - However, they were promised legal victory in 1842 in this case. - The supreme court of Massachusetts ruled that labor unions were not illegal conspiracies but that their methods were "honorable and peaceful". - This didn't legalize strikes immediately throughout the country but was significant.

Force Bill

- Congress passed this at the same time as the compromise Tariff of 1833, partially to save face. - It was known among South Carolinians as the "bloody bill". It authorized the president to use the army and navy, if necessary, to collect federal tariff duties. - Though the Columbia convention repealed the ordinance of nullification when it met again, it nullified this unnecessary bill as a last act of defiance.

Nativism

- Favors native-born citizens over aliens or immigrants. - The "invasion" of Irish and German immigrants made American nativists fear that they would become outnumbered, outvoted, and overwhelmed by the new immigrants. They also hated that immigrants were taking American jobs and a lot of the Irish and some of the Germans were Roman Catholics. - As the Catholics became more prominent, they feared that the immigrants would establish their church at the expense of Protestantism, so they rallied for political action, creating the Order of the Star Spangled Banner. - They wanted rigid restrictions on immigration and naturalization and laws authorizing deportation. They also promoted descriptive literature that exposed the Catholics fictionally and occasionally engaged in mass violence against the immigrants. - In 1834, a Catholic convent was burned near Boston by nativists, and soon there were scattered attacks on Catholic schools and churches. - The most prominent was an outburst in Philadelphia when the Catholics fought back against the threats of the nativists, which didn't end until two churches were burned, thirteen citizens were killed, and fifty wounded in several days of fighting.

Henry Clay

- From Kentucky, he ran for president in the "corrupt bargain" of 1824. When the House of Representatives acted by the 12th amendment to solve the deadlock when Jackson, by far the most popular, did not win the electoral college majority, the House had to choose the top three candidates and he, who was the Speaker of the House, was eliminated. He was very influential and because he presided over the body that would choose the president, he could push the election in the direction of his favorite. He eliminated Crawford because he recently had a paralytic stroke and Jackson because he was his archrival in the west. Clay had never established formal personal relations with puritanical Adams, but he met privately with Adams to assure him of his support because they had similar political philosophies of nationalism and the American System. - In 1825, the House elected Adams as president, and a few days later Adams announced that he would be the Secretary of State, a sure step to future presidency. People were outraged that their deal caused Adams to beat the people's first choice, and he challenged John Randolph to a duel for assailing him. However, he was an obvious choice for secretary of state and this type of deal has historically been common in politics, but the people's reaction that it was elitist and anti-democracy shows the change in America. - He was an enemy of Jackson and a supporter of tariffs but threw his support behind a compromise bill to ease the tensions between South Carolina and tariff supporters that would gradually reduce the Tariff of 1832 by about 10 percent over a period of 8 years, called the compromise Tariff of 1833. He was hailed across the country for saving the union. - He started the Bank War along with Daniel Webster in 1832 when he presented Congress with a bill to renew the Bank of the United States' charter four years early to make it an election issue in 1832. He thought Jackson, whom he was running against, would lose support from the west if he signed it and from wealthier eastern groups if he vetoed it, not realizing that the wealthier easterners were the minority. He also arranged to have thousands of copies of Jackson's veto message printed as a campaign document, not realizing his financial fallacies would make total sense to the common people. - Though he and the Republicans had the advantage of funding and the favor of the press, he was easily defeated by Jackson. - He, along with Webster and Calhoun, joined forces in 1834 to pass a motion censuring Jackson for his removal of the federal deposits from the Bank of the US, emerging the Whigs as an identifiable group in the Senate for the first time.

