VMP 420 Small Ruminants

Early embryonic death.

Pregnancy ends before organogenesis

Perinatal losses

• Perinatal losses from 10-35% • Most data from sheep—but generally applies to goats as well

Copper toxicity (Nutritional and Metabolic Diseases)

1. Cause and occurrence a. Sheep are very sensitive to excess levels of copper in the diet; goats less so. b. Most commonly seen in sheep with excessive copper intake over a prolonged period. c. Copper accumulates in liver and is released in massive amounts and intravascular hemolysis (breakdown of red blood cells) and other signs occur. 2. Clinical signs: 3. Severely affected animals often die. 4. Diagnosis: Determination of blood, liver, kidney copper concentrations, etc. 5. Treatment/Control: a. Treatment often not successful. b. Primary prevention is avoiding excess copper in diet.

Arthritis (Diseases Common in Growing Lambs and Kids)

1. Definition/occurrence a. Arthritis refers to inflammation of a joint. There are multiple causes, including trauma, infections, degenerative disease, etc. b. Chlamydial polyarthritis - serositis affects both sheep and goats. Arthritis caused by this microorganism can cause fever, stiffness, lameness, off-feed, and a concurrent conjunctivitis may be seen. c. Several Mycoplasma species, another microorganism, can cause polyarthritis (poly=multiple joints), other signs (pneumonia, mastitis, etc.). d. Also bacterial causes—variety of bacteria. 2. Signs a. Initially may see fever and depression; later, stiffness. b. Chronic infection gives rise to lameness and weight loss. c. Deaths are rare. d. Specific cultures / tests may be used in diagnosis of specific cause. 3. Treatment a. Usually most effective in cases treated early in disease's course. b. Chlamydial infections may respond to penicillin, tetracyclines, and tylosin. c. Mycoplasmal infections usually respond poorly to antibiotics; oxytetracycline, erythromycin, etc., may cause some improvement. 4. Prevention a. No vaccines specific for chlamydial polyarthritis are available at present. b. Reduction in stress with removal of affected animals may help reduce morbidity. c. Specific as to cause.

Special Considerations for Goat Herds

1. Does - false pregnancy ("cloudburst") is not uncommon. - see cattle notes on mastitis for dairy goats. - Johne's disease may occur, causes pasty stools not fluid diarrhea as in cattle: see cattle notes. 2. Bucks - don't forget to perform routine care for bucks. 3. Kids - hermaphroditism (polled intersex) refers to an animal with both male and female characteristics and is associated with the polled gene. - dehorn early (often first week of life); hot iron. - lice and ear mites can infect kids early: keep adults free; treat kids with flea preparations used for kittens or mite preparations for puppies. -- crowded, damp‑housing will lead to coccidiosis and pneumonia in growing kids.

External Parasitism

1. Epidemiology and life cycles a. Mites, (wingless fly), lice, ticks, and blowflies. b. Lice, keds, and blowflies common on sheep. c. Lice common on goats. d. Increased incidence in winter for lice, keds, and mites, while flies and ticks are more common in summer. e. There are several species of mites that cause mange and some conditions are reportable to animal health authorities. 2. Signs (varies with specific parasite; consult text for details.) a. Rubbing. b. Wool - break and loss. c. Skin infection. d. Anemia, if blood-sucking parasite e. Emaciation. f. Wool stain (ked), ticks on ears, neck and flank. g. Odor (fly strike). 3. Treatment a. Prevention is better! b. For some, like sheep keds in sheep, treat following shearing. c. Do not wait for population to build up in long fleece - difficult to treat. d. Repeat treatment in 10-14 days if infected with lice. e. Spraying, pour‑ons, dips, and dusting are the methods used. Ivermectin also has effect on some external parasites—e.g., sucking lice; injectable and oral forms of ivermectin are not to be used in milk goats due to long milk withdrawal. f. Use care in choice of treatment in lactating goats - milk contamination. g. Improve pastures to reduce tick infestation.

Pneumonia (Diseases Common in Growing Lambs and Kids)

1. Incidence a. A major cause of economic loss to sheep industry - death, downgrading. b. Affects all ages, but very common in growing lambs / kids. c. Importance of Pasteurella multocida, (P. haemolytica now Mannheimia haemolytica) (gram-negative bacteria). 2. Causative agent a. Many bacteria, chlamydia, mycoplasma, and viruses as well as parasites (lungworms) may be involved. b. STRESS, weather, crowding, sanitation, dust, ventilation, nutrient stresses, and other factors all may play a part in pathogenesis, depending upon inciting pathogen. 3. Signs a. Labored breathing, coughing, fever (104°F+), ocular / nasal discharge, lethargy, etc., are predominant signs of pasteurella pneumonia. b. Sudden death in young lambs, kids can be associated with Pasteurella/Mannheimia pneumonia; sometimes referred to as "quick pneumonia." 4. Treatment and prevention a. Antimicrobials (ceftiofur, ampicillin, oxytetracycline, florfenicol, tylosin, etc.) (not all approved for use in small ruminants), nonsteroidals (e.g., flunixin), supportive / nursing care, etc. (depending on cause). b. Vaccines may be used but may not be approved for sheep, goats (consult veterinarian). c. Attention to environment, colostral intake, nutrition, ventilation, etc.

Pregnancy Toxemia (twin lamb disease) (Nutritional and Metabolic Diseases)

1. Incidence a. A management disease - very thin or fat ewes. Also does. Major factor is improper nutrition in late pregnancy. b. Late pregnancy. c. Ewes and does with twins, triplets, respectively, are more susceptible. 2. Cause a. High energy demand coupled to decreased food intake and quality. b. Hypoglycemia and other metabolic derangements result in nervous signs. 3. Signs a. Lags behind initially. b. Blindness, staggering. c. Tremors, convulsions, coma. d. Untreated animals may go down and die in 3-4 days. 4. Treatment - Various strategies are used, these include (not all are necessarily used in a given case): a. Glucose or dextrose IV. b. Propylene glycol (orally). c. Dexamethasone. d. Electrolytes, bicarbonate, etc. e. C‑section or induced parturition to save lambs/remove energy drain. 5. Prevention a. Body condition score ewes and does in late gestation and feed accordingly. b. Use appropriate level of concentrates in late pregnancy. b. Management groups: If possible, divide up into groups for singles, twins by use of ultrasound; or by condition score, and feed accordingly.

Enterotoxemia Type D (Overeating Disease, Pulpy Kidney Disease) (Diseases Common in Growing Lambs and Kids)

1. Incidence: often associated with feed changes and usually seen in lambs/kids (less frequently in kids) on high concentrate diet. a. Common in lambs on high concentrate diet or lush pasture (less common); can occur in young lambs (often singles) on heavy milk intake. b. In unvaccinated groups, can cause considerable mortality. c. See text for occurrence of disease by age; 10th ed says can occur in lambs < 2 wk of age or lambs/kids on high concentrate diet 2. Causative agent a. Clostridium perfringens type D, a bacterium that can be a part of the normal microflora of the intestinal tract. 3. Signs a. Sudden death or downers with neurological signs (see text, pp. 557-558). b. May note terminal convulsions. c. At necropsy, may see fluid around heart; may see soft kidney (hence name, pulpy=soft kidney). 4. Prevention a. Vaccination of ewes / does. b. Vaccinate lambs / kids at 4 weeks and again at 6 weeks or before feeding a high-grain diet or as directed on vaccine product label. a. May also vaccinate prior to moving into feedlot. b. Avoid sudden or marked feed changes; slow introduction of concentrates.

