Week 10: Parenting Life Now

Define: Insensive Mothering

- Term coined by Sharon Hays. - To reflect the mothering roles and expectations that have been evolving since the 1980s, when women flooded the workplace.

Define: Insensive Mothering Ideology

- The Western cultural belief that a mother should give herself unconditionally and focus all of her time, energy, money, love, support, and every other resource she has on raising her children.

Define: Ideal-Actual Gap

- The difference between the parenting tasks that are reported and the parent's actual performance.

What are some racial/ethnic socialization practices that have been linked to a number of positive outcomes in minority children and adolescents?

Well-Developed Racial Identity: - Children embrace racial and ethnic pride, history, and cultural traditions. Heightened Self-Esteem: - Children's and adolescents' self-esteem is sensitive to the racial/ ethnic messages they receive from their parents. Children who are taught to "blend" with mainstream culture have lower levels of self-esteem because they in some ways deny their heritage. Higher Academic Functioning: - Positive ethnic identity and high self-esteem are associated with better academic outcomes and higher levels of motivation among children and adolescents. Decreased Levels of Depression and Anger: - The practice of cultural socialization is protective against racial discrimination because children and adolescents develop coping and problem-solving strategies to help buffer racism and deal with prejudice.

Which of the following examples describes the parenting skill of being a leader? a. A parent enthusiastically helps their child collect bugs and insects to make a collection for school. b. A parent volunteers at a soup kitchen on Thanksgiving to expose their children to the needs of others. c. A parent allows their children to make mistakes and does not shelter them from the consequence d. A parent consistently communicates the value of love to their children.

b. A parent volunteers at a soup kitchen on Thanksgiving to expose their children to the needs of others.

Which statement describes the theory of Maternal Role Attainment? a. It views the moment of conception as the catalyst for the role transformation. b. It examines the fluid, continual, fluctuating processes associated with becoming a mother. c. It argues that women begin the process of maternal role attainment at birth. d. It uses data about what mothers do rather than what mothers say.

b. It examines the fluid, continual, fluctuating processes associated with becoming a mother.

Which well-known psychologist is responsible for the development of psychoanalytic theory? a. Charles H. Colley b. Sigmund Freud c. Jean Piaget d. Erik Erikson

b. Sigmund Freud

Which theoretical perspective focuses on how children think and how they understand the world? a. sociocultural theory b. cognitive theory c. learning theory d. psychoanalytical theory

b. cognitive theory

Couples such as those interviewed for the film clip, who have an egalitarian or equal relationship prior to the arrival of a baby, tend to ______. a. report more participation from fathers than mothers in childrearing b. fall back into traditional roles once the new baby arrives c. have little to no ideal-actual gap d. develop more equity in parenting and the shared responsibility

b. fall back into traditional roles once the new baby arrives

Sociocultural theories believe that children proceed from stage to stage in their life course development. a. true b. false

b. false

Which type of discipline involves using techniques that encourage appropriate behavior and discourage inappropriate behavior? a. corporal discipline b. proactive discipline c. laisse faire discipline d. reactive discipline

b. proactive discipline

Which of the following is an example of a survival need? a providing self-esteem b. provisions of food c. teaching values d. providing discipline

b. provisions of food

Paula and Mike are divorced parents who are splitting the time they have with their shared child. The divorce wasn't an amicable one and was characterized by lots of conflict and arguing. When Paula is spending time with their child, she is usually overtly negative regarding anything said about Mike. On the other hand, Mike does the same when he spends the weekend with their child and anything about Paula comes up. Which type of co-parenting relationship does Paula and Mike's partnership describe? a. supportive co-parenting b. unsupportive co-parenting c. argumentative co-parenting d. mixed co-parenting

b. unsupportive co-parenting

Which single-family model promoted the idea that single-parent households were negative experiences for children because they lack a nuclear family? a. Protective Factor Model b. Risk Factor Model c. Predictor Factor Model d. Family Deficit Model

d. Family Deficit Model

Most new parents expect a period of transition after the birth of a baby, but they tend to underestimate the demands and challenges that accompany parenting. In the film clip, Lara explains which of these unique challenges that her family faced as they transitioned to parenthood? a. lack of parental partnership b. loss of a job c. a major medical concern d. a premature birth