Andrew Jackson

- From Kentucky, he was a war hero of New Orleans and executed his attack on Florida in 1818. - In the "corrupt bargain" presidential election of 1824, he had the strongest personal appeal, and his campaign against corruption and privilege in government was especially popular in the west. He got as many popular votes as the next two candidates combined but did not win a majority of the electoral college votes, so the House acted by the 12th amendment and chose the top three candidates. After being eliminated from the candidates himself, House Speaker Henry Clay did not support him because he was a "military chieftain" and archrival for the allegiance of the west, and he resented Clay's public denunciation of his 1818 actions in Florida. He, the people's first choice, was defeated because of the deal between Clay and Adams, and his supporters were outraged against the "corrupt bargain". - His presidential campaign began on February 19, 1825 and went on for four years. He became the head of the ticket of the Democratic-Republicans, who had split from the National Republicans and believed Jackson to be a frontier champion of the common man and resented "corrupt" and aristocratic Adams and his 1825 victory. He was called "Old Hickory". After a lot of mudslinging between the two parts of the Republican party, Jackson gained most of his support from the south and west and defeated Adams by 178-83 electoral votes, shifting the political center of gravity westward. - He was born in the Carolinas and was orphaned early, moved to Tennessee, where he became a judge and a member of Congress. He was very passionate and had a violent temper, as he became involved in duels, stabbings, and bloody violence. - He was unique because he was the first western president, the first to be nominated at a formal party convention (1832), and the second without a college education. - He also had risen from the masses but more of a frontier aristocrat because he owned lots of slaves, lived in Hermitage, a mansion near Nashville, and was more courtly. - He was called "King Mob". - The Spoils System became common in the federal government and solidified the two-party order during his presidency. - In response to the Columbia convention, he privately threatened to invade South Carolina and hang the nullifiers and publicly dispatched naval and military reinforcements to South Carolina while preparing a sizable army. He also issued a proclamation against nullification. - Though the Cherokees' rights were upheld three times against Georgia by the Supreme Court, he wanted to open the Natives' lands to the whites and refused to recognize the court's decisions. He felt an obligation to rescue the Natives and proposed the voluntary bodily removal of the remaining eastern tribes, thinking the Natives could preserve their culture in the west, leading to the forced uproot of more than 100000 Natives. - He defeated easily Henry Clay by 219-59 electoral votes in the 1832 election, with support even from New England, which was the first election with a third party and national nominating conventions to name candidates. - He tried to kill the Bank of the United States before it was supposed to expire in 1836, thinking he had a mandate from the voters to do this and that Biddle would try to manipulate the bank for recharter, by in 1833 removing federal deposits from its vaults, proposing depositing no more funds and shrinking the existing deposits by spending them on day-to-day government expenses. Even his closest advisors did not agree with his policy of removing deposits and he had to change around his cabinet twice to find a secretary of the treasury who did. He put surplus federal funds in pro-Jackson state "pet banks". - To rein in the economy in 1836 and control the unreliable wildcat currency, he authorized the treasury to issue a Specie Circular. - He retired to Nashville, hailed as a hero, and passed on the damage of these policies to his successor. - He chose Martin Van Buren, his secretary of state, to be his successor in 1836, hoping he could serve a third term through him. - He recognized the Lone Star Republic, led by Sam Houston, in 1837.

John Tyler

- From Virginia, he was selected as William Henry Harrison's vice presidential running mate in the 1840 election.

Black Hawk

- He led suspicious Sauk and Fox braves from Illinois and Wisconsin to resist eviction from their land. - They were crushed in 1832 by regular troops, including Lieutenant Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, and volunteers, including Captain Abraham Lincoln of Illinois.

William Travis

- He was a colonel who was the Texan commander at the Battle of the Alamo in San Antonio. - He declared, "I shall never surrender nor retreat... Victory or Death". - Santa Anna and his troops trapped his nearly 200 Texan troops at the Alamo and wiped them out to one man after a thirteen-day siege, making it a Mexican victory.

Samuel FB Morse

- He was a distinguished but poverty-stricken portrait painter who finally secured from Congress $30,000 to support his experiment with "talking wires", the telegram. - In 1844 he strung a wire forty miles from Washington to Baltimore and tapped out the message, "What hath God wrought?" - The telegram brought him fame and fortune and was among the inventions that strengthened the structure of the increasingly complex business world. He put distantly separated people in almost instant communication with one another, and by the eve of the Civil War, wires spanned the continent, revolutionizing news gathering, finance, and diplomacy.

Sam Houston

- He was a distinguished leader and latecomer to Texas. He was an ex-governor of Tennessee who went to live with the Arkansas Native Americans briefly after his fiance left him and was called "Big Drunk" before he took a pledge of temperance. - He became a leader and hero of the Texas rebels against Mexico, named commander in chief when Texas declared its independence. - After the Alamo and Goliad, his small army retreated to the east, luring Santa Anna to San Jacinto, which is near Houston. Taking advantage of the Mexican siesta, his nine hundred Texans wiped out the thirteen hundred pursuing Mexicans and captured Santa Anna, forcing him to sign two treaties, in which he agreed to withdraw Mexican troops and recognized the Rio Grande as the southwestern border of Texas. - In 1837, Jackson recognized the Lone Star Republic, led by him, his old comrade against the Natives.

