Vocab v66

apportionment

The Constitution provides for the apportionment (distribution) of House seats among the states on the basis of their respective populations. divide up; allocate; distribute

national convention

The meeting held by each major party every four years to nominate presidential and vice-presidential candidates, write a party platform, and conduct other party business

Majority Leader

The party leader elected by the majority party in the House or in the Senate

minority leader

The party leader elected by the minority party in the House or in the Senate.

delegate

a person sent or authorized to represent others, in particular an elected representative sent to a conference.

conflictual

causing conflict; distress

tarot

is a card used for fortune telling. Playing cards, traditionally a pack of 78 with five suits, used for fortune-telling and (especially in Europe) in certain games. The suits are typically swords, cups, coins (or pentacles), batons (or wands), and a permanent suit of trump.

Trichinosis

disease caused by eating raw or undercooked meat, usually pork, infected with Trichinella larvae Trichinosis, also known as trichinellosis, is a parasitic disease caused by roundworms of the Trichinella type.[1] During the initial infection, invasion of the intestines can result in diarrhea, abdominal pain, and vomiting.[1] Migration of larvae to muscle, which occurs about a week after being infected, can cause swelling of the face, inflammation of the whites of the eyes, fever, muscle pains, and a rash.[1] Minor infection may be without symptoms.[1] Complications may include inflammation of heart muscle, central nervous system involvement, and inflammation of the lungs. Trichinosis is mainly spread when undercooked meat containing Trichinella cysts is eaten.[1] Most often this is pork, but infection can also occur from bear and dog meat.[7] Several species of Trichinella can cause disease, with T. spiralis being the most common.[1] After being eaten, the larvae are released from their cysts in the stomach.[1] They then invade the wall of the small intestine, where they develop into adult worms.[1] After one week, the females release new larvae that migrate to voluntarily controlled muscles, where they form cysts.[1] The diagnosis is usually based on symptoms and confirmed by finding specific antibodies in the blood, or larvae on tissue biopsy.

sampling error

error in a statistical analysis arising from the unrepresentativeness of the sample taken. a data bias that occurs when you take data from a sample that does not represent the whole population

fiat money

money that has value because the government has ordered that it is an acceptable means for the sale of goods and to pay debts Fiat: a legal, authoritative decision that has absolute sanction.

adjudicate

To hear and decide judicially; to judge To adjudicate is to act like a judge. A judge might adjudicate a case in court, and you may have to adjudicate in the local talent show.

peer group

set of individuals of roughly the same age and interests friends, classmates, coworkers, etc.

sound bites

short video clips of approximately 10 seconds

moral superiority

the belief that an ingroup's standards represent the only way By claiming moral superiority, you decide what is right and what is wrong. usually leads to conquest, domination, and exploitation e.g. the crusades

interdependence

the dependence of two or more people or things on each other.

phallocentrism

the deployment of the penis as a symbol of masculine social power and dominance

social identity

the part of the self-concept including one's view of self as a member of a particular social category

lethality

the quality of being deadly; deadliness; how lethal something is; fatalness

interpretive drift

the slow, often unacknowledged shift in someone's manner of interpreting events as he or she becomes involved with a particular activity basically: You become what you think about.

suppressing evidence

the tendency to reject or ignore evidence that challenges an accepted belief

assay

the testing of a metal or ore to determine its ingredients and quality. An assay is an investigative procedure in laboratory medicine, pharmacology, environmental biology and molecular biology for qualitatively assessing or quantitatively measuring the presence, amount, or functional activity of a target entity.

Ideological Uniformity

when everyone believes the same thing`

balanced reciprocity

a form of exchange in which items of equal or near-equal value are exchanged on the spot

generalized reciprocity

a form of exchange in which persons share what they have with others but expect them to reciprocate later

treaty

a formal agreement between the governments of two or more countries

Gini Coefficient

a measure of income inequality between countries using a 100-point scale, in which 0 represents complete equality and 100 represents the highest possible inequality US = 45 Sweden - 23 Namibia - 71 Equality would mean you end up with a linear line e.g. 20% of the households make 20% of the total income, 30% of the households make 30% of the total income, etc. So when there is high inequality, the poor people make a very small amount of money while the rich have disproportionate amounts of income.

exploitative theory of social stratification

a theory based on the assumption that social stratification and hierarchy exist because one group of individuals seeks to take advantage of another group for economic purposes

opinion leader

an individual who influences the opinions of others someone who plays a significant role in forming public opinion; joe rogan

phycoerythrin

any of a group of red photosynthetic pigments present in red algae and some cyanobacteria. Phycoerythrin (PE) is a red protein-pigment complex from the light-harvesting phycobiliprotein family, present in red algae[1] and cryptophytes,[2] accessory to the main chlorophyll pigments responsible for photosynthesis. Like all phycobiliproteins, it is composed of a protein part covalently binding chromophores called phycobilins. In the phycoerythrin family, the most known phycobilins are: phycoerythrobilin, the typical phycoerythrin acceptor chromophore, and sometimes phycourobilin. Phycoerythrins are composed of (αβ) monomers, usually organised in a disk-shaped trimer (αβ)3 or hexamer (αβ)6 (second one is the functional unit of the antenna rods). These typical complexes also contain a third type of subunit, the γ chain.[1]

consumer capitalism

buying and consuming products is invested with great cultural meaning, and seen as expressing individual and group identity

midterm elections

congressional elections that do not coincide with a presidential election; also called off-year elections Midterm elections in the United States are the general elections that are held near the midpoint of a president's four-year term of office. ... Thus 36 governors are elected during midterm elections. Many states also elect officers to their state legislatures in midterm years.

trinketism

consumerism; one who is obsessed with trinkets or other non-valuable objects

how much congress salary

$174,000 for any member of house or senate

Hutterites

-A communal branch of Anabaptists who, like the Amish and Mennonites, trace their roots to the Radical Reformation of the 16th century -Since the death of their namesake Jakob Hutter in 1536, the beliefs of the Hutterites, especially living in a community of goods and absolute pacifism, have resulted in hundreds of years of odyssey through many countries -Nearly extinct by the 18th and 19th centuries, the Hutterites found a new home in North America -Over 125 years their population grew from 400 to around 42,000 During World War I, the pacifist Hutterites suffered persecution in the United States. In the most severe case, four Hutterite men, who were subjected to military draft but refused to comply, were imprisoned and physically abused. Ultimately, two of the four men, the brothers Joseph and Michael Hofer, died at Leavenworth Military Prison after the Armistice had been signed, bringing an end to the war. The Hutterite community said the men died from mistreatment; the U.S. government said the men died of pneumonia.[37][38]

yanomami

-Believed ancestors shot the moon and the moon blood created man -women came from wabu fruit -26,000 Yanomami people spread across Brazil and Venezuela -Horticulturalists that lived in the tropical rain forests -tribal society -honey is a prized find when scavenging for food -80% of food grown in the village gardens -plantain is the most important crop -almost every person older than 10 is addicted to tobacco -everyone had a bowl cut hairstyle with circle shaved bald on top center of head -believed in 4 layer universe -first layer was nothing, 2nd was the sky, 3rd is the earth, 4th is trapped souls of people who were part man/animal/spirit -Have high honor for the jaguar (but believed that culture was better than nature) -believed the soul was a sophisticated organ -all illness was caused by a "hekura" spirit -bodies are cremated after death -egalitarian society (no ranked hierarchy) -women are subject to violence from their husbands and boys are taught to hit women from a very early age - Most prized possession is a Russian-made AK-47

"If one morning I walked on top of the water across the Potomac River, the headline that afternoon would read: 'President Can't Swim.' " ~ Lyndon B. Johnson Thirty-sixth President Of The United States 1963-1969

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"The child who is not embraced by the village will burn it down to feel its warmth" - African Proverb

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"You cannot reason a person out of a position they did not reason themselves into" - someone smart on the internet

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"You must not lose faith in humanity. Humanity is an ocean; if a few drops of the ocean are dirty, the ocean does not become dirty." - Gandhi

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A research team from Monash, Swinburne and RMIT universities has recorded the world's fastest internet speed from a single optical chip of 44.2 Terabits per second. At this speed, users can download 1000 HD movies in a split second. Demonstrations of this magnitude are usually confined to a laboratory. But, for this study, researchers achieved these quick speeds using existing communications infrastructure where they were able to efficiently load-test the network. They used a new device that replaces 80 lasers with one single piece of equipment known as a micro-comb, which is smaller and lighter than existing telecommunications hardware. It was planted into and load-tested using existing infrastructure, which mirrors that used by the NBN.

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Act of collective violence are rationalized as purposeful, noble, or inevitable.

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Another way to justify violence is to frame it as a cosmic struggle between good and evil.

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Astronomers report the possible discovery of the nearest black hole to Earth, about 1,000 light years away in the two-star HR 6819 system.[557][558]

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Gandhi's metaphor of individuals as drops in the ocean; the drops cannot survive without the ocean, and the ocean loses its identity without the drops.

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It is important to note that when language is extended from one domain to another, meaning is also extended. Metaphor involves not only speaking of one experience in terms of another, but also understanding one experience in terms of another. Our young male paramour, using a metaphor common to American youth, sees his romantic encounter as a contest to be won or lost. Metaphors, then are not simply verbal devices that we use to make out language colorful and economical. Instead. they are like lenses that help us understand out experiences. By using language from one domain of experience to describe another, we transfer who domains of meaning. Arguments become wars, time becomes a commodity, and romantic encounters become contests. Moreover, the metaphors we use to describe experiences may predispose us to seek certain solutions to problems associated with those experiences.

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My favourite quote that I've ever heard is "Everyone is the hero of their own story". When you grow up, you tend to see the world as good guys vs. bad guys. You watch cartoon where the bad guy knows he's bad and he's being bad for the sake of being bad. As you grow up you start to realize that every person who you perceive to be "bad" is a person who believes that they are good, and are making justifications for their bad behaviour. The ability for the human mind to make fantastic leaps and bounds in logic in order to preserve their idea that they are a "good person" is UNBELIEVABLE. The amount of exceptionalism I see amongst people who have done objectively bad things will boggle your mind. There is also an exception, there is always an excuse. And that is what scares me. A person being bad for the sake of being bad - being truly self aware that what they are doing is wrong - is understandable to me. A person who does bad or evil things and has created a framework in their mind that justifies their actions is terrifying.

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NASA selects three U.S. companies - Blue Origin, Dynetics, and SpaceX - to design and develop human landing systems (HLS) for the agency's Artemis program, one of which is planned to deliver the first woman and next man on the Moon by 2024.

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One manual describes a worldview that sees things as swirls of energy, rather than as objects. The physical world, it says, is formed by energy in a way that is similar to how stalactites are created by dripping water. Human beings can cause a change in the physical world by altering these energy patterns, as we might change the form of a stalactite by changing the flow of water.

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People do not go to church because they believe in god, rather they believe in god because they go to church.

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Researchers demonstrate a proof-of-concept silicon quantum processor unit cell which works at 1.5 Kelvin - many times warmer than common quantum processors that are being developed. It may enable integrating classical control electronics with the qubit array and reduce costs substantially. The cooling requirements necessary for quantum computing have been called one of the toughest roadblocks in the field.

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Researchers report that by the end of the 21st century people could be exposed to avoidable indoor CO2 levels of up to 1400 ppm, which would be triple the amount commonly experienced outdoors today and, according to the authors, may cut humans' basic decision-making ability by ~25% and complex strategic thinking by ~50%.

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Researchers show that a new type of X-ray detector, based on a thin film of the low-cost semiconductor mineral perovskite, is 100 times more sensitive than a conventional silicon-based device. The technology could reduce unhealthy radiation exposure and improve the resolution and applications of security scanners and research tools. Perovskite is a calcium titanium oxide mineral composed of calcium titanate (CaTiO3). Its name is also applied to the class of compounds which have the same type of crystal structure as CaTiO3 (XIIA2+VIB4+X2−3), known as the perovskite structure.[5] Many different cations can be embedded in this structure, allowing the development of diverse engineered materials.[6] Scientists report the development of perovskite electrochemical cells which can efficiently convert electricity and water into hydrogen and back.

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Scientists publish a study which suggests that the Universe is no longer expanding at the same rate in all directions and that therefore the widely accepted isotropy hypothesis might be wrong. While previous studies already suggested this, the study is the first to examine galaxy clusters in X-rays and, according to Norbert Schartel, has a much greater significance. The study found a consistent and strong directional behavior of deviations - which have earlier been described to indicate a "crisis of cosmology" by others - of the normalization parameter A, or the Hubble constant H0. Beyond the potential cosmological implications, it shows that studies which assume perfect isotropy in the properties of galaxy clusters and their scaling relations can produce strongly biased results.[379][380][381][382][383]

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Scientists report finding large communities of microbes living under the seafloor in solid rocks determined to be up to 104 million years old. According to the study the results may have implications for the possibility of life on Mars and other planetary bodies due to potentially similar conditions and rocks or minerals.