Parasitism

1. Parasitism is usually present in almost all herds - the objective is to reduce the parasite "burden" AND the "challenge" of parasitic larvae. 2. Immunity is affected by a. Age: lambs or kids more susceptible, have not developed immunity. b. Status: "periparturient rise" in parasite egg shedding at parturition. c. Genetics: Angora goats may be more susceptible; hair sheep and other breeds may be more resistant; Kiko goats may be more resistant. d. Nutrition: poor nutrition makes animals more susceptible. 3. Disease occurs with overwhelming challenge. 4. Control depends on avoiding buildup in flock.

Interpretation of a lamb's temperature

>104 C (104 F) Fever—infection; if being warmed or under heat lamp— overheated, hyperthermia 39-40 C (102-104 F) Normal rectal temperture 37-39 C (99-102 F) Moderate hypothermia < 37 C (99 F) Severe hypothermia

Clostridial infections (Other Diseases in Lamas)

Enterotoxemia types A, C and D are known to occur in llamas. Type A is not known to affect North American llamas, but is a serious problem in South American animals. The clinical signs of enterotoxemia caused by types C and D are similar to the corresponding disease in small ruminants. Type C is more often seen in younger animals, with type D in older animals on a high plane of nutrition. Tetanus has been reported. Llamas do not appear to be significantly susceptible to tetanus. Vaccination against the clostridial disease is practiced by many owners and veterinarians. The 8-way vaccine products may result in a vaccination site reaction more frequently than the 3-way products. Owner preference may be the driving force in the vaccination program.

Hypothermia/Hypoglycemia (Exposure/Starvation) (Diseases of Neonatal Lambs and Kids)

Incidence - can occur in all herds / flocks—perinatal mortality reported from various countries ranges from 10-35%; USA—average of 11.2% in sheep; 14% in goats a. Goal should be ~ <15%, best operations around 10% or less b. Neonate born in exposed, cold conditions (can withstand cold temperatures once dry). c. Poor mothering traits. d. With mastitis, udder defects, soremouth, agalactia (lack of milk), etc. e. Following dystocia or damage by the mother herself. f. Gram-negative bacterial sepsis can lead to ↓blood glucose (hypoglycemia). g. Divided into predator losses (coyotes, fox, dogs, eagles, etc.) (about 1/3 of losses; total of 3.9% of lamb losses) and non-predator losses (two-thirds losses; total of 6.8% of lambs); non-predator includes lambing problems, disease, weather-related (largest portion) Total loss is 10.7% Signs a. Initially weak with poor suckle reflex, then unable to rise; coma/death. b. Subnormal temperature—may not even register on thermometer. c. If cannot hold head up - may be severely hypothermic and/or hypoglycemic. d. Hypothermia: Temperature below the normal of 102-104 F: Two types: 1. Exposure=rapid loss of heat in neonate up to 5 hours of birth, usually outdoors, bad weather; 2. Starvation and exhaustion=starvation and use of body reserves; more than 5 hours of age; includes both hypothermia and hypoglycemia. e. Problems facing newborn kid or lamb: 1. Nutrition: Energy critical; newborn lamb/kid has limited energy reserves; dependent upon mother for food; more energy needed on per body weight basis than adult. 2. Temperature regulation: Need to produce heat>losses to maintain body temperature; born wet and loses heat more rapidly; more skin area than adult. 3. Resistance to infectious disease: No defenses; no prior disease exposure/experience; gets all antibodies via colostrum. 4.Extra route of infection:Navel Treatment a. Warmth (such as heating pad, heat lamps, etc.). b. Warmed oral colostrum; glucose orally (e.g., karo syrup) or glucose/dextrose by other routes (IP, SQ, IV, etc.) may be used to elevate blood sugar. Prevention a. Warm lambing/kidding areas with ample room. b. Dry kids / lambs at birth - very susceptible to frostbite of extremities. c. Select ewes/does for good mothering and cull those with mastitis or udder defects. d. Observation at lambing/kidding the most important.

Rabies (Other Diseases in Lamas)

Llamas can, and do, get rabies. Many owners request vaccination. If you vaccinate, use only killed products.

ABORTION IN SHEEP

Major infectious agents recognized as factors in sheep abortion include*: Campylobacter, Chlamydophila, Toxoplasma, Listeria, Brucella, Salmonella, border disease virus, and Cache Valley virus. Campylobacter spp. (formerly known as vibriosis): Late gestation abortion or stillbirths; vaccination and antibiotics (tetracyclines) used in prevention (C. jejuni is zoonotic). Chlamydophila (enzootic abortion of ewes=EAE): Causes late term abortions, stillbirths, and weak lambs. Can be a zoonosis and pregnant women should avoid working with pregnant sheep, especially if abortions are occurring. Bacterins/vaccines as well as antibiotics are used in control/prevention. Border disease: Causes a range of problems, including "hairy shaker lambs", embryonic/fetal deaths, weak lambs and congenital abnormalities. It is caused by a virus related to the bovine virus diarrhea (BVD) virus. No specific vaccines available. Cache valley virus: Mosquito-born virus causing abortion and related problems. No vaccine available. Toxoplasmosis: A protozoal disease that can cause a variety of ill-effects on fetus (abortion, resorption, mummification, perinatal deaths, etc.). Contamination of sheep feed with cat feces can be involved. A zoonotic disease. Listeriosis: Bacterial disease that can cause abortion as well as encephalitis (see notes); can be zoonotic. Brucellosis: Brucella ovis causes epididymitis in rams, as well as abortions, stillbirths and birth of weak lambs (see notes). There are additional causes (salmonellosis, bluetongue, etc)

Conclusion for Llamas

When it comes to working with llamas, the slow and easy approach usually works best. If the animal's first experience with clinical personnel is positive, it will go a long way in acceptance for future treatments. Understanding the llama's body language and responses to procedures are key to success in handling them. A happy "hum" and a nose sniff are the ultimate signs of gratitude.

General Example of Herd Breeding Program

a. Prebreeding (August - September) Vaccinate ewes/does (abortion diseases). Deworm ewes. Foot trim; foot bath. Increase nutrition (flush) then reduce. Shear and fertility check rams. Rams at appropriate ratio to ewes. b. Prelambing (January - February) Clostridial/respiratory (if used) vaccines for ewes. Selenium if necessary. Clean lambing quarters. Condition score ewes. Shear or crotch ewes. Treat for external parasites (as needed) and deworm ewes. c. Postlambing Tetanus antitoxin and selenium, if necessary, at docking. Vaccination for enterotoxemia - per product label Weaning at 50-90 days. Strategic parasite control. d. Postweaning Select ewe lambs and put on good forage. Strategic parasite control. Cull ewes (udders and teeth).

