VCU Basic Human Anatomy- Module II

Arteries

Ascending Aorta supplies O2 rich blood to heart wall, branches into: - Right coronary artery - Left coronary artery

central canal

At center of osteon; carries blood vessels and nerves

Axial skeletal joints

Atlantoaxial joint, Atlanto-occipital joint, intervertebral joints, intervertebral articulations

Heart valves in Cardiac cycle

Atrioventricular valves - Open during atrial and ventricular diastole, and atrial systole; closed during ventricular systole - Prevent backflow from ventricles to atria - Semilunar valves - Open during ventricular systole; closed during atrial and ventricular diastole, and atrial systole - Prevent backflow from Pulmonary trunk or Aorta to ventricles

ACh receptors

On the motor end plate that bind to ACh

General arterial flow out of heart

Oxygenated blood is pumped out of the left ventricle into the ascending aorta, from which two branches emerge: - left coronary artery - right coronary artery Three arterial branches emerge from the aortic arch: - Brachiocephalic trunk, which bifurcates into the right common carotid and right subclavian arteries - Left common carotid artery - left subclavian artery

Fat pads

Packing material; also provide some protection

Regions of dermis that contain CT proper

Papillary layer: superficial - Areolar connective tissue - Dermal papillae connected to epidermal ridges -- capillaries Reticular layer: deep - Dense irregular connective tissue - Location of follicles, sweat glands, nerves, blood vessels

Right Atrium

Pectinate muscles in walls of both atria Location of fossa ovalis Recieves venous blood from coronary circulation and systemic circulation Three veins drain into the right atrium: - Coronary sinus - Superior vena cava - Inferior vena cava interatrial septum

Keratinocytes

Produce keratin to protect a d waterproof the skin

Integument functions

Protection Prevention of water loss - Transepidermal water loss Temperature regulation Metabolic Regulation - Vitamin D Immune defense Sensory Reception Excretion through secretion

motor end plate

Region of sarcolemma that has folds and indentations to increase the surface area covered by the synaptic knob

perforating canals

Run perpendicular to and help connect multiple central canals Passageways for blood vessels and nerves

Sebacious Glands

Secrete oily sebum into hair follicles or directly onto skin surface - Lubrication; prevents drying of hair and skin - Relatively inactive during childhood; sex hormones at puberty cause secretions to increase significantly

Secretion types

Serous glands: a watery fluid Mucus glands: Mucin Mixed glands: contain both serous and mucus cells, and produce a mixture of the two types of secretions

Merocrine Sweat glands

Simple coiled tubular glands that release secretions into a duct with a pore on skin's surface - Secretion is 99% water, clear, and controlled by nervous system - Numerous on palms of hands, soles of feet, and forehead Functions: - Thermoregulation - Secretion - Protection

Apocrine sweat glands

Simple coiled tubular glands that secrete into hair follicles at the armpits (axillae), nipples (areolar), groin (pubic region), and anus (anal region) - secretion is thick, cloudy, and composed of proteins and lipids - Bacterial growth causes distinct odor in these regions

Conduction system of the heart

Sinoatrial (SA) Node - initiates heartbeat - Act as a pacemaker Stimulates atrial systole Impulse arrives at the Atrioventricular (AV) node Impulse travels from the AV node to the Atrioventricular (AV) Bundle (Bundle of His) Impulse conducted to Purkinje fibers Stimulates ventricular systole

Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

Skeletal muscle fibers have many of the same components of a typical cell, but some are named differently Examples: - Sarcolemma: Plasma membrane - Sarcoplasm: Cytoplasm - Sarcoplasmic reticulum: Smooth ER

Basice Neuron Structure

Some variations in structure All share basic features - Cell body - Dendrites - Axons

Position of the heart

Thoracic cavity - Mediastinum - Pericardial cavity

Articulations of ribs to vertebrae

Vertebrocostal joints -costal facet + tubercle of rib -costal demifacets + head of rib

Effects of vitamins on bone growth

Vitamin A -- osteoblast Vitamin C -- collagen Vitamin D -- calcium and phosphate absorption

zone of ossification

Walls between lacunae break down, forming channels that become invaded with capillaries and osteoprogenitor cells

elastic cartilage

elastic fibers form mesh-like arrangement around the chondrocytes in lacunae, flexible, resilient, perichondrium, found in epiglottis, external ear (auricle)

Tendon sheaths

elongated bursae around tendons, particularly in confined areas (wrist and ankle) where tendons rub each other

Diaphysis

elongated, cylindrical shaft

short bones

equal in length and width

lordosis

exaggerated lumbar curvature; "swayback"

kyphosis

exaggerated thoracic curvature (hunchback)

Nerve roots

extend out from the spinal cord anterior root - contains motor neuron axons posterior root - contains sensory neuron axons - contains interneuron cell bodies Posterior root ganglion - Contains sensory neuron cell bodies

Three types of skeletal muscle fibers

fast fibers, slow fibers, intermediate fibers

Fibrocartilage

fibers in bundles, large chondrocytes in lacunae, no perichondrium, more durable than hyaline cartilage, shock absorption, resists compression, found in intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, knee joint menisci

Osteoblasts

form bone matrix (osteoid)

Ossification (osteogenesis)

formation and development of bone begins by 8th week of embryonic development childhood through adolescence adulthood

Diarthrosis

freely movable joint

humerus proximal features

glenohumeral joint and rotator cuff muscles

vertebral column functions

provides vertical support for body, supports weight of the head, helps transfer weight of the axial skeleton to the appendicular skeleton of lower limbs

canaliculi

tiny, interconnecting channels within the bone connective tissue that extend from each lacuna allows osteocytes to connect and communicate

articular capsule of synovial joint

two layers: - outer fibrous layer made of dense regular connective tissue; strengthens joint - inner synovial membrane; secretes synovial fluid