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Scientists report that for the first time they have retrieved genetic information from the fossils of H. antecessor as old as 772,000-949,000 years and Homo erectus as old as 1.77 million years via dental enamel proteomes . They show that H. antecessor is a closely related sister-lineage to subsequent Middle and Late Pleistocene hominins, including modern humans, Neanderthals and Denisovans.[341][342]

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Scientists report that the Greenland ice sheet lost around 600 billion tonnes of water in 2019, which would raise sea levels by about 1.5 millimetres and make up ca. 40% of the year's total sea level rise. The runoff ranked second only after the exceptional year 2012. The study affirms the exceptional nature of the 2019 season and shows that high-pressure atmospheric conditions over Greenland due to changing atmospheric circulation patterns - which have become more frequent due to climate change - were a cause of the melting next to the warmer temperatures. This suggests that scientists may be underestimating the melting of Greenland's ice - likely by a factor of two according to co-author Xavier Fettweis.

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Scientists report the discovery of metabolic genes in the genomes of 501 widespread Nucleocytoviricota even though viruses don't have metabolism. Some of their findings suggest that these large viruses can reprogram fundamental aspects of their host's carbon metabolism and that they are drivers of evolutionary innovation in metabolic genes.[357][358]

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The Judeo-Christian god is thought to be omnipotent, controlling everything, but also good. But if god is both good and powerful, why do evil, suffering, and injustice exist in the world? If evil exists, he must allow it, in which case he is not all good. Or if he is all good. and evil, suffering, and injustice exist, he must not be omnipotent. If the latter is the case would he even be considered a god?

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The poor countries subsidize the richest.

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We do not need to escalate, war is not the answer, for only love can conquer hate.

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T cell

A T cell is a type of lymphocyte, which develops in the thymus gland (hence the name) and plays a central role in the immune response. T cells can be distinguished from other lymphocytes by the presence of a T-cell receptor on the cell surface. These immune cells originate as precursor cells, derived from bone marrow,[1] and develop into several distinct types of T cells once they have migrated to the thymus gland. T cell differentiation continues even after they have left the thymus. Groups of specific, differentiated T cells have an important role in controlling and shaping the immune response by providing a variety of immune-related functions. One of these functions is immune-mediated cell death, and it is carried out by T cells in several ways: CD8+ T cells, also known as "killer cells", are cytotoxic - this means that they are able to directly kill virus-infected cells as well as cancer cells. CD8+ T cells are also able to utilize small signalling proteins, known as cytokines, to recruit other cells when mounting an immune response. A different population of T cells, the CD4+ T cells, function as "helper cells". Unlike CD8+ killer T cells, these CD4+ helper T cells function by indirectly killing cells identified as foreign: they determine if and how other parts of the immune system respond to a specific, perceived threat. Helper T cells also use cytokine signalling to influence regulatory B cells directly, and other cell populations indirectly. Regulatory T cells are yet another distinct population of these cells that provide the critical mechanism of tolerance, whereby immune cells are able to distinguish invading cells from "self" - thus preventing immune cells from inappropriately mounting a response against oneself (which would by definition be an "autoimmune" response). For this reason these regulatory T cells have also been called "suppressor" T cells. These same self-tolerant cells are co-opted by cancer cells to prevent the recognition of, and an immune response against, tumour cells.

Capsid

A capsid is the protein shell of a virus, enclosing genetic material. It consists of several oligomeric structural subunits made of protein called protomers. The observable 3-dimensional morphological subunits, which may or may not correspond to individual proteins, are called capsomeres. Capsids are broadly classified according to their structure. The majority of viruses have capsids with either helical or icosahedral[2][3] structure. Some viruses, such as bacteriophages, have developed more complicated structures due to constraints of elasticity and electrostatics.[4] The icosahedral shape, which has 20 equilateral triangular faces, approximates a sphere, while the helical shape resembles the shape of a spring, taking the space of a cylinder but not being a cylinder itself.[5] The capsid faces may consist of one or more proteins. For example, the foot-and-mouth disease virus capsid has faces consisting of three proteins named VP1-3.[6]

Dry cell

A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current to flow. Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling, as it contains no free liquid, making it suitable for portable equipment. By comparison, the first wet cells were typically fragile glass containers with lead rods hanging from the open top and needed careful handling to avoid spillage. Lead-acid batteries did not achieve the safety and portability of the dry cell until the development of the gel battery. A common dry cell is the zinc-carbon battery, sometimes called the dry Leclanché cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline battery (since both use the same zinc-manganese dioxide combination). A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode, usually in the form of a cylindrical pot, with a carbon cathode in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte is ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space between the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium chloride and manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In some designs, the ammonium chloride is replaced by zinc chloride.

appeal to authority

A fallacy in which a speaker or writer seeks to persuade not by giving evidence but by appealing to the respect people have for a famous person or institution. An argument from authority, also called an appeal to authority, or argumentum ad verecundiam, is a form of defeasible argument in which the opinion of an authority on a topic is used as evidence to support an argument.

Kwakwaka'wakw

A fundamental meaning the Kwakwaka'wakw find in their experience is that the universe is a place in which some beings must die so that other beings may eat them and live. Eating gives life in at least two ways: it provides nutrition and it frees souls. The Kwakwaka'wakw believe that when a person dies, the soul leaves the body and enters the body of a salmon. But the soul cannot be freed until the physical body is destroyed. For this reason the Kwakwaka'wakw place their dead on scaffolds where the body can be devoured by ravens and other birds. Once the soul enters the body of a salmon it remains there living in a salmon world that socially resembles the human world. However when the salmon is caught and eaten by human beings the soul is once again freed and enters the body of a newborn child. Thus, for the Kwakwaka'wakw the act of eating becomes a metaphor through which much of their life is understood and described. Their world is replete with the mouths of animals killing to satisfy their hunger. Their art is filled with gaping jaws of killer whales, fangs of wolves, and bears, and tearing beaks of hawks, eagles, and ravens. Dancers wear masks of cannibal birds with nine-foot-long beaks that shatter human skulls to suck out the brains. In their myths, wild women with protruding lips inhabit the woods, waiting to rip apart travelers and misbehaving children. It is a world where sucking infants turn into monsters and devour their mothers. The Kwakwaka'wakw use the eating metaphor to give meaning to a wide range of their experiences. Hunger is associated with greed, for, like unrestrained hunger, greed causes people to accumulate wealth far beyond what they need. Hunger is also associated with immorality, as the Kwakwaka'wakw believe that human desires create conflict and destruction that can quickly get out of hand, so that people must work together to prevent and control conflict before it threatens to destroy the group. People who hoard food are in effect hoarding souls, preventing the return of a soul from the spirit world. Consequently, the Kwakwaka'wakw place great emphasis on gift giving and generosity. Hunger is also associated with children who constantly demand to be fed and who will, if allowed, devour all of the family's food.

party ticket

A list of a political party's candidates for various offices. In national elections, the party ticket consists of the presidential and vice-presidential candidates.

Memristor

A memristor (/ˈmɛmrɪstər/; a portmanteau of memory resistor) is a non-linear two-terminal electrical component relating electric charge and magnetic flux linkage. It was described and named in 1971 by Leon Chua, completing a theoretical quartet of fundamental electrical components which comprises also the resistor, capacitor and inductor.[1] No physical memristor component has yet been demonstrated. Researchers demonstrate a diffusive memristor fabricated from protein nanowires of the bacterium Geobacter sulfurreducens which functions at substantially lower voltages than previously described ones and may allow the construction of artificial neurons which function at voltages of biological action potentials. The nanowires have a range of advantages over silicon nanowires and the memristors may be used to directly process biosensing signals, for neuromorphic computing and/or direct communication with biological neurons.

Pheromone

A pheromone (from Ancient Greek φέρω phero "to bear" and hormone) is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to impact the behavior of the receiving individuals.[1] There are alarm pheromones, food trail pheromones, sex pheromones, and many others that affect behavior or physiology. Pheromones are used from basic unicellular prokaryotes to complex multicellular eukaryotes.[2] Their use among insects has been particularly well documented. In addition, some vertebrates, plants and ciliates communicate by using pheromones.

political agenda

A political agenda is a list of subjects or problems to which government officials as well as individuals outside the government are paying serious attention at any given time.

cloture

A procedure for ending filibusters in the Senate and bringing the matter under consideration to a vote. Cloture, closure, or, informally, a guillotine is a motion or process in parliamentary procedure aimed at bringing debate to a quick end. The cloture procedure originated in the French National Assembly, from which the name is taken. Clôture is French for "the act of terminating something".

The Legislative Process

Although individual members of Congress or their staffs—as well as private citizens and lobbying groups—may come up with ideas for new legislation, most bills are proposed by the executive branch. Only a member of Congress can formally introduce legislation, however. In reality, many bills are proposed, developed, and even written by the White House or an executive agency. Then a "friendly" senator or representative introduces the bill in Congress. Such bills are rarely ignored entirely, although they are often amended or defeated. As soon as a bill is introduced and assigned a number, it is sent to the appropriate standing committee. In the House, the Speaker assigns the bill to the committee. In the Senate, the presiding officer does so. For example, a farm bill in the House would be sent to the Agriculture Committee, and a gun control bill would be sent to the Judiciary Committee. A committee chairperson will typically send the bill on to a subcommittee. For example, a Senate bill concerning NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organization), which allies the United States and Canada with most European nations, would be sent to the subcommittee dealing with European affairs. Alternatively, the chairperson may decide to put the bill aside and ignore it. Most bills that are pigeonholed in this manner receive no further action. If a bill is not pigeonholed, committee staff members go to work researching it. The subcommittee may hold public hearings during which people who support or oppose the bill can express their views. Subcommittees also have the power to order witnesses to testify at public hearings. Witnesses may be executive agency officials, experts on the subject, or representatives of interest groups concerned about the bill. The subcommittee must meet to approve the bill as it is, add new amendments, or draft a new bill. This meeting is known as the markup session. If members cannot reach a consensus on changes, a vote on the changes is taken... More in 251-254 4LTR GOVT

Epitope

An epitope, also known as antigenic determinant, is the part of an antigen that is recognized by the immune system, specifically by antibodies, B cells, or T cells. For example, the epitope is the specific piece of the antigen to which an antibody binds. The part of an antibody that binds to the epitope is called a paratope. Although epitopes are usually non-self proteins, sequences derived from the host that can be recognized (as in the case of autoimmune diseases) are also epitopes.

Evil maid attack

An evil maid attack is an attack on an unattended device, in which an attacker with physical access alters it in some undetectable way so that they can later access the device, or the data on it. The name refers to the scenario where a maid could subvert a device left unattended in a hotel room - but the concept itself also applies to situations such as a device being intercepted while in transit, or taken away temporarily by airport or law enforcement personnel.

Army of God (United States)

Army of God (AOG) is an American Christian terrorist organization that has perpetrated anti-abortion violence.[1] According to the Department of Justice and Department of Homeland Security's joint Terrorism Knowledge Base, the Army of God is an active underground terrorist organization in the United States that was formed in 1982. In addition to numerous property crimes, the group has committed acts of kidnapping, attempted murder, and murder. While sharing a common ideology and tactics, the group's members claim that they rarely communicate with each other; this is known more formally as leaderless resistance. The organization forbids those who wish to "take action against baby killing abortionists" from discussing their plans with anyone in advance.

Avidin

Avidin is a tetrameric biotin-binding protein produced in the oviducts of birds, reptiles and amphibians and deposited in the whites of their eggs. Dimeric members of the avidin family are also found in some bacteria. In chicken egg white, avidin makes up approximately 0.05% of total protein

Bacteriocin

Bacteriocins are proteinaceous or peptidic toxins produced by bacteria to inhibit the growth of similar or closely related bacterial strain(s). They are similar to yeast and paramecium killing factors, and are structurally, functionally, and ecologically diverse. Applications of bacteriocins are being tested to assess their application as narrow-spectrum antibiotics.[1]

Electric battery

Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many cases, the electrical energy released is the difference in the cohesive[13] or bond energies of the metals, oxides, or molecules undergoing the electrochemical reaction.[3] For instance, energy can be stored in Zn or Li, which are high-energy metals because they are not stabilized by d-electron bonding, unlike transition metals. Batteries are designed such that the energetically favorable redox reaction can occur only if electrons move through the external part of the circuit. A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing metal cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive electrode, to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate. Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while metal atoms are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode.[14] Some cells use different electrolytes for each half-cell; then a separator is used to prevent mixing of the electrolytes while allowing ions to flow between half-cells to complete the electrical circuit.