d. a premature birth

Which type of parent expects their orders to be obeyed without explanation? a. autonomy granting b. authoritative parent c. permissive parent d. authoritarian parent

d. authoritarian parent

In the film clip, Melody describes her feelings about the important bond between mother and child. Her story reflects the cultural notion that mothers will always be the better parent and that they have difficulty when they are asked to relinquish their traditional maternal role. This is described as ______. a. pronatalism b. paternalism c. the second shift d. maternal gatekeeping

d. maternal gatekeeping

The ______ stage in Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytical theory of personality development in children describes children as intensely interested in physical differences between males and females. a. anal b. latency c. oral d. phallic

d. phallic

Which of the following types of co-parenting systems is characterized by parents directly or indirectly agreeing with each other by promoting a general message to their children? a. agreeable co-parenting b. unsupportive co-parenting c. mixed co-parenting d. supportive co-parenting

d. supportive co-parenting

Define: Unsupportive Co-Parenting

- One parent undermines the other parent's efforts, interrupts the interactions of the other parent and child, is openly critical of the other's parenting styles or parenting activity, or ignores the other parent's request for assistance with a child's needs. - This occurs when one parent subtly—or not so subtly—undermines the other parent's efforts (such as changing curfew without consulting with the other parent). It also takes place when one parent interrupts the interactions of the other parent and child (such as following a divorce), when one parent is openly critical of the other's parenting styles or parenting activity, or when a parent ignores the other parent's request for assistance with a child's needs.

Define: Authoritative Parents

- Parents who are responsive while expecting certain behavior of their children. - Parents do not use shame, withdraw love, or impose guilt to control behavior. - They set clear but flexible boundaries for their children's behavior, encourage parent-child communication, and use a balance of power and reason.

Define: Unsolved Parents

- Parents who are typically low in responsiveness, warmth, and affection. - They are also low in parental control or demands. Both parents reject and neglect their children.

Define: Supportive Co-Parenting

- Parents who directly or indirectly agree by promoting the same general message to the child, or when one parent directly asks the other for assistance with an issue that involves the child. - Parents directly or indirectly agree with each other by promoting the same general message to the child (such as sticking to the agreed-on curfew and not changing it without consent of the other parent). It also occurs when one parent directly asks the other for assistance with an issue that involves the child (such as helping with discipline).

Define: Authoritarian Parents

- Parents who exert authority and control over their children, but without being responsive, warm, or affectionate, imposing rigid rules of behavior that must be obeyed without question. - Parent-child communication is very low.

Define: Mothering

- Performing the relational and logistical work of caring for others.

Define: Autonomy Granting

- Permissive parents allowing their children age-appropriate independence and self-governance.

How does a parent accomplish children's responses to discipline being more effective when parents consistently communicate love toward the child?

- Positive involvement - Using verbal and nonverbal expressions of love, concern, pride, and gratitude - Praising and encouraging appropriate behavior - Using calm responses to problem behaviors, disobedience, and conflict

Define: Co-Parenting

- Sharing in everyday parenting responsibilities; the support parents provide to one another in the raising of their children.

What are some characteristics that differentiate single fathers from single mothers, according to Bloir (2005)?

- Single fathers are less likely to live at or below the poverty line (although they tend to be poorer than married fathers). - They are more likely to be employed. - They tend to be younger than married fathers, but older than single mothers. - Single fathers do not have as many children as married fathers, but have more than single mothers. - They are more likely to live with other relatives in the household. - Very few single fathers receive child support from the mother, whereas many mothers receive child support from fathers. - Single fathers tend to suffer more from work-family role conflicts such as being late, child care, missing work, leaving early, or work-related travel concerns than married fathers or single mothers.

Define: Punishments

- Something that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. - For example, if a child is criticized because he didn't do a good job or make his bed perfectly, it is not likely that he will repeat the behavior.