Deep muscles of the back and neck

two major groups of muscles are responsible for movement of the vertebral column: - erector spinae - transversospinalis The erector spinae muscles are organized in three groups - iliocostalis - longissimus - spinalis

epicardium

visceral layer of the serous pericardium and areolar connective tissue

metaphysis

where the diaphysis meets the epiphysis, contains epiphyseal (growth) plate

fast fibers

white fibers

vertebral column structure

26 bones regions curvatures

Synaptic knob

Expanded tip of an axon

Osteon

(Haversian System)- the functional and structural unit of compact bone. They consist of tiny structural "pillars" made of concentric rings or tubes of bone, runs parallel to diaphysis

Stratum basale

(germinativum) singer layer of cuboidal epithelium - Keratinocytes - Melanocytes - Tactile cells

multipolar neuron

- 99% of neurons - many processes - most neurons of CNS

Loose connective tissues

- Areolar CT - Adipose CT - Reticular CT

External heart anatomy

- Atria: right, left - Ventricles: right, left - Auricles: right, left - Coronary sulcus - Anterior interventricular sulcus - Posterior interventricular sulcus - Pulmonary trunk, Pulmonary arteries - Pulmonary veins - Superior vena cava, inferior vena cava - Ascending aorta -- Aortic arch - Ligamentum arteriosum

Functions of upper body muscles

- Body movement - Maintenance of posture - temperature regulation - Storage and movement of materials - support

appendicular skeleton includes

- Bones of the upper and lower limbs - shoulder girdle, and hip girdle

Characteristics of epithelial tissue

- Cellularity: composed almost entirely of cells with little extracellular matrix -- Cells are bound together by several types of intercellular junctions - Polarity: Epithelial cells have an apical (top) surface and a basal (bottom) surface where they attach to underlying cells - Attachment: Basal surface is attached to a thin basement membrane, which is an acellular structure produced by both epithelial and underlying connective tissue cells - Avascularity: Lack of blood vessels; the cells receive their nutrients by diffusion from underlying tissues - Innervation: Epithelia are richly innervated to detect changes in environment at a body or organ region - High regeneration capacity: Epithelial cells are frequently damaged or die; they are replaced as quickly as they are lost

Compact bone microscopic anatomy

- Central Canal - Concentric lamellae - Osteocytes - Canaliculi - Perforating Canals - Circumferential Lamellae - Interstitial Lamellae

Smooth Muscle

- Composed of short fusiform muscle fibers with a centrally located nucleus - Thick and thin filaments not precisely aligned so no visible striations or sarcomeres are present - contraction is slow, resistant to fatigue, usually sustained for an extended period of time - Contraction is under involuntary control

Dense connective tissues

- Dense regular - Dense irregular - Elastic

General arterial flow out of the heart cont.

- Descending thoracic aorta follows the aortic arch and several arteries emerge to the thoracic wall - Called the descending abdominal aorta when it passes inferiorly and posteriorly to the diaphragm - At the fourth lumbar vertebra, the aorta bifurcates into the left and right common iliac veins - Common iliac veins further divide into internal and external iliac arteries

Multicellular Exocrine gland structure

- Ducts: conducting portion; branched - Acinus: secretory portion - Simple columnar or cuboidal cells

General Anatomy of skeletal muscle

- Each muscle is comprised of muscle fibers organized into bundles called fascicles - Muscle fibers contain myofibrils - myofibrils are composed of myofilaments

Cardiac cycle

- The inclusive period of time from start of one heratbeat to the initiation of the next - contraction of the heart chamber = systole - relaxation phase of a heart chamber = diastole

Epithelial tissue (Makes up epidermis)

- Epithelial tissue lines every body surface and all body cavities - Organs are lined on the outside and inside by epithelial tissue - The majority of glands are derived from epithelial tissue - Epithelial tissue possesses little to no extracellular matrix

Epidermis (description)

- Epithelium of the skin - Avascular - Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium - Composed of several layers (Strata)

articular cartilage of synovial joint

- Hyaline cartilage - reduces friction and acts as shock absorber

Blood flow through upper limb cont.

- In the cubital fossa, the brachial artery bifurcates into the ulnar and radial arteries - These arteries of the forearm anastomosis and form the superficial and deep palmar arches in the palm of the had - Digital arteries emerge from the arches to supply the fingers

Right Coronary Artery

- Marginal artery - Posterior interventricular artery

Contraction of a muscle: Neuromuscular junctions

- Muscle contraction begins when a motor neuron impulse stimulate an impulse in a muscle fiber - The neuromuscular junction in the region where the motor neuron comes into close proximity to the muscle fiber

Nerves in skin

- Nerve fibers in Dermis - Tactile corpuscles and tactile cells

Unmylenated axon

- Nerve impulse must travel the entire length of the axon = continuous conduction - Slower rate of nerve impulse conduction - More energy (ATP) required to conduct impulse across all parts of the axon - Conducts ner impulses from pain stimuli

Myelinated axon

- No change in electrical voltage across the membrane in the myelinated portion of an axon - Nerve impulse "jumps" from neurofibril node to neurofibril node = saltatory conduction - Produces a faster nerve impulse - Requires less energy (ATP) than an unmyelinated axon - Conducts nerve impulses to skeletal muscle

Neuron Cell body contains

- Nucleus - Nucleolus - Mitochondria - Free ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum (Nissl bodies)

Superficial venous drainage of upper limb

- On the dorsum of the hand, a dorsal venous network drains into the basilic and cephalic veins. - In the cubital fossa, these two veins are connected by the median cubital vein, which is a common vein used for venipuncture.