Berdache

Before the late twentieth-century, non-Native (i.e. non-Native American/Canadian) anthropologists used the term berdache (/bərˈdæʃ/), in a very broad manner, to identify an indigenous individual fulfilling one of many mixed gender roles in their tribe. Often in their writings they applied this term to any male who they perceived to be homosexual, bisexual, or effeminate by Western social standards, leading to a wide variety of diverse individuals being categorized under this imprecise term. Homosexuality was/is an accepted component of indian culture. Blackfoot: a'yai-kik-ahsi, "Acts like a woman." There are historical accounts of individuals who engaged in homosexual relationships, or who were born as men but lived their lives as women, possibly for religious or social reasons. These individuals were viewed in a wide variety of ways, from being revered spiritual leaders, brave warriors and artisans, to targets of ridicule.[19] Cree: napêw iskwêwisêhot, "A man who dresses as a woman".[10] Crow: batée. A word that describes both trans-women and homosexual males.[22] Lakota: wíŋkte is the contraction of an older Lakota word, Winyanktehca, meaning "wants to be like a woman".[23] Winkte are a social category in historical Lakota culture, of male-bodied people who in some cases have adopted the clothing, work, and mannerisms that Lakota culture usually consider feminine. In contemporary Lakota culture, the term is most commonly associated with simply being gay. Navajo: nádleeh (also given as nádleehi), "One who is transformed" or "one who changes".[25][26][27] In traditional Navajo culture, nádleeh are male-bodied individuals described by those in their communities as "effeminate male", or as "half woman, half man".[1] Ojibwe: ikwekaazo, "Men who chose to function as women" / "one who endeavors to be like a woman".[28]

fluorochromes

Cells may be stained with fluorescent dyes a chemical that fluoresces, especially one used as a label in biological research. A fluorophore (or fluorochrome, similarly to a chromophore) is a fluorescent chemical compound that can re-emit light upon light excitation. Fluorophores typically contain several combined aromatic groups, or planar or cyclic molecules with several π bonds.[1] Fluorophores are sometimes used alone, as a tracer in fluids, as a dye for staining of certain structures, as a substrate of enzymes, or as a probe or indicator (when its fluorescence is affected by environmental aspects such as polarity or ions). More generally they are covalently bonded to a macromolecule, serving as a marker (or dye, or tag, or reporter) for affine or bioactive reagents (antibodies, peptides, nucleic acids). Fluorophores are notably used to stain tissues, cells, or materials in a variety of analytical methods, i.e., fluorescent imaging and spectroscopy. Fluorescein, by its amine reactive isothiocyanate derivative fluorescein isothiocyanate, has been one of the most popular fluorophores. From antibody labeling, the applications have spread to nucleic acids thanks to (FAM (Carboxyfluorescein), TET,...). Other historically common fluorophores are derivatives of rhodamine (TRITC), coumarin, and cyanine.[2] Newer generations of fluorophores, many of which are proprietary, often perform better, being more photostable, brighter, and/or less pH-sensitive than traditional dyes with comparable excitation and emission.[3][4] The fluorophore absorbs light energy of a specific wavelength and re-emits light at a longer wavelength. The absorbed wavelengths, energy transfer efficiency, and time before emission depend on both the fluorophore structure and its chemical environment, as the molecule in its excited state interacts with surrounding molecules. Wavelengths of maximum absorption (≈ excitation) and emission (for example, Absorption/Emission = 485 nm/517 nm) are the typical terms used to refer to a given fluorophore, but the whole spectrum may be important to consider. The excitation wavelength spectrum may be a very narrow or broader band, or it may be all beyond a cutoff level. The emission spectrum is usually sharper than the excitation spectrum, and it is of a longer wavelength and correspondingly lower energy. Excitation energies range from ultraviolet through the visible spectrum, and emission energies may continue from visible light into the near infrared region.

Physical force alone spurs gene expression, study reveals

Cells will ramp up gene expression in response to physical forces alone, a new study finds. Gene activation, the first step of protein production, starts less than one millisecond after a cell is stretched—hundreds of times faster than chemical signals can travel, the researchers report. Researchers report that stretching cells alone can activate genes without intermediates, enzymes or signaling molecules in the cell being necessary. They applied cyclic forces of frequencies which cells experience due to common activities such as breathing, exercising or vocalizing and found that the induced transcription up-regulation does not follow the weak power law with force frequency. They also describe why some genes can be activated by mechanical force and some cannot. "We found that force can activate genes without intermediates, without enzymes or signaling molecules in the cytoplasm," said University of Illinois mechanical science and engineering professor Ning Wang, who led the research. "We also discovered why some genes can be activated by force and some cannot." "The genes near the nuclear periphery cannot be activated even if you stretch them, whereas the genes that are close to the center can be activated by stretching," Wang said. "This is because the H3K9 histones at the periphery are highly methylated."

Pair-instability supernova

Comprehensive models of the late-stage evolution of very massive stars predict that a pair-instability supernova occurs when pair production, the production of free electrons and positrons in the collision between atomic nuclei and energetic gamma rays, temporarily reduces the internal radiation pressure supporting a supermassive star's core against gravitational collapse.[1] This pressure drop leads to a partial collapse, which in turn causes greatly accelerated burning in a runaway thermonuclear explosion, resulting in the star being blown completely apart without leaving a stellar remnant behind.[2] Pair-instability supernovae can only happen in stars with a mass range from around 130 to 250 solar masses and low to moderate metallicity (low abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium - a situation common in Population III stars). SN 2006gy, SN 2007bi,[3] SN 2213-1745, SN 1000+0216,[4] SN 2010mb, OGLE14-073,[5] SN 2016aps, and SN 2016iet,[6] are hypothesized to have been pair-instability supernovae. Photons given off by a body in thermal equilibrium have a black-body spectrum with an energy density proportional to the fourth power of the temperature, as described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law. Wien's law states that the wavelength of maximum emission from a black body is inversely proportional to its temperature. Equivalently, the frequency, and the energy, of the peak emission is directly proportional to the temperature. In very large hot stars with a temperature above about 3×10^8 K, photons produced in the stellar core are primarily in the form of gamma rays, with a very high energy level. The pressure from these gamma rays helps to support the upper layers of the star against the inward pull of gravity. If the level of gamma rays (the energy density) is suddenly reduced, then the outer layers of the star will begin to collapse inwards. Sufficiently energetic gamma rays can interact with nuclei, electrons, or one another. They can form pairs of particles, such as electron-positron pairs, and electron-positron pairs can also meet and annihilate each other to create gamma rays again, in accordance with Albert Einstein's mass-energy equivalence equation E = mc2. At the very high density of a large stellar core, pair production and annihilation occur rapidly. Gamma rays, electrons, and positrons are overall held in thermal equilibrium, ensuring the star's core remains stable. By random fluctuation, the sudden heating and compression of the core can generate gamma rays energetic enough to be converted into an avalanche of electron-positron pairs. This reduces the pressure. When the collapse stops, the positrons find electrons and the pressure from gamma rays is driven up, again. The population of positrons provides a brief reservoir of new gamma rays as the expanding supernova's core pressure drops. As temperatures and gamma ray energies increase, more and more gamma ray energy is absorbed in creating electron-positron pairs. This reduction in gamma ray energy density reduces the radiation pressure that resists gravitational collapse and supports the outer layers of the star. The star contracts, compressing and heating the core, thereby increasing the rate of energy production. This increases the energy of the gamma rays that are produced making them more likely to interact and so increases the rate at which energy is absorbed in further pair production. As a result, the stellar core loses its support in a runaway process, in which gamma rays are created at an increasing rate, but more and more of the gamma rays are absorbed to produce electron-positron pairs, and the annihilation of the electron-positron pairs is insufficient to halt further contraction of the core, resulting in a supernova.

Thunderspy

Computer scientists disclose the existence of Thunderspy, a security vulnerability based on the Intel Thunderbolt port, that can result in an evil maid attack of an unattended device gaining full access to a computer's information in about five minutes and may affect millions of Apple, Linux and Windows computers including any computer with an enabled Thunderbolt port manufactured before 2019, and some after that. On Sunday, Eindhoven University of Technology researcher Björn Ruytenberg revealed the details of a new attack method he's calling Thunderspy. On Thunderbolt-enabled Windows or Linux PCs manufactured before 2019, his technique can bypass the login screen of a sleeping or locked computer—and even its hard disk encryption—to gain full access to the computer's data. And while his attack in many cases requires opening a target laptop's case with a screwdriver, it leaves no trace of intrusion and can be pulled off in just a few minutes. That opens a new avenue to what the security industry calls an "evil maid attack," the threat of any hacker who can get alone time with a computer in, say, a hotel room. Ruytenberg says there's no easy software fix, only disabling the Thunderbolt port altogether. "All the evil maid needs to do is unscrew the backplate, attach a device momentarily, reprogram the firmware, reattach the backplate, and the evil maid gets full access to the laptop," says Ruytenberg, who plans to present his Thunderspy research at the Black Hat security conference this summer—or the virtual conference that may replace it. "All of this can be done in under five minutes."

concentrated ownership

Concentrated Ownership simply refers to the case where majority of shares are held by few owners. Relating to monopolies: One organization or person owning large amounts of infrastructure in a small area

Why put water in your battery?

Conventional batteries contain a liquid "electrolyte" which is a mixture of sulfuric acid and water. During normal operation batteries will only consume water - and not sulfuric acid. When your battery's electrolyte is observed to be low, filling the battery with distilled water will keep the battery healthy and safe for use.

coronal loops

Coronal loops are huge loops of magnetic field beginning and ending on the Sun's visible surface (photosphere) projecting into the solar atmosphere (corona). Hot glowing ionized gas (plasma) trapped in the loops makes them visible. Coronal loops range widely in size up to several thousand kilometers long. They are transient features of the solar surface, forming and dissipating over periods of seconds to days. They form the basic structure of the lower corona and transition region of the Sun. These highly structured loops are a direct consequence of the twisted solar magnetic flux within the solar body. Coronal loops are associated with sunspots; the two "footpoints" where the loop passes through the sun's surface are often sunspots. This is because sunspots occur at regions of high magnetic field. The high magnetic field where the loop passes through the surface forms a barrier to convection currents, which bring hot plasma from the interior to the sun's surface, so the plasma in these high field regions is cooler than the rest of the sun's surface, appearing as a dark spot when viewed against the rest of the photosphere. The population of coronal loops varies with the 11 year solar cycle, which also influences the number of sunspots. Astronomers publish a study which includes the highest resolution images[data unknown/missing] of the Sun from NASA's FOXSI Sounding Rocket. The images show coronal loops - magnetic threads filled with million-degree hot plasma - of narrower widths than the ones previously seen.

Cytometry

Cytometry is the measurement of the characteristics of cells. Variables that can be measured by cytometric methods include cell size, cell count, cell morphology (shape and structure), cell cycle phase, DNA content, and the existence or absence of specific proteins on the cell surface or in the cytoplasm. Cytometry is used to characterize and count blood cells in common blood tests such as the complete blood count. In a similar fashion, cytometry is also used in cell biology research and in medical diagnostics to characterize cells in a wide range of applications associated with diseases such as cancer and AIDS.

Tokenism

When a single member of a minority group is present in an office, workplace, or classroom and is seen as a representative of that minority group rather than as an individual Tokenism is the practice of making only a perfunctory or symbolic effort to be inclusive to members of minority groups, especially by recruiting a small number of people from underrepresented groups in order to give the appearance of racial or sexual equality within a workforce.

domestic policy

Domestic policy are administrative decisions that are directly related to all issues and activity within a nation's borders. It differs from foreign policy, which refers to the ways a government advances its interests in world politics.

embolic occlusion

Embolism: A sudden blocking of an artery. Arterial embolism can cause occlusion in any part of the body. It is a major cause of infarction (tissue death from blockage of the blood supply). An embolus lodging in the brain from either the heart or a carotid artery will most likely be the cause of a stroke due to ischemia. Occlusion: the blockage or closing of a blood vessel or hollow organ. seems redundant. saw it in a paper. literally 2 words that mean the same thing next to eachother Definition Magnetic microspheres are supramolecular particles that are small enough to circulate through capillaries without producing embolic occlusion (<4 μm) but are sufficiently susceptible (ferromagnetic) to be captured in micro vessels and dragged in to the adjacent tissues by magnetic fields of 0.5-0.8 tesla (T).

High school students are so obsessed with status because making judgements about each other is the only power they really have.

