Victimology Exam 3

Fear of crime

negative emotional reaction to crime of symbols associated with crime

Prospective refuge theory

our assessment of location using the above factors is an evolutionary survival mechanism

Debt bondage

person is enslaved to work off a debt he or she owes i. Conditions are not previously known or defined by the person OR services victim provides are not "counted" properly toward debt owed ii. This is the most common method of enslaving victims

Romeo pimp

pimp that recruits through gifts/affection

Labor trafficking

recruitment, harboring, transportation, or obtaining person for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjugation to involuntary servitude

Pre 1990

i. Cannot interfere with people because of race, religion, etc. during course of a federally protected activities (going to school, serving on a jury

"Normal crimes"

"- little white girl stolen out of house by stranger in nice neighborhood. Most kidnapping by people who are familiar with children.

Trafficking protection act of 2000

defines trafficking

Media Share

white people watch the news more/ people will want to watch it more if we're covering these kind of stories. Driven by money

Guerilla pimp

those who recruit through violence/force/kidnapping

Social Learning theory

mass media are major sources for modeling and reinforcement

employer liability- forseeability of events

(prior complaints and dangerous working conditions) important in establishing liability

premises liability (employer liability)

: business is liable if employer did not exercise reasonable care in securing premises i. Not training security, personnel, not following security plan

negligent hiring (employer liability)

Employer liable for criminal actions of employee if failed to do adequate background check

Cultivation theory

Mass media express cultural patterns and cultivate them by mirroring back to consumers images of reality. Can be highly inaccurate, but influential in shaping beliefs and attitudes through repeated images

Official data reports______ extent of human trafficking

UNDERESTIMATE a. It occurs out of the sight of most people b. Many countries do not take it seriously c. Most victims do not want to report-experience of LE in their home countries is a factor d. Victims are often a mobile population

Hot spots of fear

Places where fear of crime concentrates i. Openness of one's surroundings can you clearly see if someone is trying to approach you (prospect) ii. Are there places that an offender can easily hide (refuge) iii. Are there ways for you to flee if you are in danger (escape) (Openness, prospect, escape)

Branding

Tattooing girls/women to show ownership

Palermo protocol

a. 2000- international protocol adopted by the UN b. identified three ways govt SHOULD address trafficking i. Prevention ii. Criminal prosecution iii. Victim protection

Reporting hate crime victimization

a. According to the most recent NCVS, about 40% of hate crime victimization reported to the police i. Might be linked to victim offender relationship- about 4 in 10 hate crime victimization perpetrated by strangers ii. Minority victims of hate crime less likely than non minority victims to report to LE iii. Victims of hate crime based on sexual orientation less likely to report to LE

Bjornstrom

a. African American and Hispanics less likely than whites to be portrayed as victims b. Female victims- race is more likely to be mentioned when white i. White females are among least likely groups to be victims of violent crime (potential normal crimes explanation)

Extent of workplace violence

a. Approximately 20 percent of all violent crimes in the US occurs in the workplace (loomis 2008) b. Workplace violence injuries more than 2 million workers annually c. Statistics show that workplace violence has been recently increasing (meadows 2010)

Focusing on sex trafficking- what does it look like?

a. Average age of victimized girl is between ages 12 and 14 years b. Pimps recruit from bus stations, runaway shelters, foster homes c. Might feed and clothe them, act as their boyfriends, promise them marriage or family life d. Some might meet their pimp/boyfriends in school parties e. Some pimps or pedophiles go to natural disaster areas to "volunteer" and instead prey on vulnerable children: more common for younger children f. Girls are marketed on websites g. Prostitutes usually have to give 100 percent of money earned to his/her pimp h. Pimp maintains controls of their "stable" (group of women) through the use of the "bottom bitch" (woman in charge of others, who also negotiates on behalf of pimp for the prostitutes

Hate crimes

a. Crimes perpetrated based on race, religion, sexual orientation, ethnicity, disability, gender and or gender identity b. Not enough proof if victim is simply a member of a protected group