An authoritarian parenting style is positively associated with educational outcomes for Asian American and African American teenagers. a. true b. false

a. true

Cultural socialization is an effective tool to help children combat racism and deal with prejudice. a. true b. false

a. true

Most couples believe that being a parent is part of their overall identity. a. true b. false

a. true

Parents often focus on what other people expect them to do, rather than what is best, which impacts their children's understanding of the outside world. a. true b. false

a. true

The Family Deficit Model sees single parenting as the sole predictor of negative outcomes for a child. a. true b. false

a. true

The psychoanalytical theory focuses on how the unconscious regulates people's actions, behaviors, and emotions. a. true b. false

a. true

Which of following concepts is based on the Western cultural belief that women should give all of themselves to their children unconditionally and focus all of her resources on raising children? a. authoritative mothering b. burden of mother c. intensive mothering d. authoritarian mothering

c. intensive mothering

Which concept is used to describe grandparents who provide a living environment for their grandchildren for a variety of reasons? a. informal social support b. caretaking c. kinship care d. multigenerational household

c. kinship care

In a ______ family structure, the father is considered the authority over all members of the household. a. totalitarian b. matriarchal c. patriarchal d. egalitarian

c. patriarchal

What are the two specific dimensions of childrearing, according to Baumrind (1991)?

1. Parental warmth or responsiveness/affection/supportiveness toward the child, and parental control. 2. How demanding or restrictive the parents are toward their child (also referred to as behavioral control).

Define: Racism

- A belief system which holds that race accounts for differences in human character and/or ability; it results in discrimination and prejudice based on someone's race or ethnic background.

Define: Patriarchal Family Structure

- A family form that includes the father figure, his wife, and his children. - Everyone in the family is considered to be under the authority of the patriarch, the father.

Define: Socialization needs

- A goal of parenting is to meet the socialization needs of children, which encompasses ensuring they become productive, contributing members of society.

Define: Kinship Care

- A situation in which grandparents provide a living environment for their grandchildren.

Define: Mixed Co-Parenting

- A type of co-parenting in which one or both parents' responses are mixed—sometimes they support one another, sometimes they don't. - In this type of co-parenting, one or both parents' responses are mixed—sometimes they support one another, sometimes they don't.

What are some of the factors that influence maternal role attainment (MRA)?

- Age of the mother - Socioeconomic background - Social stress and support - Self-concept - Childrearing beliefs and attitudes - Role strain - Perception of the infant

Define: Social Learning Theory (SET)

- Albert Bandura (1923-) - Children acquire behaviors and personality traits by observing others. An offshoot of the traditional Behaviorism theory, this theory addresses the roles of reward and punishment, and it goes a step further to include an individual's realm of cognition—the role of observation—in the process of learning.

Define: Permissive Parents

- Also referred to as indulgent parents. - Permissive parents demonstrate high levels of warmth, affection, and responsiveness toward their children, and also show adequate to high levels of parent-child communication. - This parenting style does not place high demands on children, nor do parents attempt to control their children's behavior; children's behavior is mostly self-regulated.

Define: Risk and Protective Factor Model

- Assumes that every family form has protective factors, which positively influence children, and risk factors, which have a potentially negative impact on families and children; the overall experience of the children is determined by whether the protective factors outweigh the risk factors or vice versa.

Define: Operant Conditioning

- B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) - B. F. Skinner's theory that children learn behaviors as a result of a series of rewards and punishments. - The way that parents guide, shape, and mold the behaviors they desire of their children. - Rewards reinforce behavior, and increase the likelihood that the behavior will occur again. - For example, if a child is praised for making his bed, it is likely that he will repeat that behavior.

What are the percentages of respondents per generation that indicated being a mother/father is important to their identity?

- Baby Boomers: 51% - Millennials: 60% - Gen X'ers: 58%

What are some outcomes of studies that consistently demonstrate that children reared by authoritative parents exhibit more social competence than do other children?

- Both boys and girls reared by authoritative parents exhibit lower levels of problem behavior across all stages of the lifespan, across all ethnic groups (Jackson, Henriksen, & Foshee, 1998; Kim, Hetherington, & Reiss, 1999). - Children reared by authoritative parents are better able to balance the demands of conforming to others' expectations with their own needs for uniqueness and autonomy (Durbin et al., 1993; Shucksmith, Leo, Hendry, & Glendinning, 1995). - Both boys and girls tend to perform better in school if they are reared by authoritative parents—this higher level of performance is seen from preschool throughout early adulthood (Brooks-Gunn & Markman, 2005; Chen & Kaplan, 2001). - Effective parenting skills further the growth of children's social and communication skills, as well as their ability to concentrate on tasks and at school (Connell & Prinz, 2002; Lamb-Parker, Boak, Griffin, Ripple, & Peay, 1999). - Authoritative parents of adolescents allow their teens to have autonomy, but they simultaneously define clear boundaries and articulate their concerns about safety and well-being (Smetana, 1995).