Good paper topic. Coddling of the youth and not taking them seriously. They have little economic or political power; they must attend school all day and have very little say in what goes on there; they are pressured into learning esoteric subjects that have little immediate relevance to them. The one power they do have is to create their own hierarchy by evaluating eachother with criteria very different from those promoted by teachers and parents. Because status is finite, the only means that students have to increase or maintain their social standing is by lowering the status of others. That is, you move up by putting others down through petty cruelties like gossip, ridicule, and bullying.

atoms for peace

In 1953, President Eisenhower's proposal to the U.N. to slow down the arms race. I feel impelled to speak today in a language that in a sense is new - one which I, who have spent so much of my life in the military profession, would have preferred never to use. That new language is the language of atomic warfare. The United States then launched an "Atoms for Peace" program that supplied equipment and information to schools, hospitals, and research institutions within the U.S. and throughout the world. The first nuclear reactors in Iran, Israel[2] and Pakistan were built under the program by American Machine and Foundry, a company more commonly known as a major manufacturer of bowling equipment. The speech was part of a carefully orchestrated media campaign, called "Operation Candor", to enlighten the American public on the risks and hopes of a nuclear future. It was a propaganda component of the Cold War strategy of containment.[3] Eisenhower's speech opened a media campaign that would last for years and that aimed at "emotion management,"[4] balancing fears of continuing nuclear armament with promises of peaceful use of uranium in future nuclear reactors.[5] The speech was a tipping point for international focus on peaceful uses of atomic energy, even during the early stages of the Cold War. Eisenhower, with some influence from J. Robert Oppenheimer, may have been attempting to convey a spirit of comfort to a terrified world after the horror of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and of the nuclear tests of the early 1950s.[6]

Intercalation

In chemistry, intercalation is the reversible inclusion or insertion of a molecule (or ion) into materials with layered structures. Examples are found in graphite and transition metal dichalcogenides. One famous intercalation host is graphite, which intercalates potassium as a guest.[3] Intercalation expands the van der Waals gap between sheets, which requires energy. Usually this energy is supplied by charge transfer between the guest and the host solid, i.e., redox. Two potassium graphite compounds are KC8 and KC24. Carbon fluorides (e.g., (CF)x and (C4F)) are prepared by reaction of fluorine with graphitic carbon. The color is greyish, white, or yellow. The bond between the carbon and fluorine atoms is covalent, thus fluorine is not intercalated.[clarification needed] Such materials have been considered as a cathode in various lithium batteries.

political realism

In foreign policy, the belief that nations are inevitably selfish and that we should seek to protect our national security, regardless of moral arguments.

moral idealism

In foreign policy, the belief that the most important goal is to do what is right. Moral idealists think that it is possible for nations to cooperate as part of a rule-based community.

spintronics

In theory, we can make electronic data processing much more efficient by switching to spintronics. Instead of using electrical signals, this technology makes use of magnetic signals to transmit data. Unfortunately, magnetism tends to get incredibly complicated, especially at the tiny scale of our computer chips. You could view a magnetic wave as millions of compass needles performing a complex collective dance. Not only do the waves propagate extremely fast, causing them to vanish in mere nanoseconds, the tricky laws of quantum mechanics also allow them to travel in multiple directions at the same time. This makes them even more elusive. Spintronics (a portmanteau meaning spin transport electronics[1][2][3]), also known as spin electronics, is the study of the intrinsic spin of the electron and its associated magnetic moment, in addition to its fundamental electronic charge, in solid-state devices.[4] The field of spintronics concerns spin-charge coupling in metallic systems; the analogous effects in insulators fall into the field of multiferroics. Spintronics fundamentally differs from traditional electronics in that, in addition to charge state, electron spins are exploited as a further degree of freedom, with implications in the efficiency of data storage and transfer. Spintronic systems are most often realised in dilute magnetic semiconductors (DMS) and Heusler alloys and are of particular interest in the field of quantum computing and neuromorphic computing.[5]

Magnetic microspheres

Magnetic microspheres are supramolecular particles that are small enough to circulate through capillaries without producing embolic occlusion (<4 μm) but are sufficiently susceptible (ferromagnetic) to be captured in micro vessels and dragged in to the adjacent tissues by magnetic fields of 0.5-0.8 tesla (T). The use of magnetic force for site-specific drug delivery by using albumin microspheres containing magnetite appears to be a promising strategy. Significant improvements in response can be incorporated and obtained with magnetic albumin microspheres delivery system compared with conventional and nonmagnetic microspheres drug regimens. https://www.pharmatutor.org/articles/magnetic-microsphere#:~:text=Definition%20Magnetic%20microspheres%20are%20supramolecular,0.5%2D0.8%20tesla%20(T) _____________ MagPlex-TAG™ Microspheres are oligonucleotide-coupled polystyrene microparticles, or "beads," that have been dyed into spectrally distinct sets, or "regions," allowing them to be individually identified by an xMAP® instrument. Each of these uniquely color coded beads has a unique 24 base DNA sequence, called an "anti-TAG," covalently coupled to its surface. These beads enable you to quickly and easily design custom bead arrays simply by adding a complementary "TAG" sequence to your primers or probes of interest and hybridizing those primers or probes to the anti-TAG sequences on the addressable microsphere. MagPlex-TAG™ Microspheres are magnetic, allowing them to be easily separated from solution with the use of a magnetic separator. This improves percent recovery during handling and wash steps and facilitates assay automation. Additionally, MagPlex-TAG Microspheres are compatible with all xMAP® instruments, including the MAGPIX® system. MAGPIX is simple and easy to use, has a small footprint, and is the most economical multiplex instrument on the market.Avidin

Action expresses priorities.

Mahatma Gandhi

An eye for eye only ends up making the whole world blind.

Mahatma Gandhi

Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's needs, but not every man's greed.

Mahatma Gandhi

Happiness is when what you think, what you say, and what you do are in harmony.

Mahatma Gandhi

The future depends on what we do in the present.

Mahatma Gandhi

Researchers report to have traced the origins of shark fins of endangered hammerhead sharks from a retail market in Hong Kong back to the locations where the sharks were first caught using DNA analysis.

Many female sharks go "home" to a specific region to give birth. This makes it possible for researchers to identify where a shark was born from the DNA it inherits from its mother. This DNA is present in dried, processed shark fins. The team compared the DNA from fin trimmings collected from dried seafood shops in Hong Kong to a global database of genetic samples collected by scientists from all over the world and were able to determine where the sharks originally came from. Testing revealed the majority of fins originated from the Eastern Pacific—the coastal strip extending from Baja California to Northern Peru—where vanishing scalloped hammerhead populations are listed as "Endangered" under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. The Eastern Pacific also includes famous island chains like Galapagos and Cocos where tourists go to dive with schools of scalloped hammerheads.

Are there earth rocks on mars?

Maybe. Mars hit with thousands of Earth rocks possibly containing life following asteroid impacte talks about the Chicxulub impact and how it probably spread rocks to all the terrestrial planets in our solar system and the moons of all the planets. Certain meteorites found on Earth have been established to come from Mars: a giant impact ejected rocks from Mars, these rocks traveled through interplanetary space, and went through the Earth's atmosphere without completely burning up.

Bracero program

Mexican workers came to US due to a labor shortage from WW2. The bracero program (from the Spanish term bracero, meaning "manual laborer" or "one who works using his arms") was a series of laws and diplomatic agreements, initiated on August 4, 1942, when the United States signed the Mexican Farm Labor Agreement with Mexico.[1] For these farmworkers, the agreement guaranteed decent living conditions (sanitation, adequate shelter and food), and a minimum wage of 30 cents an hour, as well as protections from forced military service, and guaranteed part of wages were to be put into a private savings account in Mexico; it also allowed the importation of contract laborers from Guam as a temporary measure during the early phases of World War II.[2]

Writ of Certiorari

Order by the Supreme Court directing a lower court to send up the records of a case for review

Polyacetylene

Polyacetylene (IUPAC name: polyethyne) usually refers to an organic polymer with the repeating unit (C2H2)n. The name refers to its conceptual construction from polymerization of acetylene to give a chain with repeating olefin groups. This compound is conceptually important, as the discovery of polyacetylene and its high conductivity upon doping helped to launch the field of organic conductive polymers. Early work in the field of polyacetylene research was aimed at using doped polymers as easily processable and lightweight "plastic metals".[3] Despite the promise of this polymer in the field of conductive polymers, many of its properties such as instability to air and difficulty with processing have led to avoidance in commercial applications. Upon doping polyacetylene with I2, the conductivity increased seven orders of magnitude.[5] Similar results were achieved using Cl2 and Br2. These materials exhibited the largest room temperature conductivity observed for a covalent organic polymer, and this seminal report was key in furthering the development of organic conductive polymers.[9] Further studies led to improved control of the cis/trans isomer ratio and demonstrated that cis-polyacetylene doping led to higher conductivity than doping of trans-polyacetylene.[5] Doping cis-polyacetylene with AsF5 further increased the conductivities, bringing them close to that of copper. Furthermore, it was found that heat treatment of the catalyst used for polymerization led to films with higher conductivities.[10]

Polygamy vs. Polygyny vs. Polyandry

Polygamy - more that one spouse Polygyny - more than one wife Polyandry - more than one husband

Samuel morton

Ranked intelligence by measuring skull capacity (size, volume). Implies connection between race and intelligence. Caucasian, Mongoloid, Malaysian, American, Ethiopian. Had a collection of 6,000 skulls when he died.

Relativistic jets

Relativistic jets are beams of ionised matter accelerated close to the speed of light. Most have been observationally associated with central black holes of some active galaxies, radio galaxies or quasars, and also by galactic stellar black holes, neutron stars or pulsars. Beam lengths may extend between several thousand,[7] hundreds of thousands[8] or millions of parsecs.[3] Jet velocities when approaching the speed of light show significant effects of the special theory of relativity; for example, relativistic beaming that changes the apparent beam brightness.[9]

Researchers build sensor consisting of only 11 atoms

Researchers at Delft University of Technology have developed a sensor that is only 11 atoms in size. The sensor is capable of capturing magnetic waves and consists of an antenna, a readout capability, a reset button and a memory unit. The researchers hope to use their atomic sensor to learn more about the behaviour of magnetic waves, so that hopefully such waves can be used in green ICT applications one day. In theory, we can make electronic data processing much more efficient by switching to spintronics. Instead of using electrical signals, this technology makes use of magnetic signals to transmit data. Unfortunately, magnetism tends to get incredibly complicated, especially at the tiny scale of our computer chips. You could view a magnetic wave as millions of compass needles performing a complex collective dance. Not only do the waves propagate extremely fast, causing them to vanish in mere nanoseconds, the tricky laws of quantum mechanics also allow them to travel in multiple directions at the same time. This makes them even more elusive. In order to still be able to study these rapid oscillations, researchers from Delft University of Technology have developed a minuscule device. Consisting of only eleven atoms, the device is equipped with an antenna, a readout capability, a reset button and a memory unit to store the measurement outcomes. The central idea of the invention is that the device instantly detects a passing magnetic wave and remembers this information. "Compare it to a mouse trap," research leader Sander Otte explains. "A mouse is typically too fast and too small to capture by hand. But a mouse trap reacts very quickly and then hold the mouse in place." The researchers connected the device to magnetic atomic wires through which magnetic waves were sent. Although the test wires were still very short, the results are promising: the waves moved very peculiarly, as one would expect from quantum mechanics. The next step is to also apply this technique to more complicated circuits in order to gain more insight into the behaviour of spintronics.

Self-assembly

Self-assembly is a process in which a disordered system of pre-existing components forms an organized structure or pattern as a consequence of specific, local interactions among the components themselves, without external direction. When the constitutive components are molecules, the process is termed molecular self-assembly. AFM imaging of self-assembly of 2-aminoterephthalic acid molecules on (104)-oriented calcite.[3] Self-assembly can be classified as either static or dynamic. In static self-assembly, the ordered state forms as a system approaches equilibrium, reducing its free energy. However, in dynamic self-assembly, patterns of pre-existing components organized by specific local interactions are not commonly described as "self-assembled" by scientists in the associated disciplines. These structures are better described as "self-organized", although these terms are often used interchangeably. Researchers demonstrate a method to direct self-assembly - in terms of size, position and geometry - of a multitude of materials made out of components of more than four orders of magnitude different in size and mass using femtosecond laser pulses.[476][477]

Siphonophorae

Siphonophorae (from Greek siphōn 'tube' + pherein 'to bear'[2]) is an order of Hydrozoans, a class of marine organisms belonging to the phylum Cnidaria. According to the World Register of Marine Species, the order contains 175 species.[3] Although a siphonophore may appear to be an individual organism, each specimen is in fact a colonial organism composed of medusoid and polypoid zooids that are morphologically and functionally specialized.[4] Zooids are multicellular units that develop from a single fertilized egg and combine to create functional colonies able to reproduce, digest, float, maintain body positioning, and use jet propulsion to move.[5] Most colonies are long, thin, transparent floaters living in the pelagic zone.[6] Like other hydrozoans, some siphonophores emit light to attract and attack prey. While many sea animals produce blue and green bioluminescence, the siphonophore was only the second life form found to produce a red light (the first one being the scaleless dragonfish Chirostomias pliopterus).[7] ___________ Researchers report that they have discovered and filmed[361] one the longest organisms known so far with the SuBastian underwater robot in the Ningaloo Canyons off the coast of Western Australia: a siphonophore of the genus Apolemia with an estimated length of almost 50 meters which coiled itself into a spiral form. Specimens of lion's mane jellyfish are known to be larger. They also discovered up to 30 new underwater species and collected DNA samples and specimens of various deep sea creatures.

analyte

Substance being analyzed

Supramolecular chemistry

Supramolecular chemistry is the domain of chemistry concerning chemical systems composed of a discrete number of molecules. The strength of the forces responsible for spatial organization of the system range from weak intermolecular forces, electrostatic charge, or hydrogen bonding to strong covalent bonding, provided that the electronic coupling strength remains small relative to the energy parameters of the component.[1][2][page needed] Whereas traditional chemistry concentrates on the covalent bond, supramolecular chemistry examines the weaker and reversible non-covalent interactions between molecules.[3] These forces include hydrogen bonding, metal coordination, hydrophobic forces, van der Waals forces, pi-pi interactions and electrostatic effects.