Yen 2008 of Vice and men

a. Criticism of current responses to sex trafficking i. We are not addressing the "demand" side enough; only paying attention to the "supply" side b. Why is focusing on the "johns" important i. They drive the economy of sex trafficking- what the women/girls look like, where brothels are located c. Buying sex is not an innate male need i. This can be observed by different rates of men who buy sex across countries/cultures d. How can we stop demand? i. By educating the johns about the harms of trafficking ii. Through legislation-author recommends that US NOT legalize prostitution

Environmental perspective

a. Environmental cues signal that danger is looming or that an individual in that area is susceptible to victimization i. Windows broken, litter in the street, abandon cars ii. Civil/social incivilities- people drunk in the street, high level of noise, prostitutes

Vulnerability perspective

a. Fear of crime is consequence of individual's perceived vulnerabilities to victimization i. Stems from personal characteristics (age, race) previous victimization, or routine activities

Multilevel perspective

a. Fear of crime is influenced by both individual level vulnerability (age, gender) and macro level disorder/social integration c. Most studies in neighborhoods have found that civil/social incivilities have stronger influence on fear of crime than individual characteristics i. Found support for both as predictors d. Most studies in schools have found support for vulnerability hypothesis, but not environmental hypothesis

Shadow of sexual assault hypothesis

a. Female fear of crime is synonymous with fear of rape i. Any face-to-face victimization can potentially escalate into sex assault (supported by studies)

Lane and Fox 2013

a. First study to examine the shadow of sexual assault hypothesis among inmates

Fear of crime- Gender

a. Gender is the most consistent predictor of fear of crime i. This is true whether considering general fear of crime or fear of specific crime victimization types

Wisconson v Mitchell

a. Government cannot punish an individual's abstract beliefs b. Can punish deprave motives for crime, including selecting victim based on background c. Law addresses individual and societal harms caused by bias-related offenses in that they are more likely to inflict emotional harm on their victims and incite community unrest

Characteristics of hate crime victimization

a. Hate crime victimization rates do not vary according to educational attainment b. Individuals 24 years of age and younger have higher victimization rates c. More likely than non-hate crime victimizations to be violent i. 2012 NCVS data 63% involve assault rape, or robbery d. in 20% of hate crimes, victims report sustaining an injury

NCS Example question to measure fear of crime

a. How safe do you feel or would you feel being out alone in your neighborhood at night?

Sexual Harassment

a. Includes unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, any verbal or physical harassment of a sexual nature b. Victim does not have to be the target; harassers conduct must be unwelcome i. Must also be pervasive and continuous with some forms- such as asking out on a date

5. Most research on media and victimization has focused on race/ethnicity

a. Limited by studies on print media rather than news/online media b. Some studies have found that African Americans and Hispanics are overrepresented as perpetrators in the news c. Others have found portrayals are consistent with real arrest #s

Media and general victimization

a. Media can have a great influence on public perception of crime prevalence/frequency b. Can mislead the public with regard who is likely to commit crime and who is likely to be victimized

workplace homicide

a. Most common scenario: retail worker killed during course of robbery i. Taxi-drivers have highest rates of workplace homicide b. Homicide accounts for 40% of workplace death among women

Standard for preventing workplace

a. Not a national standard in the US i. However, federal agencies that provide legislative guidance 1. OSHA 2. Department of Labor

Perceived risk of victimization

a. Not defined as fear of becoming a victim, but a close counterpart of fear b. Those who perceive themselves as at risk are typically more fearful of crime c. Early studies on fear of crime limited by conflating fear or crime and perceived risk of victimization

Consequences of WP victimization

a. On average, each workplace victimization incident results in 3.5 days of missed work, which resulted in more than 55$ million in lost wages annually

Victims of human trafficking

a. Overall, about equal number of males and females i. Most sex trafficking victims are female ii. Most labor trafficking victims are male b. About half under age 18 c. More prevalent in Asia/the pacific d. Russia most popular source country for international sex trafficking, Germany the most popular destination country

What if trafficking victim is foreign national?

a. Palermo protocol-recommends they not be deported i. Most countries do not have a policy or law that prevents such deportation b. In the US, victims can qualify for T visa, allowing them o be temporary residents i. In order to receive T visa, one must be a victim of a severe form of trafficking (sex or labor), must be willing to assist in the investigation/prosecution of traffickers