William Henry Harrison

- He was a general from Ohio and hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe and the Battle of the Thames who became the leading "favorite son", one of the several candidates from different regions run by the Whig Party in the 1836 presidential election. - Learning from their mistake in 1836, the Whigs nominated Harrison from Ohio, who was not their best statesman like Clay but was seen as the most likely to gain a lot of votes. - He was nearly sixty eight at the time and was nominated primarily because his current issues were only vaguely known and he had no enemies. - John Tyler of Virginia was selected as his vice president. - The Whigs portrayed him proudly as an impoverished western farmer born in a log cabin, but he really had a large mansion on a large farm, was from one of the First Families of Virginia, did not drink hard cider, and did not work his own land, but these details were of no importance in the election, like it did not matter when Democrats used the same tactics for Jackson. - He won by 1,274,624 to 1,127,781 in the popular vote and 234 to 60 in the electoral college against Martin Van Buren. - This election demonstrated the changes toward the triumph of a populist democratic style and the formation of a vigorous and durable two-party system since the Era of Good Feelings.

Robert Fulton

- He was an ambitious painter and engineer who touched off the steamboat craze by installing a powerful steam engine in a vessel that came to be known as the Clermont and was dubbed by the public as "Fulton's Folly". - In 1807 the ship went from New York City up the Hudson toward Albany, going 150 miles in 32 hours. - The steamboat allowed people to travel against wind, waves, tides, and currents and was much faster. - He also changed all of America's navigable streams into two-way arteries within a few years, doubling their carrying capacity. - The steamboat became very popular on the Mississippi and opened the South and West up to be able to float their produce out to market and ship in manufactured necessities at a low cost.

Eli Whitney

- He was born in Massachusetts, graduated from Yale, and went to Georgia to be a private tutor while preparing to be a lawyer. - In Georgia, he was told that the poverty in the South would be relieved if someone would invent a device for separating the seed from cotton fiber. - Within ten days he built a crude machine called the cotton gin in 1763, which was fifty times more effective than the hand picking process. - The gin affected both the history of America and the history of the world. It made raising cotton highly profitable almost immediately, bound the South to growing cotton, and strengthened slavery as the demand for cotton increased. - Both the North and South prospered, as the cotton planters pushed the Cotton Kingdom westward from depleted land to Alabama and Mississippi and cotton from cotton gins poured into New England machines, though Britain bought most of the cotton for decades. - He also made an extraordinary contribution in the firearms industry. After his earlier efforts to monopolize the cotton gin, he turned to mass producing muskets for the US Army, which had previously used firearms that were hand made with parts that might not match each other. - In 1798 he got an idea of having machines make each part so that the same parts of different firearms would be the same. He went to Washington and dismantled ten muskets for skeptical officials, scrambling the parts and reassembling ten different muskets. - The principle of interchangeable parts became widely adopted by 1850 and became the basis of modern mass-production. - By perfecting the cotton gin, he renewed slavery in the South, which made the Civil War inevitable. He also popularized the principle of interchangeable parts, which helped northern factories to flourish to help the North militarily in the Civil War.

William Crawford

- He was from Georgia and ran in the 1824 "corrupt bargain". He was able but ailing, and House Speaker Henry Clay decided not to support him because he recently had a paralytic stroke.

Daniel Webster

- He was one of the influential New Englanders in the 1820s who gave up his traditional defense of free trade to support higher tariffs. - He and Henry Clay started the Bank War in 1832 when they presented Congress with a bill to renew the Bank of the United States' charter four years early so it would become an election issue in Clay's 1832 campaign against Jackson. - He, along with Clay and Calhoun, joined forces in 1834 to pass a motion censuring Jackson for his removal of the federal deposits from the Bank of the US, emerging the Whigs as an identifiable group in the Senate for the first time. - Showing the change the 1840 election brought since the Era of Good Feelings in the triumph of populust democratic style, he publicly apologized for not being able to claim that he was born in a humble place like a log cabin, which appealed the most to voters.