First Opium War

The First Opium War, also known as the Opium War or the Anglo-Chinese War, was a series of military engagements fought between Britain and the Qing dynasty of China. The immediate issue was Chinese official seizure of opium stocks at Canton to stop the banned opium trade, and threatening the death penalty for future offenders. The British government insisted on the principles of free trade and equality among nations and backed the merchants' demands. The British Navy defeated the Chinese using technologically superior ships and weapons, and the British then imposed a treaty that granted territory to Britain and opened trade with China. The conflict had been building for decades. In the 18th century the demand for Chinese luxury goods (particularly silk, porcelain, and tea) created a trade imbalance between China and Britain. European silver flowed into China through the Canton System, which confined incoming foreign trade to the southern port city of Canton. To counter this imbalance, the British East India Company began to grow opium in Bengal, in present-day Bangladesh, and allowed private British merchants to sell opium to Chinese smugglers for illegal sale in China. The influx of narcotics reversed the Chinese trade surplus, drained the economy of silver, and increased the numbers of opium addicts inside the country, outcomes that seriously worried Chinese officials. In 1839, the Daoguang Emperor, rejecting proposals to legalise and tax opium, appointed viceroy Lin Zexu to go to Canton to halt the opium trade completely.[8] Lin wrote to Queen Victoria an open letter in an appeal to her moral responsibility to stop the opium trade, but it was never delivered.[9][failed verification] When he failed to get a response, Lin attempted to get foreign companies to forfeit their opium stores in exchange for tea, but this failed too. Then Lin resorted to using force in the western merchants' enclave. He confiscated all supplies and ordered a blockade of foreign ships to get them to surrender their opium supply. Lin confiscated 20,283 chests of opium (approximately 1210 tons or 2.66 million pounds). The British government responded by dispatching a military force to China and in the ensuing conflict, the Royal Navy used its naval and gunnery power to inflict a series of decisive defeats on the Chinese Empire,[11] a tactic later referred to as gunboat diplomacy. In 1842, the Qing dynasty was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanking—the first of what the Chinese later called the unequal treaties—which granted an indemnity and extraterritoriality to British subjects in China, opened five treaty ports to British merchants, and ceded Hong Kong Island to the British Empire. The failure of the treaty to satisfy British goals of improved trade and diplomatic relations led to the Second Opium War (1856-60). The following social unrest within China was the background for the Taiping Rebellion, which further weakened the dynasty.[12] In China, the year 1849 is considered the beginning of modern Chinese history.[13]

Galileo affair

The Galileo affair (Italian: il processo a Galileo Galilei) began around 1610[1] and culminated with the trial and condemnation of Galileo Galilei by the Roman Catholic Inquisition in 1633. Galileo was prosecuted for his support of heliocentrism, the astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun at the centre of the Solar System. Galileo went on to propose a theory of tides in 1616, and of comets in 1619; he argued that the tides were evidence for the motion of the Earth. In 1632 Galileo published his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which implicitly defended heliocentrism, and was immensely popular. Responding to mounting controversy over theology, astronomy and philosophy, the Roman Inquisition tried Galileo in 1633 and found him "vehemently suspect of heresy", sentencing him to indefinite imprisonment. Galileo was kept under house arrest until his death in 1642. He was sentenced to formal imprisonment at the pleasure of the Inquisition.[55] On the following day this was commuted to house arrest, which he remained under for the rest of his life. His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.[56] According to popular legend, after his abjuration Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase "and yet it moves" (Eppur si muove), but there is no evidence that he actually said this or anything similar. The first account of the legend dates to a century after his death.[57] The phrase "Eppur si muove" does appear, however, in a painting of the 1640s by the Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo or an artist of his school. The painting depicts an imprisoned Galileo apparently pointing to a copy of the phrase written on the wall of his dungeon.[58]

Rashba effect

The Rashba effect, also called Bychkov-Rashba effect, is a momentum-dependent splitting of spin bands in bulk crystals[note 1] and low-dimensional condensed matter systems (such as heterostructures and surface states) similar to the splitting of particles and anti-particles in the Dirac Hamiltonian. The splitting is a combined effect of spin-orbit interaction and asymmetry of the crystal potential, in particular in the direction perpendicular to the two-dimensional plane (as applied to surfaces and heterostructures). no idea/ Scientists prove the existence of the Rashba effect in bulk perovskites. Previously researchers have hypothesized that the materials' extraordinary electronic, magnetic and optical properties - which make it a commonly used material for solar cells and quantum electronics - are related to this effect which to date hasn't been proven to be present in the material.[449][450]

judiciary

The courts, one of the three branches of government in the United States.

Scientists report to have genetically engineered plants to glow much brighter than previously possible by inserting genes of the bioluminescent mushroom Neonothopanus nambi. The glow is self-sustained, works by converting plants' caffeic acid into luciferin and, unlike for bacterial bioluminescence genes used earlier, has a high light output that is visible to the naked eye.

The movie Avatar evoked an imaginary world of lush bioluminescent jungles. Now the popular fascination for sustainably glowing foliage is being realized through advances in designer genetics. This week in Nature Biotechnology, scientists have announced the feasibility of creating plants that produce their own visible luminescence. The scientists revealed that bioluminescence found in some mushrooms is metabolically similar to the natural processes common among plants. By inserting DNA obtained from the mushroom, the scientists were able to create plants that glow much brighter than previously possible. This biological light can be used by scientists for observing the inner workings of plants. In contrast to other commonly used forms of bioluminescence, such as from fireflies, unique chemical reagents are not necessary for sustaining mushroom bioluminescence. Plants containing the mushroom DNA glow continuously throughout their lifecycle, from seedling to maturity. The new discovery can also be used for practical and aesthetic purposes, most notably for creating glowing flowers and other ornamental plants. And while replacing street lights with glowing trees may prove fantastical, the plants produce a pleasant green aura that emanates from their living energy. According to the authors, the plants can produce over a billion photons per minute. Dr. Keith Wood, CEO of Light Bio, states that "thirty years ago, I helped to create the first luminescent plant using a gene from fireflies. These new plants can produce a much brighter and more steady glow, which is fully embodied within their genetic code." In plants, caffeic acid is a building block of lignin, which helps provide mechanical strength to the cell walls. It is thus part of the lignocellulose biomass of plants, which is the most abundant renewable resource on Earth. As a key component of plant metabolism, caffeic acid is also integral to many other essential compounds involved in colors, fragrances, antioxidants, and so forth. Despite their similar sounding names, caffeic acid is not related to caffeine. By connecting light production to this pivotal molecule, the glow emitted by the plants provides an internal metabolic indicator. It can reveal the physiological status of the plants and their responses to the environment. For instance, the glow increases dramatically when a ripe banana skin is placed nearby (which emits ethylene). Younger parts of the plants tend to glow most brightly and the flowers are particularly luminous. Flickering patterns or waves of light are often visible, revealing active behaviors within the plants that normally would be hidden.

selective perception

The phenomenon that people often pay the most attention to things they already agree with and interpret them according to their own predispositions.

Why does the economy have to perpetually grow?

The simple answer is that once a segment of an economy depends on making money with money, perpetual growth must ensue.

Oldest president

The youngest to become president by election was John F. Kennedy, who was 43 years, 236 days, at his inauguration. The oldest person to assume the presidency was Donald Trump, at the age of 70 years, 220 days, on Inauguration Day.

Freezing-point depression

the difference in temperature between the freezing point of a solution and the freezing point of the pure solvent Freezing-point depression is the decrease of the freezing point of a solvent on the addition of a non-volatile solute. Examples include salt in water, alcohol in water, or the mixing of two solids such as impurities into a finely powdered drug. The freezing point is the temperature at which the liquid solvent and solid solvent are at equilibrium, so that their vapour pressures are equal. When a non-volatile solute is added to a volatile liquid solvent, the solution vapor pressure will be lower than that of the pure solvent. As a result, the solid will reach equilibrium with the solution at a lower temperature than with the pure solvent.[1] This explanation in terms of vapor pressure is equivalent to the argument based on chemical potential, since the chemical potential of a vapor is logarithmically related to pressure. All of the colligative properties result from a lowering of the chemical potential of the solvent in the presence of a solute. This lowering is an entropy effect. The greater randomness of the solution (as compared to the pure solvent) acts in opposition to freezing, so that a lower temperature must be reached, over a broader range, before equilibrium between the liquid solution and solid solution phases is achieved. Melting point determinations are commonly exploited in organic chemistry to aid in identifying substances and to ascertain their purity. The phenomenon of freezing-point depression has many practical uses. The radiator fluid in an automobile is a mixture of water and ethylene glycol. As a result of freezing-point depression, radiators do not freeze in winter (unless it is extremely cold, e.g. −30 to −40 °C (−22 to −40 °F)). Road salting takes advantage of this effect to lower the freezing point of the ice it is placed on. Lowering the freezing point allows the street ice to melt at lower temperatures, preventing the accumulation of dangerous, slippery ice. Commonly used sodium chloride can depress the freezing point of water to about −21 °C (−6 °F). If the road surface temperature is lower, NaCl becomes ineffective and other salts are used, such as calcium chloride, magnesium chloride or a mixture of many. These salts are somewhat aggressive to metals, especially iron, so in airports safer media such as sodium formate, potassium formate, sodium acetate, potassium acetate are used instead. Freezing-point depression is used by some organisms that live in extreme cold. Such creatures have evolved means through which they can produce a high concentration of various compounds such as sorbitol and glycerol. This elevated concentration of solute decreases the freezing point of the water inside them, preventing the organism from freezing solid even as the water around them freezes, or as the air around them becomes very cold. Examples of organisms that produce antifreeze compounds include some species of arctic-living fish such as the rainbow smelt, which produces glycerol and other molecules to survive in frozen-over estuaries during the winter months.[2] In other animals, such as the spring peeper frog (Pseudacris crucifer), the molality is increased temporarily as a reaction to cold temperatures. In the case of the peeper frog, freezing temperatures trigger a large-scale breakdown of glycogen in the frog's liver and subsequent release of massive amounts of glucose into the blood.[3]

social capital

the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively. having mutual trust and reciprocity enabling collective problem solving

cultural genocide

the systematic destruction of a group's culture

integrative theory of social stratifacation

theory based on the assumption that social hierarchy is necessary for the somoth functioning of society

the biography of a commodity

tracing each and every part of a product all throughout its path through production

marginalized

treat (a person, group, or concept) as insignificant or peripheral; lacking power Social exclusion, marginalization or social marginalisation is the social disadvantage and relegation to the fringe of society.

paucity

scarcity; lack

eschatology

study of the end times

key metaphors

term to identify metaphors that dominate the meanings that people in a specific culture attribute to their experience e.g. americans borrow heavily from war, sports, and economic exchange while other cultures focus more on nature, astronomy, and geological phenomena

legislation

the act of making or enacting laws

How many wars are there in history?