Polioencephalomalacia (PEM; cerebrocortical necrosis) (Nutritional and Metabolic Diseases)

1. Cause and occurrence a. Vitamin B1 (thiamine) deficiency. b. Seen in any age animal, more common in young, rapidly growing animals with high grain intake. c. Cause: Decreased production or increased destruction of Vitamin B1 (thiamine) by the rumen microflora - typically associated with sudden feed changes or production of a thiaminase; there are many theories and complexities. 2. Signs: acute neurologic disorder with various signs, including blindness, tetany, convulsions, dullness, depression, recumbency, coma, death 3. Treatment a. May respond rapidly to injectable Vitamin B1=thiamine. b. If a response is seen, it has been recommended that the treatment should be repeated at 12-hour intervals for 3 treatments and then daily for 3 treatments. See veterinarian or text for dosage. c. Additional supportive and medical therapy 4. Prevention: Avoid risk factors associated with outbreak of the disease.

Internal Parasitism

1. Epidemiology and life cycles (see Figure 2 in Part 2). a. Most common on pasture, especially pasture that has had high density of sheep or goats previously. Climate dependent (warm and moist conditions favor development and survival). b. Major types: Some EXAMPLES; many specific parasites. (1) Abomasal/Intestinal: Haemonchus contortus (blood sucker), Trichostrongylus, Ostertagia (now Teladorsagia). (2) Tapeworms: Moniezia spp., etc. (3) Lungworm: Dictyocaulus filaria, Muellerius capillaris (4) Liver flukes: Fasciola hepatica c. Periparturient rise in egg shedding is important in epidemiology. d. Strongylid - eggs generally similar in size/appearance, includes, with genus and common names: (1) Haemonchus: barber pole worm (2) Trichostrongylus: black scours worm (3) Ostertagia (Teladorsagia): brown stomach worm 2. Signs: Varies with specific parasites a. Weight loss. b. Failure to gain. c. Coughing. d. Diarrhea. e. Anemia and bottle jaw (especially haemonchosis). f. Acute death. 3. Diagnosis a. Clinical signs. b. Postmortem. c. Use of fecal egg counts. d. Drenching response. 4. Treatment a. Principles (1) Previously, it had been recommended that when you treat, it was often advisable to treat ALL animals in the group. There is currently a lot of use of the "FAMACHA" system for use ON HAEMONCHUS ONLY, where animals are treated based upon signs of anemia. (2) Consider level of infectivity of pasture animals are on. Spelled pasture. Crop regrowth. New grass. Pasture grazed by cattle. b. Forms of treatment: Drench (dewormer given by mouth=orally). Feed additive. Medicated blocks. Injectable. Others. c. Drug resistance has been reported for several products (especially ivermectin, fenbendazole). Check for resistance with fecal egg count reduction test. d. Strategic drenching - treat at specific times. d. Few products FDA-approved for sheep and goats - check product label. Most use extra-label—requires veterinarian-client-patient relationship

Caprine arthritis and encephalitis (CAE) (Other Diseases of Importance)

1. Incidence a. A virus affecting goats (OPP = Ovine Progressive Pneumonia is caused by a similar virus which causes a somewhat similar disease in sheep). b. 2 major forms: neurologic, arthritic; other less common clinical manifestations are also seen - see text, pp. 675-677. c. May be more of a problem in dairy goats, as opposed to meat goats. 2. Signs a. Neurologic (progressive paresis, leukoencephalomyelitis) (1) Most commonly 2-4 months old. (2) Lameness, ataxia, paralysis, etc. (3) Other "neurologic" signs. (4) Appetite may be normal and may survive for some time with nursing, but paralysis remains. b. Arthritic (Polyarthritis) (1) Adult animals. (2) Joint capsule distension and lameness, carpal joints (knees) most commonly affected. (3) Joints become stiff and difficult to flex. c. Hard udders in does with decreased milk; other manifestations (e.g., pneumonia). 3. Transmission a. Primarily via colostrum or milk to kid (from infected dam). b. Other means of infection (direct contact, etc.) are reported, but less commonly. 4. Prevention/Eradication a. Remove kids from dam at birth to prevent spread via colostrum and rear isolated from positive animals. b. Use colostrum that has been heat‑treated and then pasteurized milk or milk replacer and rear isolated from positive animals. a. Serology (blood tests) to test for CAE virus infection; repeated testing and culling of positive animals. b. No specific treatment is available; supportive treatment may be used.

White Muscle Disease (Stiff Lamb Disease, Nutritional Myopathy, etc.) (Nutritional and Metabolic Diseases)

1. Incidence a. Acute onset of muscle stiffness in lambs, or chronic illthrift. Also occurs in kids. Other signs seen - see text, pp. 1066-1068. b. Common in selenium deficient areas (e.g., Eastern North Carolina). 2. Cause a. Deficiency of selenium and/or vitamin E. Long storage may reduce vitamin E content of feeds. b. Affects skeletal and cardiac muscle. 3. Signs a. Stiffness, arched back, "swollen" hindquarters. b. May go down, but still alert, eating. c. Chronic cases may have pneumonia. d. Sudden death due to heart failure. a. Rapid respiration, mimicking pneumonia. b. There are various syndromes, see text for details (pp. 1066-1068). 4. Treatment a. Administration of injectable selenium and/or vitamin E. b. Beware of selenium toxicity - selenium can be toxic when given in excess. 5. Prevention a. Supplemental selenium and/or vitamin E in feed and/or by injection. b. Vitamin E deficiency should be suspected where old hay is fed for many months over winter. c. Test ration for selenium and vitamin E or animal's blood for selenium. d. Refer to Herd Health section for timing of injections.

Footrot (Virulent Footrot, Contagious Footrot) (Diseases Affecting the Herd)

1. Incidence a. Common disease of sheep, especially during long wet periods on pasture. b. All breeds affected. c. Occurs in goats, but less common than sheep. 2. Causative agents are bacteria. Two gram-negative anaerobes: a. Bacteroides nodosus (now Dichelobacter nodosus) - obligate parasite - primary agent. b. Fusobacterium necrophorum. 3. Signs a. Lameness - can be severe - often flock outbreak (up to 70% to 100%) b. Damage, softening of tissue between toes. c. Slight detachment of areas of hoof to separation of horn. d. Overgrowth, abnormal growth. e. Smell is considered characteristic. 4. Treatment a. Trim feet. b. Foot baths. Copper sulphate. 10% zinc sulphate (preferred by most individuals). c. Topical bactericidal solutions; topical or injectable antibiotics. d. Improve results by keeping in dry environment after treatment. 5. Control a. Keep flock free of footrot by not introducing animals carrying the disease. Isolate introduced animals. b. Foot trimming on regular basis. c. Footbaths. d. Culling and selection. e. Vaccines (Dichelobacter nodosus) have been shown to have a role in prevention and therapy—the main vaccine used in past is not currently available in US.