Santa Anna

- He was the dictator of Mexico. - Friction increased rapidly between the Mexicans and the pioneer individualists who became Texans over local rights, immigration, and especially slavery. Mexico had emancipated its slaves in 1830 and prohibited the further importation of slaves into Texas and further colonization by the Americas. - Texans continued to have slaves and Americans kept bringing in more slaves, and when Stephen Austin went to Mexico City to negotiate these differences in 1833, he threw him in jail for eight months. - In 1835, he wiped out all local rights and started to raise an army to suppress the Texans. - When the Texans declared independence in 1836, he led six thousand men into Texas, trapping a band of two hundred Texans at the Alamos in San Antonio and nearly wiping them out after a thirteen day siege. - Their commander, Colonel WB Travis, had said "I shall never surrender nor retreat... Victory or Death". - Four hundred Mexicans also surrounded and defeated American volunteers at Goliad. - He was lured by General Houston's retreating troops to San Jacinto, where Houston's nine hundred troops wiped out his pursuing force of thirteen hundred on April 21, 1836, capturing him. - He was forced to quickly sign two treaties, which agreed to withdraw Mexican troops and recognize the Rio Grande as the southwestern boundary of Texas. - When he was released he repudiated the agreement as illegal because he had been forced to accept it under threats.

Osecola

- He was the leader of the Seminoles who retreated to the Florida Everglades and waged a guerilla war from 1835-1842 that killed some fifteen hundred soldiers. - In 1837, the American field commander seized him under a flag of truce, breaking the Seminoles' spirit and dooming them to defeat after five more years of dragged-on war. - Though some fled further into the Everglades, about four-fifths of the Seminoles were taken to Oklahoma.

John Quincy Adams

- He won the 1824 "corrupt bargain" against Jackson, the people's first choice, after meeting secretly with House Speaker Henry Clay, whom he made Secretary of State after winning the presidency, arousing anger and resentment among Jacksonians. - He was very frigid, austere, irritable, tactless, and was not good at the arts of the politician to gain popularity. Though he was one of the best secretaries of state and had a brilliant record in foreign affairs, he was one of the least successful presidents. - He entered office with charges of bargain, corruption, and usurpation. Fewer than one-third of voters had voted for him, and as the first "minority president" he was not good at gaining public support especially in the dawning democratic age when it was needed in politics. - Stubbornly and high-mindedly going against his supporters' wishes, he refused to oust efficient office holders to create vacancies for his supporters, only removing 12 public servants during his administration, which frustrated his supporters. - He was a stubborn confirmed nationalist during a time when much of the country was turning away from post-1812 nationalism and toward states' rights and sectionalism, as he urged Congress to construct roads and canals, renewed Washington's proposal for a national university, and even advocated federal support for an astronomical observatory. This was seen as a waste of public money and southerners feared that the federal government would continue the tariff duties and meddle in more local issues like slavery. - He also attempted to stop feverish speculation in the public domain, angering westerners. - He also attempted to deal fairly with the Cherokees in Georgia, whom the white Georgians wanted gone because of their threat to their land holdings, but the Georgia governor resisted his efforts to help the Cherokees. - He became the leader of the National Republicans, who adopted the oak as their symbol. Though he refused to stoop so low, his supporters engaged in a lot of mudslinging before the election of 1828, during which he gained most of his support from New England and the wealthier "better elements" of the northeast. He lost to Jackson by 178-83 electoral votes.

Clermont

- In 1807, Robert Fulton attached a powerful steam engine to this little vessel, which the public dubbed "Fulton's Folly". - It went from New York City up the Hudson River towards Albany, going 150 miles in 32 hours. - This touched off the steamboat craze in America.