War is defined as an active conflict that has claimed more than 1,000 lives. Has the world ever been at peace? Of the past 3,400 years, humans have been entirely at peace for 268 of them, or just 8 percent of recorded history. From 1821 - 1945 there were 282 wars that had battle fatalities ranging from 300 - 20 million

ethnocentrism vs relativism

Ethnocentrism: a groups belief that their behaviors and beliefs are correct and other cultures are wrong. Therefore the study of other cultures would be the study of other peoples mistakes. Relativism: no behavior or belief can be judged to be odd or wrong because it is different

Lithium ion battery

In the batteries, lithium ions move from the negative electrode through an electrolyte to the positive electrode during discharge, and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as the material at the positive electrode and typically graphite at the negative electrode. The batteries have a high energy density, no memory effect (other than LFP cells)[14] and low self-discharge. They can however be a safety hazard since they contain a flammable electrolyte, and if damaged or incorrectly charged can lead to explosions and fires. Samsung was forced to recall Galaxy Note 7 handsets following lithium-ion fires,[15] and there have been several incidents involving batteries on Boeing 787s. The three primary functional components of a lithium-ion battery are the positive and negative electrodes and electrolyte. Generally, the negative electrode of a conventional lithium-ion cell is made from carbon. The positive electrode is typically a metal oxide. The electrolyte is a lithium salt in an organic solvent.[88] The electrochemical roles of the electrodes reverse between anode and cathode, depending on the direction of current flow through the cell. The most commercially popular anode (negative electrode) is graphite. The positive electrode is generally one of three materials: a layered oxide (such as lithium cobalt oxide), a polyanion (such as lithium iron phosphate) or a spinel (such as lithium manganese oxide).[89] Recently, graphene containing electrodes (based on 2D and 3D structures of graphene) have also been used as components of electrodes for lithium batteries.[90] The electrolyte is typically a mixture of organic carbonates such as ethylene carbonate or diethyl carbonate containing complexes of lithium ions.[91] These non-aqueous electrolytes generally use non-coordinating anion salts such as lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6), lithium hexafluoroarsenate monohydrate (LiAsF6), lithium perchlorate (LiClO4), lithium tetrafluoroborate (LiBF4), and lithium triflate (LiCF3SO3). The reactants in the electrochemical reactions in a lithium-ion cell are materials of anode and cathode, both of which are compounds containing lithium atoms. During discharge an oxidation reaction at the anode produces positively charged lithium ions and negatively charged electrons, as well as uncharged material that remains at the anode; after transport of the lithium ions through the electrolyte and of electrons through an external circuit, they recombine at the cathode together with the cathode material in a reduction reaction. The electrolyte and external circuit provide conductive media for lithium ions and electrons, respectively, but do not partake in the electrochemical reaction. With electrons flowing towards the cathode during discharge, the electrode at that side of the cell is the positive one. The reactions during discharge lower the chemical potential of the cell, so discharging transfers energy from the cell to wherever the electric current dissipates its energy, usually in the external circuit. During charging these reactions and transports take place in the opposite direction; with electrons now moving from (still positive terminal) anode to cathode (anode and cathode change places during charge and discharge), the external circuit has to provide electric energy for charging to occur, and this energy is then (with some loss) stored as chemical energy in the cell. Both electrodes allow lithium ions to move in and out of their structures with a process called insertion (intercalation) or extraction (deintercalation), respectively. As the lithium ions "rock" back and forth between the two electrodes, these batteries are also known as "rocking-chair batteries" or "swing batteries" (a term given by some European industries).[103][104] During discharge, the (positive) lithium ions move from the negative electrode (anode) to the positive electrode (cathode) (forming a lithium compound) through the electrolyte while the electrons flow through the external circuit in the same direction.[105] When the cell is charging, the reverse occurs with the lithium ions and electrons move back into the negative electrode in a net higher energy state. The following equations exemplify the chemistry.

Lead-acid battery

In the charged state, the chemical energy of the battery is stored in the potential difference between the pure lead at the negative side and the PbO2 on the positive side, plus the aqueous sulphuric acid. The electrical energy produced by a discharging lead-acid battery can be attributed to the energy released when the strong chemical bonds of water (H2O) molecules are formed from H+ ions of the acid and O2− ions of PbO2.[9] Conversely, during charging the battery acts as a water-splitting device. Discharge In the discharged state both the positive and negative plates become lead(II) sulfate (PbSO4), and the electrolyte loses much of its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water. The discharge process is driven by the pronounced reduction in energy when 2 H+(aq) (hydrated protons) of the acid react with O2− ions of PbO2 to form the strong O-H bonds in H2O (ca. −880 kJ per 18 g of water).[9] This highly exergonic process also compensates for the energetically unfavorable formation of Pb2+(aq) ions or lead sulfate (PbSO4(s)). Negative plate reaction Pb(s) + HSO−4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2e− The release of two conducting electrons gives the lead electrode a negative charge. As electrons accumulate they create an electric field which attracts hydrogen ions and repels sulfate ions, leading to a double-layer near the surface. The hydrogen ions screen the charged electrode from the solution which limits further reaction unless charge is allowed to flow out of electrode. Positive plate reaction PbO2(s) + HSO−4(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e− → PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) taking advantage of the metallic conductivity of PbO2 Charging In the fully charged state, the negative plate consists of lead, and the positive plate is lead dioxide. The electrolyte solution has a higher concentration of aqueous sulfuric acid, which stores most of the chemical energy. Overcharging with high charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis of water, which bubbles out and is lost. The design of some types of lead-acid battery allows the electrolyte level to be inspected and topped up with pure water to replace any that has been lost this way. Because of freezing-point depression, the electrolyte is more likely to freeze in a cold environment when the battery has a low charge and correspondingly low sulfuric acid concentration. During discharge, H+ produced at the negative plates moves into the electrolyte solution and is then consumed at the positive plates, while HSO−4 is consumed at both plates. The reverse occurs during charge. This motion can be electrically driven proton flow or Grotthuss mechanism, or by diffusion through the medium, or by flow of a liquid electrolyte medium. Since the electrolyte density is greater when the sulfuric acid concentration is higher, the liquid will tend to circulate by convection. Therefore, a liquid-medium cell tends to rapidly discharge and rapidly charge more efficiently than an otherwise similar gel cell. Modern-day paste contains carbon black, blanc fixe (barium sulfate) and lignosulfonate. The blanc fixe acts as a seed crystal for the lead-to-lead sulfate reaction. The blanc fixe must be fully dispersed in the paste in order for it to be effective. The lignosulfonate prevents the negative plate from forming a solid mass during the discharge cycle, instead enabling the formation of long needle-like dendrites. The long crystals have more surface area and are easily converted back to the original state on charging. Carbon black counteracts the effect of inhibiting formation caused by the lignosulfonates. Sulfonated naphthalene condensate dispersant is a more effective expander than lignosulfonate and speeds up formation. This dispersant improves dispersion of barium sulfate in the paste, reduces hydroset time, produces a more breakage-resistant plate, reduces fine lead particles and thereby improves handling and pasting characteristics. It extends battery life by increasing end-of-charge voltage. Sulfonated naphthalene requires about one-third to one-half the amount of lignosulfonate and is stable to higher temperatures.[22] Separators between the positive and negative plates prevent short-circuit through physical contact, mostly through dendrites ("treeing"), but also through shedding of the active material. Separators allow the flow of ions between the plates of an electro-chemical cell to form a closed circuit. Wood, rubber, glass fiber mat, cellulose, and PVC or polyethylene plastic have been used to make separators. Wood was the original choice, but deteriorated in the acid electrolyte. Rubber separators are stable in battery acid and provide valuable electrochemical advantages that other materials cannot.

mass media

Forms of communication, such as newspapers and radio, that reach millions of people.

right-to-work laws

Laws that ban unions from collecting dues or other fees from workers whom they represent but who have not actually joined the union. Minnesota does not have a right to work law, which means employees that are part of a unionized workforce must join the union or make "fair share" payments equivalent to the cost of union dues.

Should we increase the members of the House of Representatives?

Only one nation in the entire world has a lower house with members who represent more people than House representatives do in America. That nation is India. Each of the 552 members of the House of the People represents more than 2.3 million citizens. This makes a certain amount of sense, since India has a population of 1.3 billion. Should the US have a larger House of Representatives? The average House member spoke for only 200,000 citizens in 1913. If that ratio were kept the same today, we would have more than 1,600 representatives. Because districts would be smaller, campaigns would be cheaper. We might have more citizen-legislators and fewer lifetime politicians. We would be more likely to see our representatives more often. Members of the house would do more of the work of the house and there would be less reliance on staff members.

Other than love and fear there is probably no more powerful motivating force in our lives than money.

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Scientists report to have achieved wireless control of adrenal hormone secretion in genetically unmodified rats through the use of injectable, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and remotely applied alternating magnetic fields heats them up. Their findings may aid research of physiological and psychological impacts of stress and related treatments and present an alternative strategy for modulating peripheral organ function than problematic implantable devices. To achieve control over hormone release, Dekel Rosenfeld, an MIT-Technion postdoc in Anikeeva's group, has developed specialized magnetic nanoparticles that can be injected into the adrenal gland. When exposed to a weak magnetic field, the particles heat up slightly, activating heat-responsive channels that trigger hormone release. This technique can be used to stimulate an organ deep in the body with minimal invasiveness. Anikeeva's lab has previously devised several novel magnetic nanomaterials, including particles that can release drugs at precise times in specific locations in the body. As a target to stimulate hormone release, the researchers decided on ion channels that control the flow of calcium into adrenal cells. Those ion channels can be activated by a variety of stimuli, including heat. When calcium flows through the open channels into adrenal cells, the cells begin pumping out hormones. "If we want to modulate the release of those hormones, we need to be able to essentially modulate the influx of calcium into adrenal cells," Rosenfeld says. Unlike previous research in Anikeeva's group, in this study magnetothermal stimulation was applied to modulate the function of cells without artificially introducing any genes. To stimulate these heat-sensitive channels, which naturally occur in adrenal cells, the researchers designed nanoparticles made of magnetite, a type of iron oxide that forms tiny magnetic crystals about 1/5000 the thickness of a human hair. In rats, they found these particles could be injected directly into the adrenal glands and remain there for at least six months. When the rats were exposed to a weak magnetic field—about 50 millitesla, 100 times weaker than the fields used for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)—the particles heated up by about 6 degrees Celsius, enough to trigger the calcium channels to open without damaging any surrounding tissue. The heat-sensitive channel that they targeted, known as TRPV1, is found in many sensory neurons throughout the body, including pain receptors. TRPV1 channels can be activated by capsaicin, the organic compound that gives chili peppers their heat, as well as by temperature. They are found across mammalian species, and belong to a family of many other channels that are also sensitive to heat. This stimulation triggered a hormone rush—doubling cortisol production and boosting noradrenaline by about 25 percent. That led to a measurable increase in the animals' heart rates. The researchers now plan to use this approach to study how hormone release affects PTSD and other disorders, and they say that eventually it could be adapted for treating such disorders.

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erosion of discourse

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gerrymandering

Although in the 1960s the Supreme Court ruled that congressional districts must be equal in population, it continued to be silent on the issue of gerrymandered districts. Gerrymandering occurs when a district's boundaries are drawn to maximize the influence of a certain group or political party. Where a party's voters are scarce, the boundaries of a district can be drawn to include as many of the party's voters as possible. Where the party is strong, the lines are drawn so that the opponent's supporters are spread across two or more districts, thus diluting the opponent's strength.

Nucleoprotein

Nucleoproteins are any proteins that are structurally associated with nucleic acids,[1] either DNA or RNA. Typical nucleoproteins include ribosomes, nucleosomes and viral nucleocapsid proteins. Nucleoproteins tend to be positively charged, facilitating interaction with the negatively charged nucleic acid chains. The tertiary structures and biological functions of many nucleoproteins are understood.[2][3] Important techniques for determining the structures of nucleoproteins include X-ray diffraction, nuclear magnetic resonance and cryo-electron microscopy. The most widespread deoxyribonucleoproteins are nucleosomes, in which the component is nuclear DNA. The proteins combined with DNA are histones and protamines; the resulting nucleoproteins are located in chromosomes. Thus, the entire chromosome, i.e. chromatin in eukaryotes consists of such nucleoproteins.[2][13] In eukaryotic cells, DNA is associated with about an equal mass of histone proteins in a highly condensed nucleoprotein complex called chromatin.[14] Deoxyribonucleoproteins in this kind of complex interact to generate a multiprotein regulatory complex in which the intervening DNA is looped or wound. The deoxyribonucleoproteins participate in regulating DNA replication and transcription.[15] Deoxyribonucleoproteins are also involved in homologous recombination, a process for repairing DNA that appears to be nearly universal. A central intermediate step in this process is the interaction of multiple copies of a recombinase protein with single-stranded DNA to form a DNP filament. Recombinases employed in this process are produced by archaea (RadA recombinase),[16] by bacteria (RecA recombinase)[17] and by eukaryotes from yeast to humans (Rad51 and Dmc1 recombinases).[18] A ribonucleoprotein (RNP) is a complex of ribonucleic acid and RNA-binding protein. These complexes play an integral part in a number of important biological functions that include transcription, translation and regulating gene expression[20] and regulating the metabolism of RNA.[21] A few examples of RNPs include the ribosome, the enzyme telomerase, vault ribonucleoproteins, RNase P, hnRNP and small nuclear RNPs (snRNPs), which have been implicated in pre-mRNA splicing (spliceosome) and are among the main components of the nucleolus.[22] Some viruses are simple ribonucleoproteins, containing only one molecule of RNA and a number of identical protein molecules. Others are ribonucleoprotein or deoxyribonucleoprotein complexes containing a number of different proteins, and exceptionally more nucleic acid molecules. Currently, over 2000 RNPs can be found in the RCSB Protein Data Bank (PDB).[23] Furthermore, the Protein-RNA Interface Data Base (PRIDB) possesses a collection of information on RNA-protein interfaces based on data drawn from the PDB.[24] Some common features of protein-RNA interfaces were deduced based on known structures. For example, RNP in snRNPs have an RNA-binding motif in its RNA-binding protein. Aromatic amino acid residues in this motif result in stacking interactions with RNA. Lysine residues in the helical portion of RNA-binding proteins help to stabilize interactions with nucleic acids. This nucleic acid binding is strengthened by electrostatic attraction between the positive lysine side chains and the negative nucleic acid phosphate backbones. Additionally, it is possible to model RNPs computationally.[25] Although computational methods of deducing RNP structures are less accurate than experimental methods, they provide a rough model of the structure which allows for predictions of the identity of significant amino acids and nucleotide residues. Such information helps in understanding the overall function the RNP. Anti-RNP antibodies are autoantibodies associated with mixed connective tissue disease and are also detected in nearly 40% of Lupus erythematosus patients. Two types of anti-RNP antibodies are closely related to Sjögren's syndrome: SS-A (Ro) and SS-B (La). Autoantibodies against snRNP are called Anti-Smith antibodies and are specific for SLE. The presence of a significant level of anti-U1-RNP also serves a possible indicator of MCTD when detected in conjunction with several other factors.[28]

patronage

(politics) granting favors or giving contracts or making appointments to office in return for political support Patronage is the support, encouragement, privilege, or financial aid that an organization or individual bestows to another. In the history of art, arts patronage refers to the support that kings, popes, and the wealthy have provided to artists such as musicians, painters, and sculptors.

"Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world; indeed, it's the only thing that ever has."

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"The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about."

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market externality

Air pollution from motor vehicles is an example of a negative externality. The costs of the air pollution for the rest of society is not compensated for by either the producers or users of motorized transport. Costs that are not included in the prices people pay, for example, health risks and environmental degradation. An externality stems from the production or consumption of a good or service, resulting in a cost or benefit to an unrelated third party. Equilibrium is the ideal balance between buyers' benefits and producers' costs, while market failure is the inefficient distribution of goods and services in the market. ___________ Rarely do consumers pay the real costs of production and consumption. These costs are passed onto future generations or to people in other countries in the form of low wages, polluted environments, health risks, and the like. None of this would be possible without nation-states that allow its citizens to pass on the real cost of things in the form of environmental damage, health risks, and poverty to others.

electorate

All of the people entitled to vote in a given election

appellate court

A court having jurisdiction to review cases and issues that were originally tried in lower courts. Court of appeals On the middle tier of the federal court system are the U.S. courts of appeals. Courts of appeals, or appellate courts, do not hear evidence or testimony. Rather, an appellate court reviews the transcript of the trial court's proceedings, other records relating to the case, and attorneys' arguments as to why the trial court's decision should or should not stand.

standing committee

A permanent committee in Congress that deals with legislation concerning a particular area, such as agriculture or foreign relations.

Rental family service

A rental family service (レンタル家族) or professional stand-in service provides clients with actor(s) who portray friends, family members, or coworkers for social events such as weddings, or to provide platonic companionship. The service was first offered in Japan during the early 1990s. I played a father for a 12-year-old with a single mother. The girl was bullied because she didn't have a dad, so the mother rented me. I've acted as the girl's father ever since. I am the only real father that she knows. [...] If the client never reveals the truth, I must continue the role indefinitely. If the daughter gets married, I have to act as a father in that wedding, and then I have to be the grandfather. So, I always ask every client, "Are you prepared to sustain this lie?" It's the most significant problem our company has. — Ishii Yuichi, founder and head of Family Romance, 2017 interview The company Family Romance launched the "Real Appeal" service in 2017. "Real Appeal" provided clients with actors to pose with the client in photographs meant to be shared later on social media. The cost for each actor was ¥8,000 per hour, with a two-hour minimum, and all travel expenses were borne by the client. The service was designed to boost the client's perceived popularity.[20]

contempt of court

A ruling that a person has disobeyed a court order or has shown disrespect to the court or to a judicial proceeding. A party who is held in contempt of court can be fined, taken into custody, or both. A court must take care to ensure that the parties—and the court itself—comply with procedural requirements.

direct primary vs indirect primary

In a direct primary, voters cast their ballots directly for candidates. The elections that nominate candidates for Congress and for state or local offices are almost always direct primaries. In an indirect primary, voters choose delegates, who in turn choose the candidates. The delegates may be pledged to a particular candidate but sometimes run as unpledged delegates. The major parties use indirect primaries to elect delegates to the national nominating conventions, who then choose candidates for president and vice president.

longest filibuster

In opposition to the Civil Rights Act of 1957, he conducted the longest speaking filibuster ever by a lone senator, at 24 hours and 18 minutes in length.[5] In the 1960s, he opposed the civil rights legislation of 1964 and 1965 to end segregation and enforce the constitutional rights of African-American citizens, including basic suffrage. Despite being a pro-segregation Dixiecrat, he insisted he was not a racist, but was opposed to excessive federal authority, which he attributed to Communist agitators.[6]

astroturf lobbying

In some cases, interest groups are not membership organizations. Instead, they are established by political fundraisers or wealthy individuals. Sometimes, such groups try to disguise their efforts as grassroots campaigns. Campaigns that masquerade as grassroots mobilizations, but are not, have been given the apt label Astroturf lobbying. An Astroturf lobbyist might, for example, make anonymous postings online that appear to be from concerned citizens but that actually come from the sponsoring organization.

conference committee

A temporary committee that is formed when the two chambers of Congress pass differing versions of the same bill. The conference committee consists of members from the House and the Senate who work out a compromise bill.

fiscal year

A twelve-month period that is established for accounting purposes. The government's fiscal year runs from October 1 through September 30.

pocket veto

A veto taking place when Congress adjourns within 10 days of submitting a bill to the president, who simply lets it die by neither signing nor vetoing it. As described earlier in this text, the president can veto a bill passed by Congress. Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds vote by the members present in each chamber. The result of a veto override is that the bill becomes law against the wishes of the president. If the president does not send a bill back to Congress after ten congressional working days, the bill becomes law without the president's signature. If the president refuses to sign the bill and Congress adjourns within ten working days after the bill has been submitted to the president, however, the bill is killed for that session of Congress. This step is called a pocket veto. Presidents used the veto power sparingly until the administration of Andrew Johnson (1865-1869). Johnson vetoed twenty-one bills. Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945) vetoed more bills by far than any of his predecessors or successors in the presidency. During his administration, there were 372 regular vetoes, 9 of which were overridden by Congress, and 263 pocket vetoes. With

When did auctioneers start talking fast?

It's speculated that in the mid-1800s tobacco auctioneers, still known as some of the most skilled practitioners, might have developed the style when the public leaf auctions spread from Virginia into other states after the Civil War. The fast-talking auctioneer is a uniquely American tradition.

Supreme Court

The United States Supreme Court consists of nine justices—a chief justice and eight associate justices— although that number is not mandated by the Constitution. The Supreme Court has original, or trial, jurisdiction only in unusual instances (set forth in Article III, Section 2). In other words, only rarely does a case originate at the Supreme Court level. Most of the Court's work is as an appellate court. The Supreme Court has appellate authority over cases decided by the U.S. courts of appeals, as well as over some cases decided in the state courts when federal questions are at issue.

how much it costs to run a commercial jet?

The cost of operating a 747 is about 25,000 USD per flight hour, around 40 USD per mile. It uses roughly 15,375 USD in fuel per hour. Keep in mind that the most common airliners cost a similar amount to operate per flight hour to the Boeing 747.

"Old age is a thing of evil, it is well for a young man to die in battle."

Old Adage from The Crow Indian Tribe.

Presidential Cabinet

President appoints them, advisors to the president; is composed of the most senior appointed officers of the executive branch of the federal government of the United States. Today, the cabinet includes fourteen department secretaries, the attorney general, and a number of other officials. (See Table 12-2 for the names of the major executive departments represented in the cabinet.) Additional cabinet members vary from one presidency to the next. Typically, the vice president is a member. President George W. Bush added five officials to the cabinet, and Barack Obama added eight. Donald Trump added the following members, in addition to the vice president: ▸ The administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. ▸ The administrator of the Small Business Administration. ▸ The director of the Central Intelligence Agency. ▸ The director of National Intelligence. ▸ The director of the Office of Management and Budget. ▸ The United States ambassador to the United Nations. ▸ The United States trade representative. ▸ The White House chief of staff.

History of opium in China

The history of opium in China began with the use of opium for medicinal purposes during the 7th century. In the 17th century the practice of mixing opium with tobacco for smoking spread from Southeast Asia, creating a far greater demand.[1] Imports of opium into China stood at 200 chests annually in 1729,[1] when the first anti-opium edict was promulgated.[2][3] By the time Chinese authorities reissued the prohibition in starker terms in 1799,[4] the figure had leaped; 4,500 chests were imported in the year 1800.[1] The decade of the 1830s witnessed a rapid rise in opium trade,[5] and by 1838, just before the First Opium War, it had climbed to 40,000 chests.[5] The rise continued on after the Treaty of Nanking (1842) that concluded the war. By 1858 annual imports had risen to 70,000 chests (4,480 long tons (4,550 t)), approximately equivalent to global production of opium for the decade surrounding the year 2000.[6]

ethnocentric fallacy

The mistaken notion that the beliefs and behaviours of other cultures can be judged from the perspective of one's own culture. A groups belief that their behavior and beliefs are right and true, whereas those of other groups are wrong.

solidarity

When you see a group of citizens protesting something on the news, marching in a group, holding signs, and chanting slogans, you know they are in solidarity with each other, or united behind a common goal or purpose. unity or agreement of feeling or action, especially among individuals with a common interest; mutual support within a group.

relativistic fallacy

the idea that it is impossible to make moral judgements about the beliefs and behaviors of others

straw poll

unscientific survey used to gauge public opinion on a variety of issues and policies A straw poll or straw vote is an ad hoc or unofficial vote. It is used to show the popular opinion on a certain matter, and can be used to help politicians know the majority opinion and help them decide what to say in order to gain votes. Straw polls provide dialogue among movements within large groups.

government subsidies to texas cotton farmers

In 2016, Texas farmers received $1.59 billion in subsidies, more than any other state, and most of that went to growers of a handful of commodity crops — cotton, wheat, corn and sorghum. Eighty-one percent of Texas farmers collected no subsides at all. In 2002 it cost a US farmer 86 cents to produce a pound of cotton, which was then sold for 37 cents a pound. Texas cotton farmers were able to make a profit because the difference between the actual cost to produce cotton and the price it was sold at was made up by US taxpayers. The World Trade Organization (WTO) banned such subsidies in 2006.

Currently, there are about 2.3 million people in U.S. prisons and jails. That's roughly one in every one hundred adults. We are setting records—the share of our population in prison is thirteen times more than in Japan, nine times more than in Germany, and five times more than in Britain. In 1970, the proportion of Americans behind bars— the incarceration rate—was only one-fourth of what it is today. Not surprisingly, the number of drug offenders in prison is responsible for much of this increase. Such lockups have multiplied thirteenfold since 1980. Defense attorney Jim Felman of Tampa, Florida, said that America is conducting "an experiment in imprisoning first-time nonviolent offenders for periods of time previously reserved only for those who had killed someone." Holding that many prisoners is not cheap. It costs between $20,000 and $60,000 a year to house a convicted criminal in a state prison, depending on the state. Because of these costs, a number of conservative governors have begun to rethink their commitment to high rates of incarceration. Indeed, the massive growth in prison populations that marked the last few decades appears to have come to an end, and the incarceration rate is no longer growing. Given all this, do we still send too many Americans to prison? Fifteen percent of state prisoners at year-end 2015 had been convicted of a drug offense as their most serious. In comparison, 47% of federal prisoners serving time in September 2016 (the most recent date for which data are available) were convicted of a drug offense. In 2015 more than 600,000 people were arrested for the possession of marijuana.

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President Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-1969) stated in his autobiography that "of all the 1,886 nights I was President, there were not many when I got to sleep before 1 or 2 a.m., and there were few mornings when I didn't wake up by 6 or 6:30."1 President Harry Truman (1945-1953) once observed that no one can really understand what it is like to be president: there is no end to "the chain of responsibility that binds him," and he is "never allowed to forget that he is president." These responsibilities are, for the most part, unremitting. Unlike Congress, the president never adjourns.

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Rarely do consumers pay the real costs of production and consumption. These costs are passed onto future generations or to people in other countries in the form of low wages, polluted environments, health risks, and the like. None of this would be possible without nation-states that allow its citizens to pass on the real cost of things in the form of environmental damage, health risks, and poverty to others.

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Since 1945, the president, as commander in chief, has been responsible for the most difficult of all military decisions—if and when to use nuclear weapons. In 1945, President Truman made the extraordinary decision to drop atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. "The final decision," he said, "on where and when to use the atomic bomb was up to me. Let there be no mistake about it." Today, the president travels at all times with the "football"— the briefcase containing the codes used to launch a nuclear attack.

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The Constitution makes the vice president of the United States the president of the Senate. As presiding officer, the vice president may call on members to speak and put questions to a vote. The vice president is not an elected member of the Senate, however, and may not take part in Senate debates. The vice president may cast a vote in the Senate only in the event of a tie. Because vice presidents are rarely available—and do not often desire—to preside over the Senate, senators elect another presiding officer, the president pro tempore ("pro tem"), who serves in the absence of the vice president. The president pro tem is elected by the whole Senate and is ordinarily the member of the majority party with the longest continuous term of service in the Senate. The current president pro tem is Orrin Hatch (R., Utah). In the absence of both the president pro tem and the vice president, a temporary presiding officer is selected from the ranks of the Senate, usually a junior member of the majority party.