Left Atrium

- Primarily located of the posterior side of heart - Recieves oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins

Semilunar valves

- Pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves - each composed of three pocket like semilunar cusps - extensions of the endothelium of the tunica intima (interna) of the Aorta and pulmonary trunk - Conduction system of the heart - Exhibits autorhythmicity - Specialized cardiac muscle fibers conduct nerve impulses throughout the myocardium - Autonomic nervous system controls heart rate, but does not initiate contraction of the heart

Clinical reflex testing

- Reflexes are used to test specific muscle groups and specific spinal nerves or segments of the spinal cord - Consistently abnormal reflex response may indicate damage to the nervous system or muscles - A reflex response may be normal, hypoactive, or hyperactive

Cells of connective tissue

- Resident cells: include fibroblasts, adipocytes, fixed macrophages, and mesenchymal cells - Wandering cells: include mast cells, plasma cells, free macrophages, and other leukocytes

Stratum Spinosum

- Several cell (Keratinocytes) layers thick - Daughter cells (keratinocytes) from the stratum basale differentiate into nondividing, high specialized keratinocytes - Epidermal dendrite cells -- Immune cells that help fight infection -- Phagocytes that initiate an immune response

Types of Epithelia

- Simple Squamous epithelium - Simple cuboidal epithelium - Stratified Squamous epithelium: Non-keratinized/keratinized

Connective tissues components

- Superficial fascia - Deep fascia - Epimysium - Perimysium - Endomysium

Components of neuromuscular junction

- Synaptic knob - Synaptic vesicles - Motor end plate - Synaptic cleft - ACh receptors - Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

Deep Venous Drainage of the Upper Limb

- The digital veins and superficial and deep palmar venous arches drain into pairs of radial and ulnar veins in the forearm - At the cubital fossa, the radial and ulnar veins merge to form a pair of brachial veins - The brachial veins merge with the basilic vein to form the axillary vein - The axillary vein changes its name to the subclavian vein as it crosses superior to the lateral border of the first rib

Stratum corneum

- The most superficial layer of the epidermis - thickness varies from 20 to 30 layers thick depending on location on the body - comprised solely of dead keratinocytes -- Sloughed off by abrasion

Blood flow through upper limb

- The right and left subclavian arteries supply blood to the upper limbs - As the subclavian artery passes over the lateral border of the first rib, its name changes to the axillary artery - The axillary artery supplies the shoulder and thoracic region - As the axillary artery passes the inferior border of the teres major muscle, its name changed to the brachial artery

Stratum lucidum

- Thin, translucent region, two to three layers thick - Present only in thick skin (Palms of hands and soles of feet) - Cells lack organelles and filled with eleidin, a transparent, intermediate product of keratin maturation

stratum granulosum

- Three to five layers of keratinocytes - Cytoplasm fills with keratin filaments - Organelles begin to degrade - Fully keratinized cells are dead but strong - Extracellular lipids form epidermal water barrier

semirigid connective tissue

- Weaker than bone, but more flexible and resilient - Mature cartilage is avascular

Left coronary artery

- anterior interventricular artery - circumflex artery

muscles taht supinate the forearm

- biceps brachii - supinator

muscles that flex the elbow joint (located anteriorly)

- brachialis - biceps brachii - brachioradialis

central nervous system

- brain - spinal cord - Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - cranial nerves - spinal nerves - ganglia

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

- cranial nerves - spinal nerves - Ganglia

Myofibrils

- cylindrical structures that extend the entire length of the cell - Have the ability to shorten, resulting in contraction of the muscle fiber

extensors of the wrist joint and digits

- extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis - extensor digitorum - extensor digiti minimi - extensor carpi ulnaris

Classificatin pf joints by structure

- fibrous - Cartilaginous - Synovial

flexors of the wrist and the digits

- flexor carpi radialis - palmaris longus - flexor carpi ulnaris - flexor digitorum superficialis - flexor digitorum profundus

Effects of hormones on bone growth

- growth hormone (pituitary gland) -- epiphyseal plate - thyroid hormone (thyroid gland) -- basal metabolic rate - calcitonin (thyroid gland) -- osteoblast - parathyroid hormone (parathyroid gland) -- osteoclasts

cardiac muscle

- individual muscle fibers arranged in thick bundles within the heart wall - Fibers are striated, but shorter and thicker; have only 1 or 2 nuclei - branching fibers join to adjacent muscle fibers at junctions termed intercalated discs - Fibers are autorhythmic (can generate motor impulse without nervous stimulation) - Use primarily aerobic respiration to produce ATP

systemic circulation

- left side of the heart and arteries and veins - conveys blood to most body tissues and back to the right side of the heart

Forearm msucles that move the wrost joint, hand, and fingers

- most muscles that move the wrist joint, hand, and fingers originate on the forearm and are called extrinsic muscles - in general, the muscles of the anterior compartment originate on the medial epicondyle of the humerus and produce flexion of the wrist, hand, and fingers - in general, the muscles of the posterior compartment originate on the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and produce extension of the wrist, hand, and fingers

unipolar neuron

- one process - ganglia of PNS - Sensory

Structural types of synovial joints

- plane joints - hinge joints - pivot joints - condylar joints - saddle joints - ball and socket joints

muscles that pronate the forearm

- pronator teres - pronator quadratus

pulmonary circulation

- right side of the heart and the pulmonary arteries and veins - conveys blood to the lungs and back to the left side of the heart

axial skeletal muscles functions

- support head and spinal column - used in facial expressions, chewing, and swallowing - aid in breathing - support protection of the abdominal and pelvic organs

functions of axial skeleton

- supports and protects organs - houses special sense organs - attachment for skeletal muscles - spongy bone hemopoietic

Types of fibrous joints

- sutures - syndesmosis - gomphoses

Classification of joints by function

- synarthrosis - amphiarthrosis - diarthrosis

Muscles that extend the elbow joint (located posteriorly)