Some jobs more associated with workplace violence

a. Police officers b. Correctional officers c. Taxi drivers d. Nurses (especially in emergency rooms) e. Individuals In govt office

Reducing threat- targeted HR approach

a. Proactive approach- HR team assesses threats for which business may be at risk i. Develops policies and procedures to address violence b. Includes background screenings, attitude inventories, and reference checks i. Diagnostic tests can be challenged for violating the American with Disability Act

2012 UCR hate crime stats

a. Racial bias - 49% i. African Americans most targeted in this category b. Sexual orientation bias -19.5% i. Homosexual males most targeted in this category c. Religious bias- 17% i. Jewish individuals most targeted in this category

Consequences of trafficking

a. Shorter lifespans b. Physical health issues/labor trafficking: cardiovascular issues, breathing issues, limb amputation c. Physical issues/sex trafficking: vulnerability to HIV/AIDS, other STIs d. Mental health issues: PTSD, depression, suicidal ideation e. Sex trafficking victims: drug or alcohol addiction through forced or coerced use

Smuggling not trafficking

a. Smuggling: the person cooperates, is not coerced or liked to, and is free to leave, change job, etc i. Smuggling always crosses international borders, must be attempting to enter country illegally

Banks and Kyckelhahn report

a. Study of impact and extent of human trafficking from 2008 to 2010 based on federal investigation b. Most investigations (82%) involved sex trafficking; 11% labor trafficking c. 40% involved child sexual exploitation d. labor trafficking victims more likely to be Hispanic or Asian, sex trafficking more likely to be black or white e. most (83%) of sex trafficking victims were US citizens, whereas 67% of labor trafficking victims from other countries

pattern of employe perpetrated violence

a. Traumatic event producing anger or anxiety occurs, employee seeks revenge b. 1990-corporate downsizing led to increased homicides i. Assailants often have a history of frustrating life experiences and failures ii. Many were subjects of disciplinary grievances at time of attack c. Job stress is both a cause and effect of workplace violence

bullying in the workplace

a. Type of aggression against a coworker that may not involve sexual harassment or physical contact i. Spreading rumors, insulting verbally, using demeaning language b. In Indiana, heart surgeon order to pay 325K in damages for perpetuating extreme verbal abuse and profanity c. Current movement to enact legislation to address bullying- healthy workplace bill (not yet any federal legislation to address

Strategies for prevention- convenience stores

a. began discussing prevention in the 1980s, when robberies in convenience stores increased i. Limited signage on the building for surveillance ii. Schedule more than one employee for overnight shifts iii. Limit the amount of cash in station or access of employees to safe

Racial thereat argument

areas where there are higher levels of minorities there is more racial tension, plays into peoples fears that minorities are more dangerous

Should prostitutes be arrested?

b. Difficult to offer these services if victims are arrested for prostitution i. Might not qualify for victim's compensation ii. Not all states have laws making minors immune to prosecution for prostitution

Risk interpretation

b. Individuals consider these factors to ascertain whether they are at risk for being victimized (individual and Macro level)

Sex trafficking

commercial sex is induced by force, fraud or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such act is under 18 years old

Social integration

communities that are socially cohesive will have lower levels of fear

Sexual harassment more common in

companies in which tolerance for sexual harassment is high-threat decreases as guardianship increases male-dominated fields and toward women displaying masculine characteristics.

Racial privilege argument

crimes involving white victims are taken more seriously by society; non-white lives are devalued

Hate crime prevention act of 2009

crimes motivated by bias against gender and gender identity included in hate crime definition

Paradox of fear

disconnect between fear of crime and actual victimization

negligent retention (employer liability)

employer liable if employee displays volatile temper or violence and they fire him/her

Direct causes of fear of crime

experiencing victimization and fearing another will happen in the future

Indirect causes of fear of crime

exposure through witnessing violence, stories in the media, exposure to graffiti

Who has typically lower victimization rates

females

Criticism of question

i. Does not include mention of crime ii. A "formless measure" because does not specify type of crime c. Good measures of fear will include frequency, intensity, and context