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The culture of a people, like the possessions of a person, is an ensemble of texts—collections of symbols and meanings—that must be viewed together to provide a full understanding.

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There is a sense in which rapid economic progress is impossible without painful adjustments. Ancient philosophies have to be scrapped; old social institutions have to disintegrate; bonds of caste, creed, and race have to burst; and large numbers of persons who cannot keep up with progress have to have their expectations of comfortable life frustrated.

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Up until two centuries ago, European physicians prescribed the consumption of human flesh, heart, bones, and other body parts as cures for such afflictions as arthritis, reproductive disorders, sciatica, warts, and skin blemishes. Human blood was thought to be a cure for epilepsy; physicians recommending that it be drunk immediately after the supplier died. Physicians also thought that the blood of someone who died violently was particularly effective. Thus in Denmark epileptics would stand around the scaffolds, cups in hand, waiting to catch the blood of executed criminals.

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Nixon shock

1971, president Nixon declared that paper money is no longer backed by gold. The Nixon shock was a series of economic measures undertaken by United States President Richard Nixon in 1971, in response to increasing inflation, the most significant of which were wage and price freezes, surcharges on imports, and the unilateral cancellation of the direct international convertibility of the United States dollar to gold.[1]

How many presidents have died in office?

8 1841: William Henry Harrison. 1850: Zachary Taylor. 1865: Abraham Lincoln. 1881: James A. Garfield. 1901: William McKinley. 1923: Warren G. Harding. 1945: Franklin D. Roosevelt. 1963: John F. Kennedy.

Criminal Law vs. Civil Law

Criminal Law: Cases involving a violation of local, state, or federal laws (Public Law) Civil Law: Cases involving one party attempting to seek payment or resolution of damages caused by another party.

Fertilizer

Fertilizers enhance the growth of plants. This goal is met in two ways, the traditional one being additives that provide nutrients. The second mode by which some fertilizers act is to enhance the effectiveness of the soil by modifying its water retention and aeration. This article, like many on fertilizers, emphasises the nutritional aspect. Fertilizers typically provide, in varying proportions: three main macronutrients: - Nitrogen (N): leaf growth - Phosphorus (P): Development of roots, flowers, seeds, fruit; - Potassium (K): Strong stem growth, movement of water in plants, promotion of flowering and fruiting; three secondary macronutrients: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S); micronutrients: copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn), boron (B). Of occasional significance are silicon (Si), cobalt (Co), and vanadium (V). The nutrients required for healthy plant life are classified according to the elements, but the elements are not used as fertilizers. Instead compounds containing these elements are the basis of fertilizers. The macro-nutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter (DM) (0% moisture) basis. Plants are made up of four main elements: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are widely available as water and carbon dioxide. Although nitrogen makes up most of the atmosphere, it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in proteins, DNA and other components (e.g., chlorophyll). To be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made available in a "fixed" form. Only some bacteria and their host plants (notably legumes) can fix atmospheric nitrogen (N2) by converting it to ammonia. Phosphate is required for the production of DNA and ATP, the main energy carrier in cells, as well as certain lipids. Micronutrients are consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts-per-million (ppm), ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm or less than 0.04% dry matter.[16][17] These elements are often present at the active sites of enzymes that carry out the plant's metabolism. Because these elements enable catalysts (enzymes) their impact far exceeds their weight percentage.

Malapportionment

For some time, the United States Supreme Court refused to address this problem. In 1962, however, the Court ruled that the Tennessee state legislature's malapportionment was an issue that could be heard in the federal courts because it affected the constitutional requirement of equal protection under the law.3 Two years later, the Supreme Court held that congressional districts must have equal populations.4 This principle has come to be known as the "one person, one vote" rule. In other words, one person's vote has to count as much as another's vote. Although in the 1960s the Supreme Court ruled that congressional districts must be equal in population, it continued to be silent on the issue of gerrymandered districts. Gerrymandering occurs when a district's boundaries are drawn to maximize the influence of a certain group or political party. Where a party's voters are scarce, the boundaries of a district can be drawn to include as many of the party's voters as possible. Where the party is strong, the lines are drawn so that the opponent's supporters are spread across two or more districts, thus diluting the opponent's strength.

framing

Framing an issue involves establishing the context in which it is understood. Frames are stories about how the world works. As an example, consider the different stories that can be told about someone who is experiencing poverty. A TV news show might cover a man whose condition was, to all appearances, due primarily to bad luck. Perhaps he suffered from a life-threatening disease, could not work, lost his job, and then became homeless. This description would set up a particular frame, encouraging viewers to take a positive attitude toward social spending that would provide aid to such an individual.

entitlement programs

Government benefits that certain qualified individuals are entitled to by law, regardless of need. A government program (such as Social Security or veteran benefits) that allows, or entitles, a certain class of people (such as older persons) to receive benefits.

speaker of the house

The presiding officer in the House of Representatives. The Speaker is a member of the majority party and is the most powerful member of the House. ▸ The Speaker has substantial control over what bills are assigned to which committees. ▸ The Speaker may preside over the sessions of the House, recognizing or ignoring members who wish to speak. ▸ The Speaker votes in the event of a tie, interprets and applies House rules, rules on points of order (questions about procedures asked by members), puts questions to a vote, and interprets the outcome of most of the votes taken. ▸ The Speaker plays a major role in making important committee member assignments. ▸ The Speaker schedules bills for action. The Speaker may choose whether to vote on any measure. If the Speaker chooses to vote, he or she appoints a temporary presiding officer (called a Speaker pro tempore), who then occupies the Speaker's chair. The Speaker does not often vote. Under the House rules, the only time the Speaker must vote is to break a tie. Otherwise, a tie automatically defeats a bill. On rare occasions, this rule creates an opportunity for the Speaker. If, by choosing to vote, the Speaker actually creates a tie, the proposal will be defeated.

Cultural Anthropology

The study of human society and culture; describes, analyzes, interprets, and explains social and cultural similarities and differences. the study of people's communities, behaviors, beliefs, and institutions, including how people make meaning as they live, work, and play together e.g. why some cultures decided to develop chairs while others prefer to squat

"But it is not enough for me to stand before you tonight and condemn riots. It would be morally irresponsible for me to do that without, at the same time, condemning the contingent, intolerable conditions that exist in our society. These conditions are the things that cause individuals to feel that they have no other alternative than to engage in violent rebellions to get attention. And I must say tonight that a riot is the language of the unheard. And what is it America has failed to hear? It has failed to hear that the plight of the negro poor has worsened over the last twelve or fifteen years. It has failed to hear that the promises of freedom and justice have not been met. And it has failed to hear that large segments of white society are more concerned about tranquility and the status quo than about justice and humanity." Dr Martin Luther King Jr, 1968 ______________ As youths we are fed the cajoling lie all positive change can only be enacted by peaceful protest despite numerous examples of otherwise including US history. We are taught it is a fair and noble act to raise and levy muskets against tyrant kings for taxing tea too heavily, but genuine oppresion, and state sanctioned violence in todays times supposedly can only be remedied by ballots. We've simply swapped kings in their bejeweled crowns for oligarchs in designer business suits. Those in, "charge," are so far removed they genuinely expect people to just suffer the repeated indignities delivered upon them year after year. After having pushed the peaceful protest narrative for so long they perhaps have bought into their own lies, and now are caught unprepared.

Those who make peaceful change impossible will make violent change inevitable.

Tulip Mania

Tulip mania was a period in the Dutch Golden Age during which contract prices for some bulbs of the recently introduced and fashionable tulip reached extraordinarily high levels and then dramatically collapsed in February 1637.[2] It is generally considered the first recorded speculative bubble.[3] In many ways, the tulip mania was more of a hitherto unknown socio-economic phenomenon than a significant economic crisis. Historically, it had no critical influence on the prosperity of the Dutch Republic, the world's leading economic and financial power in the 17th century.[4][5][6] Also, from about 1600 to 1720 the Dutch had the highest per capita income in the world. The term "tulip mania" is now often used metaphorically to refer to any large economic bubble when asset prices deviate from intrinsic values.[7] In Europe, formal futures markets appeared in the Dutch Republic during the 17th century. Among the most notable centered on the tulip market, at the height of tulip mania.[8][9] At the peak of tulip mania, in February 1637, some single tulip bulbs sold for more than 10 times the annual income of a skilled craftsworker. The tulip was different from every other flower known to Europe at that time, with a saturated intense petal color that no other plant had. The appearance of the nonpareil tulip as a status symbol at this time coincides with the rise of newly independent Holland's trade fortunes. No longer the Spanish Netherlands, its economic resources could now be channeled into commerce and the country embarked on its Golden Age. Amsterdam merchants were at the center of the lucrative East Indies trade, where one voyage could yield profits of 400%.[24] It is now known that this effect is due to the bulbs being infected with a type of tulip-specific mosaic virus, known as the "tulip breaking virus", so called because it "breaks" the one petal color into two or more.[26][27]

congressional district

Whereas senators are elected to represent all of the people in a state, representatives are elected by the voters of a particular area known as a congressional district. The Constitution makes no provisions for congressional districts. In 1842, however, Congress passed an act that required all states to send representatives to Congress from single-member districts. Minnesota is currently divided into 8 congressional districts, each represented by a member of the United States House of Representatives. After the 2010 Census, the number of Minnesota's seats remained unchanged. Minnesota statutes do not require candidates for the United States House of Representatives to reside in the district in which they run for office, but candidates must be inhabitants of the state at the time of the election. For many years, the number of House members increased as the population expanded. In 1929, however, a federal law fixed House membership at 435. Thus, today the 435 members of the House are chosen by the voters in 435 separate congressional districts across the country. If a state's population allows it to have only one representative, the entire state is one congressional district. In contrast, states with large populations have many districts. California's population, for example, entitles it to send fifty-three representatives to the House, so it has fifty-three congressional districts. As a result of the rule limiting the size of the House to 435 members, U.S. congressional districts on average now have very substantial populations— about 780,000 people each. To ensure equal representation in the House, districts in a given state must contain, as nearly as possible, equal numbers of people. Additionally, each district must have contiguous boundaries and must be "geographically compact," although this last requirement is not enforced very strictly. If congressional districts are not made up of equal populations, people's votes are not equally valuable. In the past, state legislators often used this fact to their advantage. At one point in the 1960s, in many states the largest district had twice the population of the smallest district. In effect, this meant that a person's vote in the largest district had only half the value of a person's vote in the smallest district. For some time, the United States Supreme Court refused to address this problem. In 1962, however, the Court ruled that the Tennessee state legislature's malapportionment was an issue that could be heard in the federal courts because it affected the constitutional requirement of equal protection under the law.3 Two years later, the Supreme Court held that congressional districts must have equal populations.4 This principle has come to be known as the "one person, one vote" rule. In other words, one person's vote has to count as much as another's vote.

does every state have a constitution?

Yes. State constitution (United States) In the United States, each state has its own written constitution. Usually, they are much longer than the United States Constitution, which only contains 4,543 words. MN Constitution: https://www.revisor.mn.gov/constitution/

nuclear option

a maneuver exercised by the presiding officer in the Senate that eliminates the possibility of filibusters by subjecting votes on certain matters to a simple majority vote

interpersonal theory of disease

a view of disease in which it is assumed that illness is caused by tensions or conflicts in social relations views held by members of non-scientific societies. Without the understanding of pathogens, viruses and bacteria, they attribute illness to witchcraft, sorcery, or prior personal conflict e.g. an argument with a spouse or community elder

memo

a written message, especially in business. A memorandum is a written message that may be used in a business office. The plural form of the Latin noun memorandum so derived is properly memoranda, but if the word is deemed to have become a word of the English language, the plural memorandums, abbreviated to memos, may be used.

George W. Bush took the use of signing statements to an entirely new level. Bush's 161 statements challenged more than 1,100 clauses of federal law—more legal provisions than were challenged by all previous presidents put together.12 The powers that the statements claimed for the president alarmed some people. One statement rejected Congress's authority to ban torture. Another affirmed that the president could have anyone's mail opened without a warrant.

crazy old bastard\

multinational

involving many nations/countries

statutory law

legislative acts declaring, commanding, or prohibiting something The body of law enacted by legislative bodies (as opposed to constitutional law, administrative law, or case law).

abscess

localized collection of pus An abscess is a collection of pus that has built up within the tissue of the body.[1] Signs and symptoms of abscesses include redness, pain, warmth, and swelling.[1] The swelling may feel fluid-filled when pressed.[1] The area of redness often extends beyond the swelling.[6] Carbuncles and boils are types of abscess that often involve hair follicles, with carbuncles being larger.[7]