Pinkeye (keratoconjunctivitis)

1. Incidence a. Common in both species. b. Often an outbreak affecting a large percentage of herd/flock over a short period of time. 2. Causative agent a. Numerous microorganisms cause the disease. In sheep, Chlamydia psittaci (now Chlamydophila pecorum) may be most common. Rickettsia, mycoplasmas, and bacteria can be involved. In goats, mycoplasma may be most common. b. Dust, dry conditions, long grass, and flies may be factors. c. Different from disease in cattle; Moraxella bovis (cause of cattle pinkeye) is RARE in sheep and goats, although it can occur. There is a Moraxella ovis found in sheep, but not recognized as a major cause. 3. Signs a. Acute disease which spreads rapidly; one or both eyes. b. Reddened conjunctivae, ocular discharge. c. Ulceration (central) and cloudiness of cornea. d. Recovery phase in severe cases - blood vessels grow into ulcerated area of cornea. e. Most recover in about 2 wk, but weight loss means economic loss. f. A small proportion remains permanently blind in one or both eyes. 4. Diagnosis, treatment and prevention a. Various procedures (microorganism cultivation, examination of cytologic specimens, etc.) may be used in specific etiological diagnosis. b. Good management practices important to reduce or prevent spread of disease, including separation of infected from non-infected animals. c. Try to remove source of irritation (dust, flies) by maintaining a clean environment. d. Antibiotics in eyelid (penicillin) or in muscle/under skin (oxytetracycline) (depending upon cause). e. Antibiotic-containing ophthalmic ointments (especially tetracyclines) (depending upon cause). f. Current thought: Recovery of MILDER cases may occur w/o treatment.

Coccidiosis (Diseases Common in Growing Lambs and Kids)

1. Incidence a. Common in kids/lambs over approximately 3 weeks of age and older (usually between 1 to 3 and more months of age). b. Often associated with stress (weaning, transport, shipping), poor nutrition, poor sanitation, over-crowding, etc. 2. Causative agent a. Eimeria spp in environment or carried and passed by asymptomatic or symptomatic animals and ingested by lambs or kids (See Figure 1). b. Fecal-oral route of infection c. It is generally considered that coccidia are host-specific and there is no cross-immunity between species of coccidia. 3. Signs a. Diarrhea with or without mucus or blood, fever, weight loss, dehydration, emaciation, weakness, off feed, etc. b. Death can occur in severe cases. c. Oocysts can be seen by microscopy (usually after concentration such as by fecal flotation) in feces in most cases or disease seen at necropsy. d. Signs due to destruction of intestinal epithelium. 4. Treatment/Prevention a. Fluids and electrolytes for severely affected. b. Anticoccidials, sulfonamides, amprolium, etc. c. All in‑contact animals should be treated, not just affected animals. d. Prevention can be achieved using a coccidiostat in feed (e.g., lasalocid, monensin, decoquinate; check for drug approval by species) for ewes/does for 30 days prior to lambing and in creep feed of lambs/kids. e. Avoid wet, dirty, overcrowded pens - feed off ground, avoid contamination of feed with feces, etc. f. Oocysts do not survive well below -30 C (-22 F) or >40 C (104 F); within this range they may survive a year or more.

Soremouth (orf, contagious ecthyma)

1. Incidence a. Infectious dermatitis, commonly on lips, but other sites (see below). b. Common in sheep and goats and communicable to man (i.e., zoonotic disease). c. Seen around lambing time, during introduction to feedlot, etc. 2. Cause a. A poxvirus (parapoxvirus) - very resistant to drying. Transmitted by animal to animal contact. b. Man can be infected - wear gloves when handling infected animals. 3. Signs a. Visible changes progressing through stages to scabs on lips, gums, nostril, vulva, udder, and other sites. b. Pain may inhibit lambs/kids from suckling and ewes/does from allowing nursing; predisposes to mastitis. c. Will heal spontaneously in 2-4 weeks. 4. Treatment/Prevention a. Except with very severe cases, treatment is often not attempted, as many cases resolve over time; antibacterials may be used to prevent secondary infection. Supportive care can be provided as needed. b. A live virus vaccine is available - discuss potential use with veterinarian. c. Isolate infected animals - do NOT take to shows or ram tests until completely healed!

Bluetongue(Other Diseases of Importance)

1. Incidence a. Noncontagious viral disease of sheep, wild ruminants, and (rarely) other species. b. Cattle are a reservoir for this virus. Uncommonly causes clinical disease in cattle and goats. c. Periodically, outbreaks of clinical disease may occur in sheep. d. Clinical disease is seen in sheep but not goats. e. Seasonal: summer months/fall. 2. Cause a. A virus transmitted by biting insects ((Culicoides), the biting midge. Distribution of virus vector limits disease to southern and western USA. 3. Signs a. Clinical signs include difficult breathing; fever; depression; inflammation; erosions and ulcers of oral mucous membranes; many other signs b. Depression and anorexia cause weight loss. c. A small portion of cases may die; May cause abortion. d. Most recover over a period of weeks. 4. Treatment/Prevention a. Leave affected animals alone in shade with access to ample water. b. Vector (midge) control (insecticide ear tags, insecticides, etc.) c.Vaccines are available but there are multiple considerations to use; consult expert help

Parturient paresis (milk fever) (Nutritional and Metabolic Diseases)

1. Incidence a. Occurs in sheep/goats from 6 wk before to 10 wk after parturition; most occur in late gestation. b. Variations to above are feasible. 2. Cause a. Hypocalcemia due to fetal/lactation demand for calcium. 3. Signs a. Tremors, weakness, gait changes, rumen hypomotility or atony, recumbency, etc. b. Bloat and regurgitation may occur. c. Untreated animals may die. 4. Treatment a. Intravenous calcium solution initially/oral calcium. b. Nursing care - keep sternal - usually recover in 1-2 hours. 5. Prevention a. Maintain increasing plane of nutrition in late gestation to provide adequate calcium intake. b. Decrease stress. c. Avoid predisposing causes.

Scrapie (Other Diseases of Importance)

1. Incidence a. Recently more awareness. b. Tends to occur in mature sheep; goats can be infected but much less commonly than sheep. c. Seen worldwide, with exception of Australia/New Zealand 2. Cause a. Organism not definitely classified, but not a virus. Currently thought to be a "prion" protein b. Very resistant organism. c. Reportable to state veterinarian when diagnosed. d. Important relationship with BSE, Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy. 3. Signs - neurologic a. Behavioral changes. b. Rubbing and itching leading to wool loss. c. Incoordination. d. Ultimately death in all cases. e. Diagnosis at necropsy by examination of brain tissue under microscope. 4. Treatment - none 5. Prevention a. Quarantine of infected premises and traceback; regulations subject to change, check current documents. b. A federal program is being developed to allow flocks meeting specific conditions to indicate a specific status relative to disease status of the flock. Animals vary in susceptibility and there is selection for resistant animals.