Whig Party

- In 1828 the Jackon's Democratic-Republicans started going by "Democrats'', and Jackson's opponents called him "King Andrew I'' and started to come together as this party, whose name was chosen to recollect the 18th century British and American Revolutionary opposition to monarchy. - It was so diverse that it was mocked as "an organized incompatibility" at first, with a hatred of Jackson and his usurpation as the only thing holding them together. - It first emerged as an identifiable group in the Senate when Clay, Webster, and Calhoun came together in 1834 to pass a motion censuring Jackson for his removal of federal deposits from the Bank of the US. - It quickly became a national force, attracting supporters of Clay's American System, southern states' rights advocates offended by Jackson's opposition to nullification, larger northern industrialists and merchants, and eventually Anti-Masonic evangelical Protestants, all of whom were alienated by Jackson. - They thought of themselves as conservative but were progressive in supporting active government programs and reforms. - They called for internal improvements, supported institutions like schools and prisons, and welcomed the market economy drawing support from all sections. - Though Democrats wanted to paint them as a party of aristocrats, they soon absorbed the Anti-Masonic party and gained democratic appeal, portraying Jackson and Van Buren as imperious aristocrats. - This turned Jackson rhetoric the other way, as the Whigs were now the defenders of the common man and Democrats were the party of corruption. - Unable to nominate a single presidential candidate, they ran several prominent "favorite sons" with different regional appeal in the 1836 presidential election, with General William Henry Harrison as the leader. They wanted to scatter the vote so no one would get a majority vote and the election would be thrown to the House, where the party would have a chance. Martin Van Buren still ended up winning the election. - During the panic of 1837, they wanted an active government solution, calling for the expansion of bank credit, higher tariffs, and subsidies for internal improvements, and they condemned Van Buren's "divorce" scheme. - They learned from their mistakes in 1836 and in 1840 nominated one candidate, Ohio's William Henry Harrison, who they thought would be able to get the most votes. They published no official platform, hoping to sweep Harrison into office in a campaign like Jackson's. When a Democratic editor insulted the West, calling Harrison an impoverished old farmer who should be content drinking hard cider in a log cabin, they adopted hard cider and the log cabin as symbols of their campaign and portrayed Harrison as a poor "Farmer of North Bend" who would drive corrupt Jackson out of Washington. - They denounced Van Buren as an aristocrat. The campaign was full of silly hoopla, and they ended up defeating Van Buren. - This victory in 1840 demonstrated changes in American politics since the Era of Good Feelings, including the triumph of a populist democratic style and a durable two-party system.

South Carolina Exposition

- In addition to the southern outcry over the tariff of 1828, anxiety about possible federal interference in southern slavery started in the Missouri Compromise and expanded in an aborted slave rebellion in Charleston in 1822, led by Denmark Vesey. South Carolinians were also still closely tied with the British West Indies, whose slavery was being threatened by the pressure of British abolitionism on London, fearing that American abolitionism might also use Washington to suppress southern slavery. - They used the tariff as an opportunity to take a stand against all federal encroachments on states' rights to prevent this from happening. - South Carolina took the lead in protesting the tariff, and their legislature published this pamphlet in 1828 that was secretly written by John C. Calhoun. - It denounced the tariff as unjust and unconstitutional and explicitly proposed that the states should nullify the tariff, declaring it invalid within their borders.

John C. Calhoun

- In the "corrupt bargain" of 1824, the four candidates all called themselves "Republicans", but no organized parties had formed yet and their identities were so unclear that he appeared as the vice-presidential candidate on both the Adams and Jackson tickets. - He secretly wrote a pamphlet known as The South Carolina Exposition in response to the tariff of 1828 but was forced to conceal his authorship as vice president. - He supported the "nullies" and favored the compromise Tariff of 1833. - He, along with Clay and Webster, joined forces in 1834 to pass a motion censuring Jackson for his removal of the federal deposits from the Bank of the US, emerging the Whigs as an identifiable group in the Senate for the first time.

Boston Associates

- Industrial and technical advancements also started important changes in the form and legal status of business organizations. - It was created by fifteen Boston families and was one of the earliest investment capital companies. - They eventually dominated the textile, railroad, insurance, and banking businesses of Massachusetts. - They were investors.

Tammany Hall

- Irish immigrants were quickly attracted to American politics. They soon began to gain control of powerful city political organizations, especially this one in New York, and got the patronage awards.

Anti-Masonic Party

- It emerged in the 1832 election as the first third party. - It opposed the influence and secrecy of the Masons, quickly gaining popularity in New York after the mysterious disappearance and probable murder of a New Yorker in 1826 who was threatening to expose the Masons, and spread throughout the middle and New England states. - The party appealed to American suspicions of secret societies and their privilege and monopoly and also attracted support from evangelical Protestants who wanted to use the political power to start moral and religious reforms. The party was also anti-Jackson because Jackson was a proud Mason. - The election of 1832 was also significant because three national nominating conventions were called for the first time to name candidates and adopt formal platforms to publicize their positions on issues.

Tariff of 1832

- It took away the worst "abominations" of the Tariff of 1828 but was still protective, did not meet southern demands, and seemed permanent. - After the nullifier-unionist clash of the state election of 1832, the nullies won and the state legislature called for a special convention at Columbia in response to this, where the delegates declared it null and void in South Carolina and threatened to secede from the Union if the federal government tried to collect the customs duties by force.