Risk factors of trafficking-individual

i. Extreme poverty ii. In some countries, being a girl/woman (male family member might sell to support the rest of the family/pay a debt)

c. Not defined until Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) formulated guidelines in 1980s

i. Falls under title 7 (VII) of civil rights act of 1964 ii. California law 2005: businesses with 50 or more employees must provide supervisors/employees with at least two hours of training every two years 1. Training must also be interactive

Lane and Fox findings

i. Fear of sexual assault significantly predicted fear of crime for both males and females ii. For property crime and gang crime, the influence of gender on fear is non-significant once fear of rape is entered into the model; remains significant in the violent crime model iii. Women who had experienced sexual assault were less likely to express fear of other crimes after controlling for fear of rape

Predictor of fear- age

i. Generally older people are more afraid when DV is general fear; younger people when DV is specific types of crime victimization

Individual consequences of hate crime

i. Harmful because individual often cannot change their personal characteristics that motivate the crime ii. Victimization type has been linked to depression, stress, and anger iii. One study found that gay and lesbian victims of hate crime more likely to experience PTSD than victims of non-hate crimes

LE determines motivation of offender based on

i. Hate speech offender used ii. Hate symbols left by offender iii. Previous history of hate crime perpetuation by suspect or suspects are member of known organized hate group

Risk factors of trafficking- country

i. High levels of civil unrest/violence more likely to have trafficking networks ii. Countries in which LE is corrupt

Threat assessment program

i. IDENTIFICATION of potential perpetrator- who investigates complaints, and reports strange behavior ii. EVALUATION of risks- interview that person, looking into past behavior, looking into financial issues iii. INTERVENTION- might involve transferring that person, offering a leave of absence, providing escorts to parking areas

Predictor of fear- race

i. Mixed results ii. Some studies indicate that African-American are more fearful of crime victimization than whites iii. The relationship between fear and race most likely depends on age and gender

NCVS crime at workplace data

i. Most common type of workplace victimization- theft ii. Majority of workplace violent victimization incidents are simple assaults iii. 6% involved rape, robbery, or homicide

Types of WP violence- worker on worker

i. No specific occupation or industry more or less prone to this ii. 7% of workplace homicide

Types of WP violence- domestic violence

i. Overwhelmingly female victims ii. Perpetrator harasses victim at work via phone or in person

Types of WP violence- Criminal intent

i. Perpetrator has no legitimate relationship with business or employees and is committing a violent crime ii. 85% of workplace homicides

Types of WP violence- employer directed

i. Perpetrator is customer or client who becomes violent during course of normal transaction ii. Mental health workers, bus operators more at risk

Community consequences of hate crime

i. Secondary victimization- individuals in that group might suffer similar psychological consequences to those of the direct victim

Forced Labor

i. When victims are forced to work under the threat of violence or punishment

Risk factors for perpetuation of WP violence

i. White males ii. Between 25 and 40 years of age iii. Loners/ appear withdrawn iv. Does not get along with coworkers v. Drug/alcohol abuse vi. Very interested in weapons and own firearms

a. Dixon and linz 2000 analysis of local television news in LA

i. Whites more likely than AA and latinos to be portrayed as victims (whether homicide or some other type of crime) ii. Whites were overrepresented as victims overall compared to level of victimization, AA underrepresented

Vulnerability can be split into two categories

i. Who is physically vulnerable ii. Who is social vulnerable

Sweden's approach to sex trafficking

illegal to buy sex, but not illegal to sell sex b. those caught buying sex pay hefty fines, public notifications, and potential prison time c. Also a public awareness campaign about the new laws d. Curbed trafficking, as there is a lot of risk and fewer rewards

Fear of crime- trend

remained steady for the past 40 years- about 40% of Americans report they would be afraid to walk alone at night b. Remember, victimization rates in the US have mainly declined since 1990s

Hate crime statistics act of 1990

requires US attorney general to collect data on hate-related crimes

Hate crime sentencing enhancement act of 1993

sentencing enhancements for perpetrators of hate crimes

Abnormal crimes

something unusual happening then media portrays it