- triceps brachii - anconeus

bipolar neuron

- two processes - eyes, ears, and nose

anatomy of long bones

-Diaphysis -Epiphysis -Metaphysis -Medullary cavity -Endosteum -Periosteum -Articular cartilage

thoracic cage functions

-Protects vital organs of thoracic cavity -Supports shoulder girdles and upper limbs -Provides attachment sites for muscles of neck, back, chest, and shoulders

Valves of the heart

1. Right atrioventricular (tricuspid) 2. Pulmonary semilunar 3. Left atrioventricular (bicuspid or mitral) 4. Aortic semilunar

Organization of a sarcomere

-The sarcomere is the functional contractile unit in a skeletal muscle fiber -Defined by the area between two adjacent Z discs -Myofibrils contain multiple and repeating sarcomeres -Each sarcomere shortens as the muscle fiber contracts

Nervous system functional divisions

-sensory (Afferent) division -motor (Efferent) division

functions of cartilage

-support soft tissues -articular surfaces for joints -provide a model for endochondral bone formation

Bone fracture repair

1. A bone fracture hematoma (blood clot) occurs 2. A fibrocartilaginous (soft) callus forms 3. A bony (hard) callus replaces the soft callus 4. The bone is remodeled

physiology of muscle contraction

1. A nerve impulse causes ACh to be released into the synaptic cleft 2. ACh binds to receptors in the motor end plate initiating a muscle impulse along the sarcolemma and T-tubule membranes 3. Spread of the impulse down T-tubules causes calcium to leak out of terminal cisternae and into the sarcoplasm 4. Calcium ions bind to troponin, causing tropomyosin to uncover active sites on G-actin 5. Myosin heads bind to actin and form cross bridges 6. In the presence of ATP, myosin cycles through attachment, pivot, detach, and return events - ATP is also necessary for relaxation of muscle fiber

Structural components of CT

1. Cells- different cells for different types of CT 2. Extracellular matrix - Protein fibers - Collagen - Elastin - Reticular - Ground Substance: A mixture of proteins and carbohydrates with variable amounts of salts and water

Fibers of connective tissue

1. Collagen: long, unbranching, strong, flexible, and resistant to stretching 2. Elastic fibers: stretch easily, branch, rejoin 3. Reticular fibers: form a branching, woven framework 4. Loose connective tissue: serves as the body's packing material, found in spaces around organs - Types include areolar, adipose, and reticular 5. Dense connective tissue: strong, has fibers (mostly collagen) packed tightly together - Types include dense regular, dense irregular, and elastic

Muscles that abduct the shoulder joint (laterally, insert onto humerus)

1. Deltoid (middle fibers) 2. Supraspinatus

stages of endochondral ossification

1. Fetal hyaline cartilage model develops 2. Cartilage calcifies and a periosteal bone collar forms around diaphysis 3. Primary ossification center forms in the diaphysis 4. Secondary ossification centers form in the epiphysis 5. Bone replaces cartilage except the articular cartilage and epiphyseal plates 6. Epiphyseal plates ossify and form epiphyseal lines

muscles that extend the shoulder joint (posterior side, insert into humerus)

1. Latissimus dorsi 2. Deltoid (posterior fibers) 3. Teres major 4. (some triceps brachii- long head)

Muscles that adduct the shoulder joint (medially, insert onto humerus)

1. Latissimus dorsi 2. pectoralis major 3. Coracobrachialis 4. teres major 5. (some teres minor, infraspinatus)

five groups of axial muscles

1. Muscles of the head and neck 2. Muscles of the vertebral column 3. Muscles of respiration 4. Muscles of the abdominal wall 5. Muscles of the pelvic floor

Epidermal Accessory Organs

1. Nails: dead keratinized cells; protect distal tips of fingers, toes from physical damage; derivatives from the stratum corneum; lies on top of the nail bed (living epidermis cells usually found in deeper layers) 2. Hair: Columns of keratinocytes growing from follicles deep in the dermis or hypodermis - hair bulb - hair root - hair shaft The hair follicle surrounds each hair Arrector pili muscles attach to the hair shaft 3. Exocrine glands: - Sweat (sudoriferous) glands: produce a watery solution -- merocrine and apocrine - sebaceous gland: produce oily secretions

Components of a spinal reflex arc

1. Stimulus activates receptor 2. Nerve impulse travels through sensory neurons to CNS 3. Information from impulse may be processed by interneurons (if present) 4. Motor neuron transmits impulse to effector 5. Effector carries out response

Muscles that medially rotate the humerus

1. Subscapularis 2. Latissimus dorsi 3. teres major 4. pectoralis major

Epiphyseal plate morphology

1. Zone of resting cartilage 2. Zone of proliferating cartilage 3. Zone of hypertrophic cartilage 4. Zone of calcified cartilage 5. Zone of ossification

Muscles taht laterally rotate humerus

1. infraspinatus 2. teres minor 3. Deltoid (posterior fibers)

Muscles that elevate the scapula

1. levator scapulae 2. trapezius 3. Rhomboids

muscles that move the pectoral girdle and upper limbs are organized into specific groups

1. muscles that move the pectoral girdle 2. muscles that move the glenohumeral joint/arm 3. arm and forearm muscles that move the elbow joint/forearm 4. forearm muscles that move the wrist joint, hand, and fingers 5. intrinsic muscles of the hand (not covered in class)

Stages of Intermembranous Ossification

1. ossification centers form within thickened regions of mesenchyme 2. Osteoid (precursor to solid bone matrix) undergoes calcification 3. Woven (primary) bone and surrounding periosteum form 4. lamellar (secondary) bone replaces woven bone as compact and spongy bone form

Muscles that flex the shoulder joint (anterior side and insert into humerus)

1. pectoralis major 2. deltoid (anterior fibers) 3. coracobrachialis 4. (Some biceps brachii- long head)

Muscles that protract the scapula (anterior side)