Listeriosis ("circling disease," "silage sickness") (Sporadic Disease)

1. Incidence a. Sporadic, can be but not always a herd/flock outbreak; seen world-wide. b. Sheep and goats both. c. Causative agent is the bacteria Listeria monocytogenes: normal inhabitant of intestine and soil; survives well on decaying, fermenting organic material, e.g., poorly fermented silage. d. Gains entry to body via ingestion, inhalation, wounds (other routes feasible); stress may be important. 2. Signs (see text, pp. 598-600, for full description) a. Abortion. b. Birth of weak lambs. c. Encephalitis most common; can progress to death. Depressed. Disoriented. Fall to one side (circling), then down, unable to rise. Facial paralysis, drooping eye or ear, etc. 3. Treatment a. Early cases may respond to aggressive antibiotic therapy (penicillin or oxytetracycline indicated as drugs of choice by some references) and supportive therapy. 4. Control a. Handle materials from affected animals carefully, especially aborted fetuses (zoonosis). b. Cease silage poor-quality feeding. c. Improve silage storage, quality. d. Segregate affected animals during an outbreak.

Urinary Calculi (waterbelly, urolithiasis) (Nutritional and Metabolic Diseases)

1. Incidence a. The formation of urinary stones in bladder and urethra or anywhere in urinary tract, along with obstruction of the urinary tract. Most common in male feeder lambs and young male goats. b. Often seen in male show lambs/kids. 2. Cause a. Complex causes involving interaction of dietary, hormonal, and environmental factors. b. In feeder lambs, abnormal calcium‑phosphorus ratio is a common cause (see text, p. 1389-1391). 3. Clinical Signs a. Discomfort, frequent attempts to urinate, dribbling blood-tinged urine, etc. b. Calculus (stone) may be felt in distal urethra (urethral process). c. Subcutaneous swelling of the belly may occur after several days if the urethra ruptures, releasing urine under the skin. 4. Treatment a. Attempt to snip off the urethral process - a common site of blockage. b. If this fails, slaughter may be advisable for all but the most valuable animals. Medical therapy is possible, but not often successful, depending upon stage. c. Surgical correction may be possible (costly). d. Oral ammonium chloride to acidify urine. e. See text, pp. 1389-1391, for complete discussion. 5. Prevention a. Maintain a 2:1 calcium:phosphorus in complete ration. b. Addition of salt in ration to increase water intake. c. Access to potable water at all times. d. Urinary acidifiers in feed.

Acidosis (Grain Overload) (Diseases Common in Growing Lambs and Kids)

1. Incidence and Cause a. Seen in lambs during the first week in a feedlot or any ruminant consuming excess rich feeds. b. Due to sudden intake of high concentrate diet leading to acid in the rumen, damage to rumen lining and acid‑base imbalances. 2. Signs a. Occur within hours of excess intake of feed. b. Depression, abdominal discomfort; may progress to recumbency/coma. d. Death is not uncommon. e. Survivors may have a "splashy" rumen and diarrhea; will be poor‑doers. 3. Treatment a. Oral antacid via gastric tube. b. Intravenous fluids and rumenotomy will help if animal is valuable and severely affected. 4. Prevention - ration management a. Adequate bunk space. b. Gradual introduction of concentrates (over a period of 2-3 weeks). c. Latch on feed-room door. d. Avoid sudden access to concentrates or sudden feed changes.

Problems facing the newborn lamb (or kid):

1. Nutrition: Energy is critical: Limited energy reserves; totally dependent upon mother for food; more energy needed on body weight basis compared to adult 2. Temperature regulation: Must produce heat ≥ losses to maintain temperature: More skin surface area than adult; birth coat has low insulation value; lamb wet when born—loses heat fast 3. Resistance to infectious disease: No defense against disease: No prior disease experience; antibodies only via colostrum 4. Extra route of infection: Navel

General Information on Llamas

Curved ears were once very popular. Now straight ears are well accepted. Attempts are being made to continuously improve the wool quality in llamas. Most American llamas are related to a small band of less than 50 that were imported in the 20s or 30s and may not have been of superior wool quality. Now that South American countries have relaxed restrictions on exportation of llamas to the US, Peruvian, Chilean, and Bolivian llamas are expensive and prestigious. These recent imports appear to be greatly improving the quality of American llama wool. Heavy wooled llamas are those that have wool on the ears and below the hocks. Crimped wool is highly desirable as it stretches well after it is woven and it spins well. Llamas ingest forage, regurgitate and rechew (i.e. ruminate); however, they are not ruminants. The camelids possess a 3-compartmented stomach, easily remembered as C-1, C-2, C-3.

Stillbirth

Dead full-term fetus (lungs are not inflated).

GENERAL APPROACH TO DIAGNOSIS of abortion

Diagnosis of cause of abortion can be quite difficult—it can be considered good if a cause is determined in around half or more of abortion cases. There is great variability in ability of various diagnostics lab to perform various tests—so you need specific knowledge about the site where you are sending your samples. Specimen selection and handling is very important. In most cases, fresh and refrigerated fetus and placenta, along with maternal serum are the best samples. Keeping samples cool but not frozen and rapid transport to the lab are two important recommended steps.

Heat stress (Common Health Issues for Llamas)

Heat stress in llamas is a real threat, especially those kept in our area. Llamas are animals of altitude and require careful management to prevent heat-related problems. Heavy hair coats, obesity, stress from sickness, infections, and forced recumbency from injuries or fractures make llamas more susceptible to heat stress. Southern humidity is particularly difficult to tolerate. Since the llama's main area for heat loss is the thin wooled area on the ventral abdomen, any problem resulting in recumbency will predispose the llama to heat stress. Unfortunately, a severe case of heat stress will result in the animal becoming recumbent. Southern llamas commonly have the wool around their abdomens cut short in a "poodle" cut. Animals that are reluctant or are unable to rise should be carefully examined. An elevated rectal temperature will usually be evident. Weakness, anorexia, and neurologic signs (including convulsion and respiratory arrest) may be noted. Animals may eventually lose their central thermoregulatory ability. CK will be elevated. Treatment is to correct the body temperature and support the animal physiologically. Spraying the animal with cold water may be useful but should be directed towards the ventral abdomen. If whole body wetting is attempted, make certain the droplets reach the skin surface because retention of droplets on the external surface of the wool will only make the animal feel hotter. If convulsions are occurring, ice should be applied to the back of the head. Antibiotics, selenium and anti-inflammatories are recommended in the literature.7 Correction of the electrolyte abnormalities and prevention of muscle damage due to recumbency is important. It may be necessary to sling or lift the animal to encourage standing.

Procedure for Intraperitoneal or IP injections—must be aseptic—absorption is very rapid—danger of infection

Hold the lamb by front legs Prepare the injection site—1/2 to 1 inch to the side of midline and 1inch behind navel Insert a 1-inch 20 guage needle at site with tip of needle aimed toward the lambs rump at 45 ° angle Empty the syringe (see dose in Table 2, depending upon lamb size) Dispose of needle and syringe.