Panic of 1837

- It was largely caused by rampant get-rich-quick speculation, as western gamblers had a "land-office business" on borrowed capital, much of it from the unstable wildcat banks, and speculation also expanded to canals, roads, railroads, and slaves. - The shaky economy also was aggravated by Jacksonian finance including the Bank War and the Specie Circular and wheat crop failure and resulting high grain prices, as the panic reached its full fury during Van Buren's presidency. - It was also affected by European economic distresses, as two prominent British banks collapsed in 1836 and British investors called in their foreign loans, which hurt the US and contributed to the beginning of the panic. - Hundreds of American banks, including pet banks, collapsed, carrying down millions in federal funds. Commodity prices, public land sales, and customs revenues dropped, and factories closed down. - The Whigs wanted to help through an active government role to expand bank credit, increasing tariffs, and providing subsidies for internal improvements. - However, Van Buren wanted to keep the government out of the economy, and, thinking that the federal funds in private banks were contributing to the crisis, he created the "Divorce Bill" and the independent treasury.

2nd Bank of the US

- Jackson and his supporters hated monopolistic banking of private banks that had too much power over the nation's economy, especially the Bank of the United States. - It was the principal depository for the funds of Washington, controlled much of the nation's gold and silver, had stable paper notes, and was an important part of the expanding economy. - However, it was a private institution and benefited only its elite, rich investors. - It gained opposition because it seemed to be anti-egalitarianism and foreclosed on many western farms. - In 1832, Daniel Webster and Henry Clay started the bank war by presenting to Congress a bill to renew the charter four years early to make it an election issue in 1832 when Clay would run against Jackson. Clay thought that if Jackson vetoed the bill, he would lose support from New England, but if he did not veto it he would lose his base in the south and west. - Jackson vetoed the bill and wanted to kill the Bank of the United States.

Trail of Tears

- Jackson's proposal for a bodily removal of the remaining eastern Native tribes led to the forced uprooting of more than 100,000 Natives. - In 1830 Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, which provided for the transplanting of all Native tribes east of the Mississippi, which hurt the "Five Civilized Tribes" (Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Seminoles, and Cherokees) the most. - For the next decade countless Natives died on forced marches to the newly established Indian Territory, where they were supposed to be permanently free of white encroachments. - The Bureau of Indian Affairs was established in 1836 to administer relations with the Natives. - The permanent frontier lasted only about fifteen years as land-hungry whites pushed westward quickly.

Martin Van Buren

- Jackson's secretary of state from New York who he chose to be his successor to run in the 1836 presidential election. Jackson rigged the nominating convention so Van Buren was chosen, but he was not supported very enthusiastically by the Jacksonites, though he promised to follow in Jackson's footsteps. - Called the "Little Magician", he ended up winning against all of the Whig candidates by 765,483 to 739,795 in the popular vote and 170 to 124 in the electoral college. - He was the eighth president and the first to be born in the US, described as a "first-class second-rate man". He was an accomplished strategist and spoilsman, an experienced legislative and administrative statesman, and above average in intelligence, education, and training, but misfortunes during his presidency hurt his reputation. - Democrats were resentful that Jackson had smuggled him into office, the people felt let down when he could not match Jackson's dynamic military presidency, and he inherited Jackson's enemies without his popularity. - His presitential term was also hurt by an 1837 rebellion in Canada, which caused conflicts along the border and threatened war with Britain, and his attempted neutral response, active anti-slavery agitators in the north who condemned the prospective annexation of Texas, and the brewing economic depression that Jackson passed on. - To help the economy during the panic of 1837, he created the controversial "Divorce Bill" and the independent treasury. - He was renominated by the Democratic party in 1840 unenthusiastically and without an alternative against the Whig party's William Henry Harrison. He was denounced during the race as a supercilious aristocrat who ate French food from golden plates, unlike the Whigs whose symbols were the log cabin and hard cider. - He lost the election by a surprisingly close margin in the popular vote and with 60 electoral votes against Harrison's 234.

Order of the Star Spangled Banner

- Older Americans were alarmed by the growing numbers and powers of Irish and German Catholics in the United States, professing that they would establish the Catholic Church at the expense of Protestantism and bring idols. - The nativists wanted political action and formed this secret organization in 1849, which soon developed into the American, or "Know Nothing", party. - Nativists wanted rigid immigration and naturalization restrictions and legal authorization for the deportation of poor aliens. They also promoted literature that fictionally exposed the Catholics' behaviors, and there was occasional mass violence.