1. pectoralis minor 2. serratus anterior

Chambers of the heart

1. right atrium 2. right ventricle 3. left atrium 4. left ventricle

muscles taht retract scapula

1. trapezius 2. Rhomboids major and minor

Rib cage Structure

12 ribs that articulate posteriorly with thoracic vertebrae

Nerves in thoracic

12: T1-T12

Nerves in coccygeal

1: Co1

Nerves in Lumbar

5: L1-L5

Nerves is sacral

5: S1-S5

Skull bones

8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones

nerve in cervical

8: C1-C8

Nerve impulse

A change in electrical voltage across the membrane of an axon

extracellular matrix

A gel-like substance containing interwoven protein fibers that surrounds most cells; collagen, elastin, ground substance

Interstitial growth: Epiphyseal plate structure

A layer of hyaline cartilage at the boundary of the epiphysis and diaphysis site of bone lengthening consists of 5 distinct microscopic zones

Motor Units

A motor unit consists of a single motor neuron and the muscle fibers it controls A motor unit typically controls only some of the muscle finbers in an entire muscle Size of motor unit and degree of control provided are inversly related - Small motor units provide precise control, and vise versa

all-or-none principle

A muscle fiber either contracts completely or does not contract at all When a motor unit is stimulated, all its fibers contract at the same time The total force exerted by the muscle depends on the number of activated motor units Inverse relationship between the degree of control and the size of the motor unit - Muscles for fine motor control have motor units controlling fewer muscle fibers - Muscles for power generation have motor units controlling many muscle fibers

Structure of a nerve

A nerve is a bundle of parallel axons - Part of PNS - Macroscopic - Carries sensory and motor impulses Like a muscle, a nerve has three successive connective tissue wrappings - Endoneurium: around each axon - perineurium: around individual fascicles - Epineurium: around the entire nerve

Distribution of skeletal muscle fibers

A single motor unit contains same type Same muscles are dedicated to one type - Postural muscles (back, calf): slow fibers - Quick and precise (eye, hand muscles): fast fibers

Anatomy fo synovial joint cont.

Accessory structures surround the joint; function in reducing friction and filling spaces - Bursae - Tendon sheaths - Fat pads

shoulder dislocation

Acromioclavicular joint or glenohumeral joint dislocation

Muscle Hypertrophy

An increase in muscle fiber size Repetitive, exhaustive stimulation of muscle fibers - more mitochondria - larger glycogen reserves Each muscle fiber develops more myofibrils; each myofibril contains a larger number of myofilaments

Spinal nerves

Anterior and posterior roots merge to form a spinal nerve - each spinal nerve contains axons of both sensory and motor neurons Each spinal nerve is associated with the vertebra of the same number - exits vertebral canal through the intervertebral foramen between two adjacent vertebrae Each spinal nerve then branches into: - anterior ramus: innervates the anterior and lateral portions of the trunk and the upper and lower limbs - posterior ramus: innervates the deep muscles and skin of the back

Nerve Plexuses

Anterior rami of most spinal nerves form nerve plexuses: - Cervical - brachial - lumbar - sacral Nerve plexuses then split into multiple "named" nerves

Spinal nerve placement

Anterior root and posterior root merge to form a spinal nerve (motor and sensory axons) 31 pairs of spinal nerves connect the CNS to muscles. glands, and receptors Each spinal nerve is associated with the vertebra of the same number - exits vertebral canal through intervertebral foramen between two adjacent vertebrae - The eighth pair of cervical spinal nerves (C8) exit above the first thoracic vertebra Each spinal nerve then branches into - anterior ramus - posterior ramus

Composition of intervertebral discs

Anulus fibrosis - fibrocartilage, Nucleus pulposus - higher water content in ground substance

cervical vertebrae special features

Bifid spinous process, transverse foramina, plane of intervertebral joints

Overview of heart

Blood flow through heart is unidirectional because of four valves within the heart The heart is functionally two side-by-side pumps taht work at the same rate and pump the same volume fo blood - one pump directs blood to the lungs (right side) - one pump directs blood to most body tissues (Left side) Connected to blood vessels, which transport blood to and from tissues - Arteries: Blood away from the heart - Veins: Blood back to the heart Carciovascular system consists of two circulations: - Pulmonary - Systemic

Blood supply and innervation

Blood is highly vascularized four major sets of blood vessels - nutrient artery and vein - metaphyseal arteries and veins - epiphyseal arteries and veins - periosteal arteries and veins nerves accompany blood vessels through the nutrient foramen

Synovial

Bones separated by fluid-filled cavity

Axial muscles

Both insertion and origins are on parts of the axial skeleton

Nerve roots

Extend out from spinal cord Anterior root - contains motor neuron axons Posterior root ganglion - Contains sensory neuron cell bodies

Appositional growth: osteoblast vs osteoclast

Childhood, young adulthood, older adulthood

zone of hypertrophic cartilage

Chondrocytes cease dividing and become enlarged

Structural Functional type of synovial joints

Classified by shapes of articulating surfaces and amount of movement allowed Movement described around three planes or axes - uniaxial - biaxial - multiaxial

Pectoral girdle composition

Clavicle (S shaped bone) and Scapula (with acromion process, scapular spine, glenoid cavity)

selective fractures of arm

Colles and scaphoid fractures

Blood

Connective tissue Composed of: - Cells: formed elements -- erythrocytes (red blood cells) -- leukocytes (white blood cells) -- platelets (of dense irregular connective tissue) - Plasma: protein fibers dissolved in watery ground substance

Anatomy of heart wall

Consists of three distinctive layers (From superficial to deep): - Epicardium - Myocardium - endocardium

Veins

Coronary sinus drains O2 poor blood from heart wall: recieves blood from: - Great cardiac vein - Small cardiac vein - Middle cardiac vein Coronary sinus -- Right atrium