Epididymitis

Incidence a. Common in rams; some flocks have many rams affected. b. Can occur in young rams. Cause a. Brucella ovis and other organisms. b. Transmitted primarily by direct contact among rams. Signs a. Lumps and swellings of the epididymis (the tube taking semen away from the testicle). These often can be felt. Also causes orchitis (inflammation of testes). b. Rarely are systemic signs noted. c. Low lambing percentage can alert you to this possibility. b. Some rams carry the organism with no signs—susceptibility increases with age. Treatment a. Treatment is often unsuccessful and not generally advised. b. Eradication by test and cull is advised. c. Combination of palpation, serology (and various related tests) and semen culture is used in detection. Prevention a. Once eradicated, blood test all new rams before allowing access to flock. b.No recommended vaccination in US

Navel‑ill and Joint‑ill (Diseases of Neonatal Lambs and Kids)

Incidence a. Common in unsanitary conditions - often from infection of umbilicus during first week of life (navel‑ill). Causative Agents a. Usually, a bacterial infection (often gram-positive) of joints. Several bacteria and other micro-organisms may be involved. b. Some bacteria may enter bloodstream and may cause septic arthritis (joint‑ill) or pneumonia. Signs a. Hot, swollen and painful joints; often non-weight bearing. b. Generally see fever, but there may be no reduction in appetite. c. May see navel involvement—enlargement, warmth d. Death in some due to septicemia and pneumonia in first few days of life. Treatment a. Antibiotics very early. b. Joint problems are usually unresponsive unless treated early - chronically lame. c. Valuable individuals may respond to joint "flushing" (flushing debris out of joint with sterile fluids) and antimicrobial therapy. Prevention a. Sanitary and dry lambing/kidding areas. b. Adequate intake of colostrum. c. Treat umbilicus with germicide (iodine, chlorhexidine, etc.).

Tetanus (lock jaw) (Diseases of Neonatal Lambs and Kids)

Incidence a. More common in lambs, less so in kids. b. Following: Castration, docking, disbudding - goats Can be from use of dirty instruments or from rubber bands in castration/ docking c. Can occur in adults due to wound or uterine infection, but uncommon. Causative agent a. Clostridium tetani, a bacterial inhabitant of soil and animal intestinal tract. b. Bacteria in anaerobic environment produces nerve toxin. The toxin results in neurologic signs. c. Prefers tissue that is necrotic or with poor blood supply (devitalized), e.g., tail stump following docking. Signs a. Signs most commonly seen 10-14 days (one-several weeks) after procedure, such as docking/ castration. b. Stiff gait, unable to eat. c. Spasms, rigidity, goes down. d. Respiratory arrest, death. Treatment a. Treatment may be attempted, but is not often successful. b. Includes high levels of antibiotics (penicillin), local wound treatment, antitoxins, supportive care, etc. Prevention a. Cleanliness with surgical procedures. b. Vaccination of ewes / does (See above). c. Antiserum at docking if not vaccinating ewes prior to lambing. d. Avoid elastrator bands for docking if there is a history of tetanus on a particular farm.

Neonatal Diarrhea (Scours) (Diseases of Neonatal Lambs and Kids)

Incidence a. Very common in neonates. 2. Causative agents a. Most common infections in most areas are Escherichia coli, viruses (e.g., rotavirus) and Cryptosporidium parvum. Cases are usually associated with more than one agent and the cause of outbreaks is often multifactorial. b. Pathogens may be carried by healthy adults and may be excreted periodically. c. Colostrum-deprived offspring can be highly susceptible. d. Nutritional: Over-feeding or poor quality milk replacer. 3. Signs a. Diarrhea, dehydration, profound weakness, etc. b. Death may occur in some affected animals 4. Treatment a. Fluid and electrolyte therapy most important. Depending upon severity, may be IV, oral (bottle or tube), etc. b. Additional treatment may include alteration of diet, antimicrobial and immunoglobulin therapy, probiotics, and use of antidiarrheal drugs and adsorbents. 5. Prevention a. Principles include: 1) Reducing degree of microbial exposure by GOOD HYGIENE and isolation of diseased animals; 2) Maximizing non-specific resistance by good nutrition of dams and offspring and assessing adequate intake of colostrum, and 3) Increasing specific resistance of the neonate by vaccination of the dams and offspring. b. Ensure adequate colostral intake (See Exposure/Starvation section above). c. Crutch (shearing the rear end of the ewe) ewes prelambing - prevent exposure to pathogens. d. Sanitary conditions for birth. e. Protection of lambs at risk (antibodies, antisera). f. Vaccines for cattle might be used (extra-label); species-specific products may be available in some instances. g. Salmonella spp. can be seen in animals approximately 2-12 weeks of age. h. Some agents, including Salmonella and cryptosporidia, can cause diseases in humans=zoonotic. Practice hygiene.

Enterotoxemia (called lamb dysentery in lambs) (Diseases of Neonatal Lambs and Kids)

Incidence a. Young lambs and kids. Causative agent a. There is some debate whether this is caused by Clostridium perfringens Type B or Type C and how frequently it occurs. Type B definitely seen in UK—there is some debate about how much/whether it occurs here. a. The bacterium Clostridium perfringens C is most commonly considered the cause in the US; produces a toxin (Beta toxin) which causes severe intestinal damage. It is sensitive to proteolytic enzymes; colostrum may inhibit. b. Primarily inhabitant of intestinal tract of animals. c. Colostral antibodies are protective. Signs a. Enteritis, dysentery (frequent watery stools and fever), dehydration and toxemia (clinical changes due to toxins from organism in blood). b. High mortality. Prevention a. Combination vaccines given to ewes/does prior to lambing/kidding usually include this organism; use of antisera. b. Ensure colostral intake. c.Sanitation.

Program for the Breeding Herd

Objective: Reduce economic loss through prevention of disease rather than individual animal treatment. Revolves around: a. Nutrition. b. Immunization. c. Parasite control. d. Sound management practices. Monitored by veterinarian and herdsman: a. Farm visits by vet. b. Necropsy of all dead animals. c. Good record keeping. Calendar: assume once per year lambing, and fall breeding

Treatments and Procedures for Llamas

Injections: Sites for intramuscular injections in llamas are limited due to their poor muscular tone. The caudal thighs and anterior pectoral muscles are commonly used. If frequent injections are needed, it is best to rotate muscles to prevent soreness. It is better to go subcutaneously whenever this option is available. Oral Medications: In administering oral medication, this clinician has found it best to administer liquids via stomach tubes (this may help reduce the chance of being spat on by the animal). Some llamas tolerate this procedure better than others do. A mouth speculum can be readily made with a 12-cc syringe case to fit crias simply by cutting off the tip. Always be sure that the tube is in proper location before administering medications. Feet: When it comes to working on feet, most llamas accept trimming and examination under normal circumstances. However, unhandled or diseased patients may be challenging to work with, and they may attempt kicking or stomping. Many usually cush to avoid having to feet lifted. Routine toe trimming and handling is necessary to avoid foot problems.

South American Camelids

Lama is the term used to refer to South American camelids, including llamas, alpacas, guanacos and vicunas. Although primarily used for show and recreation in North America, llamas make great companion pets. These animals differ from true ruminants in many ways, and individuals need a good understanding of the llama to work with these animals more effectively. There are 4 species of camelids native to the South American continent. Llamas (Lama glama) and Alpacas (Lama pacos) are domesticated species. The Guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and the Vicuna (Vicugna vicugna) are wild species. Llamas come in many colors and wool types; the wool of all four species can be spun but the wool of the llama is the least desirable. The llama is a domestic animal, primarily developed as a beast of burden. The alpaca is also a domestic animal but guanacos and vicunas are not domesticated and exportation of both species has been tightly controlled until recently. Vicunas are currently on the endangered list due to heavy hunting for their fine fiber, which is worth more on the world market than silk. Ruminants and camelids are all in the Order Artiodactyla (even-toed hoof stock). Camelids belong to the Suborder Tylopoda. Ruminants belong to the Suborder Ruminantia, which includes cattle, deer, sheep, goats, antelope and gazelles. How do you differentiate between a llama and an alpaca? Size (alpacas are smaller and finer featured); cost (alpacas were once tremendously overpriced); quality, thickness, and crimp of wool; and shape and size of ears (llamas wear bananas!).