Seminole Indians

- One of the "Five Civilized Tribes". - To escape the trail of tears they, along with runaway slaves, retreated to the Florida Everglades, where they waged a guerilla war from 1835-1842 that killed some fifteen hundred soldiers. - The American field commander doomed them and broke their spirits in 1837 when he seized their leader, Osceola, under a flag of truce. - After the war dragged on for five more years, some of them fled deeper into the Everglades but about four-fifths of them were taken to Oklahoma.

Ancient Order of Hibernians

- Poor Ishish immigrants who came to America because of the potato famine in the 1840s swarmed into larger coastal cities like New York and Boston, where they were forced to live in slums, were resented by the older Protestant Americans, were forced into deadly labor jobs on canals and railroads, and were hated by native workers as wage-depressing competitors for jobs. - They were therefore forced to fend for themselves, so they used this organization. - It was created as a semisecret society in Ireland to fight their greedy landlords and served as a benevolent society in America to help the oppressed.

Tariff of 1833

- Supported by Henry Clay, it gradually reduced the Tariff of 1832 by about ten percent over a period of eight years. - It was passed by Congress after a bitter debate between opposition from protectionist New England and the middle states and support from Calhoun and the South. - It passed the Force Bill at the same time.

Tariff of Abominations

- Tariff of 1828, also known as the "Black Tariff''. - Congress raised the general tariff significantly in 1824, but wool manufacturers wanted higher prices and ardent Jacksonites promoted a high tariff bill, expecting to be defeated, which would hurt president Adams. However, the tariff was passed in 1828 and inherited by president Jackson. - It raised the protectionist tariff rates substantially, especially angering Southerners, who consumed a lot of manufactured goods but had little industry of their own, and several southern states adopted formal protests against it. - The south was so angry because they saw the tariff as descrimination and a good scapegoat for the hard times they were facing as the northeast manufacturing was booming, the west had rising property values and population, and the southwest was expanding. Southerners sold their agricultural produce in a market unprotected by tariffs but had to buy their manufactured goods in a US market heavily protected by tariffs, making them stuck while New England and the middle states benefited from protectionism.

Lone Star Republic

- Texas declared its independence in 1836, naming Sam Houston commander in chief. - Santa Anna and Mexico had victories against the courageous Texans at the Alamo and then at Goliad. - Killed heros like Jim Bowie and Davy Crockett became legendary in death, Texan war cries like "remember the Alamo!" "Remember Goliad!" and "Death to Santa Anna" swept into the US, and many Americans went to help the Texans. - General Sam Houston defeated Santa Anna's force in April of 1836 at San Jacinto, capturing Santa Anna and forcing him to sign treaties to withdraw Mexican troops and recognize the southwestern Texan border. - The Texans would not have won independence without help of American men and supplies, and the US had an obligation under international law to enforce its neutrality statutes. However, the American public opinion favored the Texans and nullified the existing legislation, and in 1837 Jackson recognized the Lone Star Republic. - Many Texans also wanted union with the US, but Americans, especially anti-slavery northerners, feared that when Texas officially petitioned for annexation in 1837 it was a conspiracy by the southern "slavocracy" to bring more slavery into the United States, and though admitting Texas would have added slavery, it was proven that the settlement of Texas was normal westward expansion and that most settlers were from the south and west just because they were closer to Texas.

Samuel Slater

- The "Father of the Factory System" in America. - He was attracted by bounties being offered to British workers familiar with the textile machines as a twenty-one-year-old skilled British mechanic. He memorized the plans for the machinery and then escaped disguised to America, where he got support from Moses Brown, a Quaker capitalist in Rhode Island. - Aided by a blacksmith and carpenter, he reconstructed the essential apparatus and put into operation in 1791 the first efficient American machinery for spinning cotton thread.

Molly Maguires

- The Ancient Order of Hibernians also helped to create this. - It was a shadowy Irish miners' union that rocked the Pennsylvania coal districts in the 1860s and 1870s. - Supposedly responsible for violence

corrupt bargain

- The election of 1824 was referred to as this because House Speaker Henry Clay, who presided over the body that was to decide the winner of the election, met privately with presidential candidate John Quincy Adams to assure him of his support. - Soon after Adams won in 1825, he announced that Clay would be his Secretary of State, which was then a sure step toward the presidency. - Jacksonians were angry and protested against this for almost four years. There is no evidence that Clay and Adams entered into a formal bargain during the election, and Clay was a natural choice for Secretary of State while Adams was very honest. - Even if it did happen, it was not necessarily corrupt because deals like this have long been a part of politics, but the public's resentment and anger showed that they viewed a once-common practice as secretive, elitist, and anti-democracy.