Skin

Cutaneous membrane Largest organ in the bodyL area 1.5-2.0 square meters, 7-8% of body weight Comprised of: - dermis - epidermis A third layer deep to the dermis (not considered part of the Integument) - Hypodermis(Subcutaneous layer)

Dermis

Deeper layer of dens irregular CT

Blood supply of Dermis

Dermis is vascular Blood vessels help control body temperature - Vasoconstriction - Vasodilation

Sensory nerves in joint

Detect pain and amount of stretch in a joint

Structural classification of neurons

Determined by the number of processes extending from the cell body: unipolar, bipolar, multipolar

Hmerus proximal features

Distal fossae

Aging of the skeletal system

During aging, bone changes in two ways - Loses ability to produce organic matrix (mainly collagen) - loses calcium and other minerals can result in a decrease in bone mass called osteoporosis - increase chances of fractures Normal vs osteoporotic bone

Contraction of a muscle: Sliding filament theory

During contraction, the thick and thin filaments interact and slide past each other - Width of A band remains constant, but H zone disappears - Z discs in each sarcomere move closer together - sarcomere narrows in length - I bands narrow The length of the thick and thin filaments never changes whether the muscle is contracted or relaxed. Only position changes Relaxed myofibrils partially contracted myofibrils Fully contracted myofibrils

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

Enzyme in the synaptic cleft that rapidly breaks down ACh

stretch reflex

Ex: patellar (knee-jerk) reflex - muscle spindles in muscle tissue Golgi tendon organ - in tendons

Pericardium

Fibrous, serous sac within the mediastinum - restricts heart movements - prevents heart form overfilling with blood Outer layer: Fibrous pericardium - Tough outer sac, dense connective tissue layer Inner layer: The serous pericardium - thin, double layered serous membrane called: Parietal and visceral pericardium

Synovial joints

Freely mobile diarthroses Articulating bones separated by a joint cavity General anatomy: - articular capsule - joint cavity - synovial fluid - articular cartilage - ligaments - nerves and blood vessels

Axis (C2)

Has a dens Acts as a pivot for the rotation of the atlas and the skull

Atlas (C1)

Has deep superior articular facets that articulate with the occipital condyles of the occipital bone

elbow joint

Humeroradial joint Humeroulnar joint

Growth of bone (after 12 weeks of development)

Interstitial growth Appositional growth

Right and left ventricles

Interventricular septum Trabeculae carnae Right Atrioventricular (Tricuspid) valve and Left Atrioventricular (Bicuspid/Mitral) valve - Papillary muscles - Chordae tendineae attach to -- Three cusps of the (tricuspid) right atrioventricular valve -- Two cusps of the (bicuspid) left atrioventricular valve

Three Main Spinal Curvature Deformities

Kyphosis, Lordosis, Scoliosis

Lumbar vertebrae special features

Large body with short and wide processes, plane of intervertebral joints

zone of proliferating cartilage

Larger chondrites undergoing rapid mitotic cell division aligned like stacks of coins

Gross anatomy of spinal cord

Length: 42-45 cm, 16-18 in Roughly cylindrical, slightly flattened anteriorly and posteriorly the longitudinal depressions on external surface: - Posterior median sulcus on posterior surface - Anterior median fissure on anterior surface

muscle atrophy

Loss in class and tine due to reduced stimulation Muscle becomes flaccid - muscle fibers decrease in size, become weaker

synaptic vesicles

Membrane sacs filled with acetylcholine (ACh)

Iliocostalis

Most lateral group composed of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar parts

Spinalis

Most medial group inserting onto the spinous processes of vertebrae; composed of cervical and thoracic parts

synaptic cleft

Narrow space separating the synaptic knob and the motor end plate

Spongy Bone Microscopic Anatomy

No osteons Trabeculae contains parallel lamellae

Subcutaneous layer (Hypodermis)

Not part of integument Areolar CT and adipose CT Contain CT fibers continuous with Dermis' reticular layer Contains blood vessels Functions (because of adipose): - Shock absorber to underlying tissues - stores energy - provides thermal insulation

Blood vessels in joint

Nourish tissue in joint

Joint cavity of synovial joint

Space between articulating bones Contains small amount of synovial fluid - Lubricates and nourishes articular cartilages - Nourishes chondrocytes of articular cartilage - absorbs shock during compression of the joint

Monosynaptic vs. Polysynaptic reflexes

Stretch reflex (Patellar reflex, Biceps, Brachioradialis, Triceps) Withdrawal reflex

Rotator cuff mm.

Supraspinatus: initiates the abduction of the arm infraspinatus: laterally rotate arm teres minor: laterally rotate arm subscapularis: wind up for a pitch (medially rotate arm)

Tissues

The body is composed of trillions of cells, which are organized into more complex units called tissues A tissue is a group of similar cells and extracellular products that perform a common function Four types of tissues in the body: - Epithelial tissue - Connective tissue - Muscle tissue - Nervous tissue Tissues vary in structure, function, and the content of their extracellular matrix - A substance provided by the cells of a specific tissue and can contain protein, salts, H2O, and dissolved macromolecules - Located outside of cells

The nervous system

The body's primary communication and control system with structural and functional divisions

Myelination of Axons

The part of the axon wrapped with a myelin sheath, a protective fatty coating that gives it a glossy-white appearance - Supports, protects, and insulates an axon Oligodendrocytes - myelinated CNS axons Neurolemmocytes - myelinated PNS axons Neurofibril nodes (nodes of Ranvier)

Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle cont.