Colic and C3 (Common Health Issues for Llamas)

Llamas are prone to third compartment ulcers and all the other acute abdominal problems from which bovine suffer. These disease processes may cause the llama to cast itself, roll on its back, kick at its side, or lie continuously in lateral recumbency. Radiographs, electrolyte assessment, abdominal taps and rectal palpation of adults may help make a decision before or against acute abdominal accident requiring surgery. Since stress (e.g. being the lone llama on a farm, show schedules, competition for feed, etc.) can predispose to C3 ulcers, one should take into account the llama's recent past history. Acute abdominal crisis is often complicated by secondary heat stress so keep these animals as cool as possible. C3 ulcers have been reported to respond to intravenous or injectable omeprazole; standard H-2 blockers are not as effective.

Reproduction and the Significance of the Poop Pile for Llamas

Llamas urinate and defecate in a common area. This is one reason llamas are particularly popular pack animals in the Wilderness Areas of the Western mountain ranges. In the most tightly controlled of these areas, all fecal matter must be packed back out. This is much easier when the feces are small dry pellicles deposited in one spot. This also contributes to their popularity as domestic pets because pasture cleanup is relatively easy. Females are induced ovulators. Usually the males are re-introduced to the female about 12 days following parturition. At this time, the male usually will run to the poop pile and sniff. If any open female is present, he will immediately recognize progesterone in her urine and will unwaveringly run right to her. The female will run from the male and he will pursue her for a short time, vocalizing continuously (this sound is called an ortle). If he has made an error and she is pregnant, she will spit him off repeatedly during this process until he stops and leaves her alone. If she is not pregnant, she will allow herself to be mounted and will cush. Mating occurs in the cush position. The legs of the male squeeze tightly about the body of the female. The sound of the ortle, the cush position, and the pressure exerted by the limbs of the male are all necessary to induce ovulation. Artificial insemination (AI) has not been particularly successful in the past and this has helped to maintain the individual financial value of the males. Current methods using human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) or gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GNRH) and breeding with a vesectomized male are making AI appear feasible in the future. The baby llama is called a cria and weighs 25-35 lbs. Normal gestational length is 335 to 360 days. Placentation is described as diffuse and epitheliochorial, as in the mare. The cria and dam hum to each other; this vocalization begins immediately after birth and probably helps the neonate locate its mother very rapidly. In the wild, most cria are born in the daytime because they must be dried off and capable of thermo-regulating before the approach of the chill cold of night in the Andes. Like other herbivores, colostrum must be ingested to provide antibodies to the immunocompromised neonate. Goat colostrum can be substituted for orphans; llama plasma can be purchased commercially. The biggest mistake made in administering plasma to neonates is that large animal veterinarians forget the small size of the cria and may administer such large quantities that pulmonary edema results. Males are subservient to neonates and pose no threat to them until they begin to experience puberty. Neonates: Constipation can occur due to meconium impaction. Diarrhea can develop from overfeeding (especially when being bottle-fed). Beware of Berserk male syndrome, which occurs when male bottle-fed crias become bonded to humans. Later, at puberty, the llama will display aggressive behavior towards humans as they would otherwise normally demonstrate towards other llamas.

Parasites (Common Health Issues for Llamas)

Many parasites can affect llamas. Nematode parasites include Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Camelostrongylus, Nematodirus, Strongyloides, Capillaria, and Oesophagostomum. A fecal is important for identification of the problem and to estimate the parasite load. Clinical signs are similar to other species affected by these parasites. The meningeal worm, Parelaphostrongylus tenuis, causes few problems in the natural host, the white tailed deer; however, in an aberrant host such as the llama, clinical signs are consistent with the area of migration through the spinal cord: lameness, paralysis, blindness, etc. Frequent deworming and maintaining a deer-free llama enclosure is recommended; also, avoiding areas with heavy snail or slug populations is useful.2 There is no antemortem procedure to definitively diagnose meningeal worm migration as the cause of neurological signs in an animal. Very few llamas have been successfully treated following infection with this parasite. The treatment protocol is costly, requires much time and patience, and a successful outcome is not guaranteed. Tapeworms are found in llamas. Usually clinical signs are minimal. Coccidia, giardia and toxoplasma have been reported as well as sarcocystosis. The common liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) can cause severe disease in the llama. Anthelmintics have been used based on extrapolation from other species. Doses are available in the literature.3 Common sense husbandry practices such as avoiding contamination of food and water sources by llamas or carnivores (dogs, cats) and quarantining new arrivals can be important in parasite control.

Behavior, Spitting and "That Berserk Male Thing" for Llamas

Occasionally lamas do spit and can be fairly accurate at spewing gastric contents for 3-6 feet when annoyed or restrained; however, most llamas are well-behaved and easy to handle. If verbally reprimanded, they can be educated NOT to spit off humans. Remember, the smell washes off after only a few showers. Spitting off is used to control over-exuberant males, protect one's feed from others, or if another llama just gets too close. Males fight viciously using their canine teeth to try to lacerate the jugular region and may inflict an unpleasant bite during mating. For this reason, total canine tooth removal or repeated use of gigli wire and or dermal can be used to smooth the teeth off at the gumline. Canines will frequently grow back in uncastrated males. Llamas can kick and bite other llamas or people. An occasional animal, particularly orphaned males raised by hand, become imprinted on humans as youngsters, and demonstrate dangerous behavior towards humans. This is sometimes called the "berserk male syndrome." These animals are extremely dangerous. Castration does not affect the behavior of "rogue" males, and owners are usually forced to euthanize the animal. Be cautious when raising orphans, especially males, or over handling youngsters. Be very cautious if asked to work with a rogue male llama. The majority of llamas are quiet, serene animals with kind dispositions, and no more dangerous than any other animal of its size. All llamas should be trained to be led by halter and taught to cush.