DeWitt Clinton

- The governor of New York who led the Erie Canal project, which was sometimes called "Clinton's Big Ditch" or "the Governor's Gutter". - The Erie Canal was started in 1817 and finished in 1825 and stretched 363 miles from the Great Lakes to the Hudson River. - On its completion, a garlanded canal boat went from Buffalo to the Hudson River and then to New York harbor, where he had a colorful ceremony and emptied a cask full of water from the lake to symbolize "the marriage of the waters". - His project made shipping much faster and cheaper, made the value of land close to it skyrocket, blossomed new cities, attracted Old World immigrants to profitable northwestern land, and plied the Great Lakes with steamboats. - It also halved the price of potatoes in New York City, so New England farmers abandoned their holdings and went to farms south of the Great Lakes, became industrial hand mills, or shifted to farming other products, showing how the emerging continental economy could change long-established local market structures.

Nicholas Biddle

- The president of the second Bank of the United States. - He held an immense amount of power over the nation's financial affairs, which many considered unconstitutional, and enemies of the bank called him "Czar Nicolas I". - Jackson wanted to kill the Bank of the United States before it expired in 1836, thinking that he would try to manipulate his bank to get it rechartered. - To prove the bank's importance while Jackson's policies were destroying it, he desperately called in the bank's loans to produce a minor financial crisis called "Biddle's Panic", which drove other banks to the wall. - The death of his bank kicked off a cycle of booms and busts and damaged the economy, leaving no central bank to control pet and wildcat banks, who flooded the country with paper money. - 1836 was his bank's last year.

Catharine Beecher

- The unmarried daughter of a famous preacher and the sister of Harriet Beecher Stowe, she tirelessly urged women to enter the teaching profession, which was one of the rare opportunities for women to be economically self-supporting. - She eventually succeeded when men left teaching for other work and school teaching became a thoroughly "feminized" occupation.

King Mob

- This was a name for Andrew Jackson. - At his inauguration, common "hickoryites" poured into Washington from far away and mingled with notables in the White House. They surged in, broke china and furniture, and made Jackson leave the White House for his safety. - This was called "the inaugural brawl". - Conservatives were terrified and upset that the leader of this group was the president, replacing Jeffersonian simplicity with Jacksonian vulgarity, which reminded them of the French Revolution, when the masses also gained power.

Independent Treasury

- Van Buren created his "Divorce Bill" during the panic of 1837 to divorce the government from all banking, establishing an independent treasury, where the government could safely keep its extra money in several of the larger cities. - These federal funds would then be denied to the banking system as reserves and lessen available credit resources. - This scheme was never very popular among Democrats and was condemned by the Whigs, and after a struggle, Congress passed the Independent Treasury Bill in 1840. It was repealed by the Whigs the next year, renewed by the Democrats in 1846, and ultimately merged with the Federal Reserve System.

Divorce Bill

- Van Buren created this bill to try to help the economy during the panic of 1837 through old Jacksonian tactics. - Convinced that the deposit of federal funds into private banks was contributing to the panic, he wanted to divorce the government from banking altogether, establishing an independent treasury, where the government could safely keep extra money in several large cities. - Van Buren's scheme was never very popular among Democrats and condemned by Whigs, who wanted to revive the Bank of the US.

Specie Circular

- When Jackson killed Biddle's Bank of the United States, surplus federal funds were placed in several dozen pro-Jackson state "pet banks". The pet banks and wildcat banks, without a central bank in control, flooded the nation with paper money. - Jackson tried to rein in the economy in 1836 and control the wildcat money that had become so unreliable in the west by authorizing the Treasury to issue this. - This decree required that all public lands be purchased with hard or metallic money. - This quickly stopped the speculative boom and was a change of direction that contributed to the financial panic and crash in 1837.

Cult of domesticity

- When women got married, they left their paying jobs to take up the work of a wife and mother. - This widespread cultural creed glorified the customary functions of the homemaker and enshrined women in the home. - Married women were put on a pedestal and had immense moral power and made decisions that altered the character of the family. - Women remained wrapped up in this ideology even when they began to have more say in how many children they would have, a newly assertive role called "domestic feminism".

sewing machine

Elias Howe in 1846, perfected by Isaac Singer

steel plow

John Deere in 1837, could break western soil

Cyrus Field

finally stretched a cable under the Atlantic from Newfoundland to Ireland 1858