There are two main structures that are unique to muscle fibers: - Transverse tubules (T-tubules) - Terminal cisternae

Location and distribution ofwhite matter

White matter on each side of the cord is partitioned into three regions: - posterior funiculus - lateral funiculus - anterior funiculus Contains myelinated axons for both sensory and motor neurons of: - ascending tracks - descending tracks

medullary cavity

a hollow, cylindrical space within the diaphysis that contains fatty yellow bone marrow in adults

Supraspinatus

abducts arm with deltoid

Scoliosis

abnormal lateral curvature of the spine (S-shaped curve), most common spinal curvature issue

Sensory neurons

afferent carry impulse to CNS most are unipolar some are bipolar

skeletal system is

an organ system, a supporting framework for soft tissues, interacts with muscular systems to produce movement, consists of dynamic living tissues and organs

True ribs (1-7)

articulate directly with sternum via costal cartilages

Thoracic vertebrae special features

articulates with ribs through costal facets and demifacets, plane of intervertebral joints

Dislocation

articulating bones are separated

Brachial Plexus (C5-T1)

axillary nerve, radial nerve, musculocutaneous nerve, median nerve, ulnar nerve

Syndesmosis

between parallel bones in the forearm and leg; amphiarthrosis

sutures

between skull bones; synarthrosis

Gomphosis

between teeth, and maxilla, and mandible; synarthrosis

terminal cisternae

blind sacs at the end of the sarcoplasmic reticulum - Two terminal cisternae + T-tubule = triad

cartilaginous joints

bones attached by cartilage two types: - synchondroses - symphyses

Cartilaginous

bones held together by cartilage

Fibrous

bones held together by dense (fibrous) connective tissue

Synchondrosis

bones joined by hyaline cartilage; synarthrosis

Symphyses

bones joined by pad of fibrocartilage; amphiarthrosis

Skeletal system composition

bones, cartilages ligaments, other supportive connective tissues

Thoracic cage structure

bony frame around the chest composed of the thoracic vertebrae posteriorly, ribs laterally, and sternum anteriorly

Scaphoid fracture

break of the scaphoid bone in two pieces, avascular necrosis

flat bones

thin, flattened, and usually curved

Myocardium

cardiac muscle, thickest of three layers

Parts of the spinal cord

cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal

cartilage cells

chondroblasts and chondrocytes

irregular bones

complex shapes

Longissimus

composed of capitis, cervical, and thoracic parts

ligaments of synovial joints

connect bone to bone; dense regular connective tissue - strengthen and reinforce capsule

Herniated Disc Treatment

conservatively treated with "wait and see", ibeuprofen, and PT; surgically treated with bulge removal; clinical trial for artificial discs

Systemic circulation

consists of arteries and veins that travel to and from all parts of the body except the lungs

integumentary system

consists of: - Skin - Nails - Hair - Sweat glands - sebaceous glands

lateral horns

contain autonomic motor neuron cell bodies

posterior horns

contain axons of sensory neurons and cell bodies of interneurons

anterior horns

contain somatic neuron cell bodies

appendicular muscles function

control the movements of the upper and lower limbs Stabilize and control the movements of the pectoral and pelvic girdles organized into groups based on their location in the body or the part of the skeleton they move Work in groups that are either synergistic or antagonistic

endosteum

covers most of the internal surfaces of bones, contains osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts

Transverse tubules (T-tubules)

deep invaginations of the sarcolemma that extend into the sarcoplasm - Form a network of tubules that enables muscle impulses to spread quickly internally

avascular necrosis

degenerative joint disease of wrist

Pericondrium

dense irregular CT and chondroblasts

Periosteum

dense irregular connective tissue, covers external surfaces of bones (except articular cartilage), anchored by perforating fibers embedded in the bone matrix, acts as an anchor for blood vessels and nerves, contains osteoprogenitor cells and osteoblasts, internal and external bone coverings

zone of calcified cartilage

deposited minerals kill the chondrocytes and make matrix opaque

Colles fracture

distal radius, common in adults with osteoporosis, pain and swelling near the wrist

interstitial growth of cartilage

growth from within, chondrocytes within cartilage divide and secrete new matrix, mitosis of chondrocytes in lacunae, form two chondroblasts per lacuna, each synthesizes and secrete new matrix, ner matrix separates the cells called chondrocytes, results in a larger piece of cartilage with the newest cartilage inside

Sublaxation of radial head

head is pulled out of the annular ligament, the contact between the bony surfaces of the joint is altered, usually in children under 5, can occur when a child's pronated forearm is pulled

Osteocytes

housed in lacunae between concentric lamellae

types of cartilage

hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

Synarthrosis

immovable joint

Neurons

initiate, transmit, and receive nerve impulses - Excitable - Have a high metabolic rate - Have extreme longevity - Are typically non- mitotic

bone remodeling

injuries mechanical stresses increase bone density by increased osteoblast activity (collagen, calcium and phosphate) athletes have greater bone density lack of exercise

radiocarpal joint

intercarpal joint, carpometacarpal joint, metacarpophalangeal joint, interphalangeal joint

endocardium

internal surface of the heart chambers and external surface of the heart valves

Growth patterns of cartilage

interstitial growth and appositional growth

Developmental models of ossification

intramembranous and endochondral ossification

Types of muscle contraction

isometric and isotonic

Uniaxial

joint moves in one plane or axis

Multiaxial

joint moves in three planes or axes

biaxial

joint moves in two planes or axes

Epiphysis

knobby and enlarged regions at each end, strengthens joints, attachment site for tendons and ligaments

osteoclasts

large, multinuclear cells that dissolve bone matrix, releasing Ca++ = bone resorption

Interstitial lamellae

leftover parts of osteons that have been partially resorbed

isometric contraction

length is constant, tension is changing

Interneurons

link neurons multipolar located in CNS

Bone

living organs, rigid exterior matrix resulting from calcification (a reservoir for calcium and phosphorous), contains red bone marrow and yellow bone marrow, support and protect vital organs, provides movement

long bones

longer than they are wide

erector spinae

maintain posture and help to stand erect bilateral contraction extends the spinal column and unilateral contraction flexes the column laterally