The Normal Llama

Resting body temperature: 37.5-38.9 C (99.5-102 F) Heart rate: 60-90 bpm Respiratory rate: 10-30/minute Gastric motility: 3-4 contractions/minute (This is more rapid than with ruminants). Palpation of the first compartment is difficult and auscultation will be necessary to assess motility. Gall bladder: Not present In addition to the external genitalia, male and female can be differentiated by the presence of canine teeth in the male and the thicker neck and thicker skin (0.5 inch) overlying the jugular veins of the male. This thickened skin and the wool on the neck severely complicate the process of jugular vein catheterization. Additionally, the vessel traverses differently compared to farm animals, making it very difficult to identify. These differences from other species should be kept in mind before one gets completely frustrated. The course of the vein as it passes medial to the cervical vertebral transverse processes in the mid-portion of the neck leaves less length available. The jugular may be balloted or "stroked" about 8 cm below the angle the ramus of the mandible makes with the neck. The jugular does not stand out as it does in the ruminants when occluded. Another site to try is cranial to the point of the shoulder. The skin is thinner; however, restraint is critical to prevent injury to the phlebotomist; the carotid is closer to the jugular in this area.1 The llama vertebral pattern has: 7 cervical, 12 thoracic,7 lumbar, 5 sacral and 16-20 caudal vertebra. Llamas tend to toe out. The foot is padded but the horny nail may require trimming on a routine basis. A scent gland is located on the lateral side of the rear leg. Some people find the scent emitted to be too similar to the odor of mice. Llamas should be encouraged to graze. They thrive on timothy type hays. All llamas should receive small quantities of llama chow (Mazuri) on a daily basis as the most complete knowledge we have about llama nutritional requirements has been formulated for delivery by that feedstuff (e.g. vitamin and mineral requirements, etc.). Don't feed llamas sweet feed or horse chow. Don't let them get too fat, as you predispose them towards heat stress and many other problems. Remember that no drugs or vaccines are currently approved for use in llamas in the United States. This includes vaccines, anthelmintics, antibiotics, etc. Everything is extra-label use, as of this writing

Lamb Losses

Setting targets: All flocks should aim for less than 15% lamb losses Top performing flocks are achieving closer to ≤ 10%, even <5% Expect similar numbers for goats From pie chart: Infectious disease - 15-20% Starvation and Exposure - 20-30% Abortion and Stillbirths - 30-40% Congenital Defects - 5-10% Misadventure and predators - 5-10% • Average loss of 11.2% of lambs that are born alive • 5% of ewe inventory lost annually • Lamb losses probably under-reported since a major portion is larger western flocks and lambs may be lost before the producers count them • Losses broken down into: - Predator - Non-predator • Coyotes most common cause of predator loss; also see dogs, bobcats, eagles, foxes, etc. • Common non-predator losses include weather-related (largest, >27%), lambing problems, respiratory disease, other diseases

Abortion

Sheep: Multiple causes, see text, pp. 1229-1231. See handout. Goats: Chlamydial abortion is a common cause of abortion in goats. Toxoplasmosis is also important. Refer to the handout; see text pp. 1231-1232. Habitual abortion in Angora goats - identified in South Africa and seen in conjunction with selection for fine fleece, also called "inherited abortion of Angoras." Diagnosis is essential - but difficult and often not successful; submit all aborted fetuses and placentas to veterinarian or diagnostic lab. Serology also useful for diagnosis of some diseases. However, often a specific diagnosis is not able to be made.

Abortion Definition

Termination of pregnancy after organogenesis is complete, but before the expelled fetus can survive.

Restraint with Llamas

The level of restraint needed in working with llamas varies depending on the amount of handling the animal has received from the owner. The llama naturally resents having its head and neck approached unless it has been desensitized to human touch. Most llamas can be easily taught to halter lead and this should begin at an early age (4-8 months). Juvenile llamas can be restrained by either cradling them in arms or physically holding them down in lateral recumbency. Straddling these animals while in the cush position can also be an effective restraint technique. Adult llamas which have been adequately handled usually will tolerate a physical examination of the head when approached in a calm, caring fashion. Anxious animals require the use of alternative restraint methods. There are several varieties of chutes available to physically restrain llamas that will make physical examination much more acceptable to all involved. Chemical restraint is a viable option to consider for a variety of procedures. This author routinely uses Xylazine for minor sedation's and standard field procedures like fighting teeth trimming. Atipamazole works well for reversal. Butorphanol and Ketamine can be added for deeper sedation with more painful field procedures like castrations. Ear twitching is sometimes effective for brief procedures but this technique is not always acceptable by owners. The method of restraint should vary and be appropriate to offer comfort to the animal, facilitate ease in performing the procedure by personnel and the owner.

ABORTION IN GOATS

The list contains many of the organisms listed for sheep, although some authors include leptospirosis (see cattle notes). Also, Campylobacter spp. are seldom to rarely documented as a cause of abortion in goats and Border Disease is not listed a cause of abortion in goats*. Chlamydophilosis is reported* as the most common cause of abortion in goats in the US.

General comments concerning COLOSTRUM (first milk).

Very important to ensure adequate intake during first 12 hours of life. b. Contains antibodies to many of the diseases discussed next in this section. Many of these diseases are primarily due to colostrum deficiency. Multiple doses/amounts given below: The point is that the amount depends upon the source--and there is no ONE definitive dose/amount!!! Merck, 8th ed., recommends newborn goats be fed at 10-12% BW per day, or an average of 1 pint (500 ml) of milk twice daily, but often they are overfed (p. 1449). Merck, 9th ed: Colostrum at 10-12% of BW divided in multiple feedings in first 18-24 hr of life; cow colostrum next best. Feed on milk replacer at 10-20% of BW, divided into 4-6 feedings/day for 1st week of life. Merck, 10th ed., recommends to feed 5-12% of BW as colostrum in first 12-18 hr. c. Some diseases of the offspring can be prevented by vaccinating the dam prior to lambing so antibodies will be in high concentration in her colostrum. d. Most clostridial vaccines given to ewes/does are combination vaccines protecting against several diseases (enterotoxemia C and D, tetanus [CD&T], blackleg, etc.). e. These vaccines should be given prebreeding to yearlings and repeated at approximately a month prior to lambing/kidding in all females for maximum colostral concentration of antibodies. f.If dams have not been vaccinated or offspring are orphaned and are unlikely to have received colostrum, you may vaccinate them at a young age (this would be extra label, consult a veterinarian, follow manufacturer recommendations). Some antisera are marketed and may be used in high‑risk situations (tetanus, enterotoxemia). Understand the difference between vaccines, toxoids, and antisera

Western Nile (Other Diseases in Lamas)

Western Nile disease has been diagnosed in camelids. Routine vaccination with vaccines approved in equine are commonly use in extra label fashion to help prevent this disease. Animal kept in high risk situations should be vaccinated.

Caseous lymphadenitis (Sporadic Disease)

an infectious disease with abscesses of lymph nodes and/or internal organs caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis (ovis). Occurs world-wide. 1. Incidence a. Both sheep and goats. b. Can be an incidental finding at slaughter. c. Responsible for economic loss due to carcass rejection. d. Most commonly acquired via wounds, such as shearing cuts; other methods likely. 2. Signs a. Typical swelling of lymph nodes. b. Illthrift sometimes occurs. c. Multiple additional signs, depending upon site of involvement. d. See text, pp. 60-63 for full description. 3. Treatment a. Can lance and drain or surgically remove, but burn or destroy discharge; however, abscesses may recur. b. Antibiotics alone ineffective in curing almost all cases. c. Culling animals most effective. 4. Control a. Isolation to prevent spread to flock; sanitation. b. Culling (best). c. Removal of problem feeders, etc., that might be causing skin abrasions and organism entry. d. Vaccines available—check which species vaccine is approved for; there are also autogenous bacterins made.