What are some certain outcomes associated with uninvolved parenting, according the Cherry (2018)?

- Children must learn to provide for themselves. - Children and adolescents may become fearful of depending on others. - Kids are often emotionally withdrawn. - Adolescence tend to exhibit more delinquency. - Children and adolescents experience fear, anxiety, or stress because of lack of family support. - Adolescents are at greater risk for substance abuse.

Define: Conservation

- Conservation refers to the idea that things can be the same, even if they look different.

Define: Family Deficit Model

- Dates back to the 1970s, when single-parent families were far less common than they are today. - Promoted the idea that single-parent households were negative experiences for children for the sole reason that the family structure was not nuclear.

Define: Survival Needs

- Food, shelter, safety, security, and love—provision of survival needs is a goal of parenting.

Define: Routine Housework

- House cleaning, meal preparation, grocery shopping, cleaning up after meals, and laundry.

Define: Psychosexual Stages

- In Sigmund Freud's view, development takes place through a series of psychosexual stages, in which sensual energy or satisfaction is focused on one particular part of the body. - The experiences through these stages—particularly through age 5—shaped a child's personality for an entire lifetime.

Define: Lesbian Co-Mothering (LCM)

- In a lesbian couple, the nonbirth parent takes an equal role in parenting, or mothering, the child.

Define: Piaget's Four Stages of Cognitive Development The first two stages

- Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Four Stages: 1. Sensorimotor Stage - 0-2 years old - During this stage, children primarily learn about their environment through their senses and motor activities. 2. Preoperational Stage - 2-7 years old - Children start to use mental abstractions. - Their ability to use mental representations, rather than the physical appearance of objects or people, improves greatly. - Children understand causality. - Children understand identities. - Children also learn more about categorization. - Children tend to consider their own viewpoint and perspective. - Children fail to understand that two things can be the same, even if they appear different (more about this in the next section on Conservation). - Children struggle to take someone else's point of view.

Define: Classical Conditioning

- John B. Watson (1978-1958) - John B. Watson's theory that people make associations between two events. - For example, babies open their mouths and smack their lips when their parent puts them in a highchair, or when their parent opens the jar of baby food. Conditioning (opening their mouths or smacking their lips) has taken place because the babies make the association between one event (being put in a high-chair) and the other event (hearing their food source being opened). Similarly, some children (and college students!) cringe, become panicked, or get sick to their stomachs when an exam is handed out.

Just as the challenges associated with parenting have changed over the past 20 years, so have the faces of today's parents:

- Nearly 51 million children live with two parents. - 17 million children live with their single-parent mother. - 3 million children live with their single-parent father.

Define: Maternal Role Attainment (MRA)

- The process by which a woman, through pregnancy and after the birth of her child, continues to construct an "ideal" image of herself as mother and adopts roles that support this ideal image.

Define: Psychoanalytic Theory

- The theory of personality development in children developed by Sigmund Freud. - Freud's psychoanalytic theory also emphasized the role of the unconscious and held that most of people's actions, behaviors, and emotions are the result of these drives that lie below a person's level of awareness.

Define: Father Involvement

- The time a father and his child spend together.

Define: Racial/Ethnic Socialization

- The way in which families teach children about the social meanings of their race/ethnicity. - A process that unfolds across a number of years. - How are children taught to "be" their race/ethnicity and what are the social meaning attached to being a member of a racial or ethnic group?

Define: Sociocultural Theories

- Theories maintaining that children's development does not occur by stages but through direct interaction with culture, which shapes their values, goals, and expectations.

Define: Cognitive Theories

- Theories that focus on how children think and how they understand their world.

How are parents leaders?

- They have goals for their family, and communicate these goals through their values and beliefs. - Parents can model being a leader by volunteering at soup kitchens or homeless shelters or by exposing their children to the needs of others and encouraging them to serve on mission trips to inner cities or to impoverished areas. - Parents who are leaders don't tell their children what to value and what to believe—they show them through words and actions. - Being a leader also means being an effective communicator—it means talking with children, not at them.