Subscapularis

medially rotates arm

Osteoprogenitor

mesenchymal stem cells found in endosteum and periosteum; can produce more stem cells or osteoblasts

transversospinalis

minor deep back muscles that are deep to the erector spinae connect and stabilize the vertebrae

hyaline cartilage

most common, weakest type, contains collagen fibers, chondrocytes in lacunae, perichondrium, supports soft tissues, forms most of the fetal skeleton, growth plate, articular cartilage of long bones, costal cartilage

Hypodermis

mostly consists of adipose CT, some areolar CT

Motor neurons

multipolar carry impulses away from CNS carry impulses to effectors

eccentric contraction

muscle lengthens

appositional growth of cartilage

new chondrocytes and new matrix are added on the outside of the tissue, mitosis of stem cells in perichondrium, adds chondroblasts to the periphery, produce matrix and become chondrocytes in lacunae, results in a larger piece of cartilage with the newest cartilage on the outside

floating ribs (11-12)

not attached to sternum (only vertebrae)

spongy bone

open lattice of narrow plates called trabeculae, internal surface of bones

Bone cell types

osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts, osteoprogenitor

Causes of rotator cuff injury

over-use or age - tennis players, swimmers, baseball players - lifting or pulling heavy objects - wear and tear over age of 40

Symptoms of rotator cuff injury

pain and weakness in the shoulder - reaching overhead, e.g shampooing hair - reaching back to put on the sleeve of a coat - lifting - sleeping on the side

subluxation

partial dislocation where the contact between the bony joint surfaces is altered

Girdles

pectoral and pelvic

Chondroblasts

produce cartilage matrix

Melanocytes

produce the pigment melanin, which absorbs UV light to prevent DNA damage

red marrow

produces blood cells (hemopoiesis)

intermembranous ossification

produces flat bones of the skull, some facial bones, mandible, and central portion of clavicle

The spinal Cord (general)

provides vital link between the brain and the rest of the body the spinal cord and its attached spinal nerves serve two important functions - Pathway for sensory and motorimpulses - responsible for reflexes

Reflexes

rapid, automatic, involuntary reactions of muscles or glands to a stimulus All reflexes have similar properties: - A stimulus - A rapid, automatic, involuntary response Awareness of the stimulus occurs after the reflex action has been completed

slow fibers

red fibers

Osteocytes

reside in lacunae; maintain matrix and detect mechanical stress on a bone

Muscle Tone

resting tension in a skeletal muscle

concentric lamellae

rings of bone around central canal

circumferential lamellae

rings of bone immediately internal to the periosteum or internal to the endosteum run the circumference of the bone

Infraspinatus

rotates arm laterally

teres minor

rotates arm laterally, innervated by axillary nerve

Bursae

sacs outside most synovial joints where ligaments, muscles, tendons, and/or bones rub; contain synovial fluid

Tactile cells

sensitive to touch

Myofilaments

short bundles of proteins that comprise a myofibril Myofilaments do not run the entire length of the muscle fiber, but are organized into repetitive groupings Myofilaments are of two types: - Thick filaments = myosin - Thin filaments = actin -- tropomyosin, troponin

cocentric contraction

shortening of muscle

glenohumeral joint dislocation

shoulder appears flattened, the humeral head is dislocated anteriorly and inderiorly to the glenohumeral joint capsule

Select injuries of arm

shoulder dislocation, shoulder separation, subluxed radial head (nurse-maid's elbow), scaphoid fracture

Amphiarthrosis

slightly movable joint

zone of resting cartilage

small chondrocytes in hyaline cartilage

compact bone

solid and relatively dense, external surfaces of long and flat bones

splenius muscles

splenius capitis and splenius cervicis

Articulations of sternum and ribs

sternocostal joints and costochondral joints

yellow marrow

stores fat

Epidermis strata

stratum basale stratum spinosum stratum granulosum stratum lucidum stratum corneum

Epidermis

superficial layer of stratified squamous epithelium

Periosteal arteries and veins

supply blood to the external circumferential lamellae and superficial osteons

metaphyseal arteries and veins

supply the diaphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate

nutrient arteries and veins

supply the diaphysis of a long bone usually just one nutrient artery ancd vein per bone

Epiphyseal arteries and veins

supply the epiphyses

Glial cells

support and protect the neurons

rotator cuff muscles

supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis

Chondrocytes

surrounded by matrix; occupy small spaces called lacunae

Sternocostal joint for rib pair #1

synchondrosis, synarthrosis

Sternocostal joints for rib pairs #2-7

synovial, diarthrosis - respiration

Rotator cuff injury

tear or strain of rotator cuff mm.

acromioclavicular joint dislocation

tenderness and edema, pain when arm is abducted more than 90 degrees

isotonic contraction

tension is constant; length is changing - concentric contraction - eccentric contraction

Brachial plexuses

the anterior rami of C5-T1 form the roots of the brachial plexus the roots unite to form the: - superior trunk: Nerves C5 and C6 - middle trunk: nerve C7 - inferior trunk: nerves C8 and T1 portions of each trunk divide into an anterior division and a posterior division The anterior and posterior divisions converge to form three cords: - Posterior cord - medial cord - lateral cord Five major terminal branches emerge from the three cords: - Axillary nerve - Median nerve - Musculocutaneous nerve - Radial nerve - Ulnar nerve

Axial skeleton includes

the bones of the longitudinal axis: the skull, vertebral column, and the bony thorax

Location and distribution of gray matter

the gray matter may be subdivided into the following components: - anterior horns - lateral horns - posterior horns - The gray commissure

false ribs (8-12)

their costal cartilages do not attach directly to the sternum

articular cartilage

thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the epiphysis, reduces friction and absorbs shock in moveable joints