Define: Proactive Discipline

- Using techniques that encourage appropriate behavior and that discourage inappropriate behaviors. - For example, "catch them being good" is an aspect of this type of discipline. With this technique, parents praise children for good behavior (such as not insisting on getting a new toy during the trip to Walmart). - As one researcher noted, "Every time a parent misses an opportunity to catch a child being good, they miss a chance to teach that child appropriate behavior"

Define: Maternal Gatekeeping

- When a woman's socialization—and the inherent cultural notion that she will always be the better parent—makes it difficult for her to relinquish her traditional roles.

What are the eight essential parenting responsibilities, according to Chris Theisen (2004)?

1. Providing a safe environment 2. Providing basic needs 3. Providing self-esteem 4. Teaching children morals and values 5. Developing mutual respect 6. Providing effective and age-appropriate discipline 7. Being involved in the child's education 8. Knowing the child by communicating with him or her

What are some consequences of fatherlessness (absent fathers)?

- Young children living without their father in the home are 10 times more likely to be extremely poor (Krumholz, 2019). - Fatherless children are more prone to drug and alcohol abuse (Jackson, Rogers, & Sartor, 2016). - Children from single-parent homes have more instances of physical and mental health problems than those from two-parent homes. Children without fathers are 20 times more likely to have behavioral disorders than are children with father involvement (Anderson, 2014). - Among high school dropouts, 71 percent have no father involvement (Kruk, 2012). - Children from single-mother families are more likely to commit crime. Those with no father involvement are 20 times more likely to end up in prison (National Center for Juvenile Justice, 2014). - In homes where there is no father, children and adolescents are 32 times more likely to run away from home than children who have a father present (Children's Bureau, 2018). - The suicide rate is 5 times higher among those with no father involvement (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2016).

What are the ages and stages of child development? Table 11.1 - Ages and Stages of Child Development Age: - Cognitive Stage - Social and Emotional Stage Ages 0-14

0-1: - Cries to signal needs; vocalizes, babbles, coos; says first words; interested in picture books - Recognizes family members; shows anxiety when separated from parents; fearful of strangers; likes to be tickled and touched; wants parents in sight 1-2: - Has vocabulary of 8 to 20 words; identifies objects in books; makes animal sounds - Can play alone with toys; likes to be read to; will comfort others in distress; enjoys pretend play; shows affection 2: - Uses 2- to 3-word sentences; sings; names toys, animals, people; enjoys stories and rhymes; enjoys simple make-believe - Possessive of parents' attention; can show beginning of independence; shy around/doesn't share with others 3: - Uses 5- to 8-word sentences; listens actively to stories/songs; pretends to read; names colors; counts to 2 or 3 - Seeks adult attention; helps with chores; engages in solitary play, but with others nearby; doesn't share; likes to laugh and be silly 4: - Is imaginative, loves to make believe; uses complex sentences; counts to 10 or higher; understands categories (small, big, tall); very inquisitive and curious - Likes to engage in cooperative play with others; shares; cooperates; obeys simple instructions; loves to love others 5: - Uses complex sentences of 10 or more words; enjoys storytelling, tracing, drawing, writing, coloring; counts; has good attention span; can memorize - Seeks adults' approval; embarrassed by own mistakes; understands relationships among people; likes to give to others; shares and takes turns; enjoys playing with friends 6-8: - Reads; understands time of day and days of week; increased attention span; problem-solving capabilities increase; begins logical thinking - Friends become very important; wants to do everything well; easily hurt by criticism; still self-centered, but begins to see others' points of view; gender-centric 9-11: - Reads; daydreams about future; logic becomes solidified; begins abstract thinking; begins to think about justice and ethics - Friendships become very important, consuming as much as 40 percent of their time; empathy toward others continues 12-14: - Engages in abstract thought; able to think about hypothe

What are the four social factors that assert that fathers are rearing children by themselves as a result of, according to Kirk Bloir (2005)?

1. Current divorce laws and "gender-neutral criteria" for rearing children have made it easier for fathers to gain custody of their children following divorce than in years past. 2. To allow themselves the opportunity to pursue career or personal goals, mothers may choose to grant the father custody of the children. 3. Divorce courts have a more favorable view of the role of fathers in childrearing, resulting in an increase in joint custody arrangements following divorce. 4. There has been an increase in fathers' willingness to take a more active role in parenting than in years past.

What are the two reasons that father involvement is essential?

1. Father involvement increases gender equality within families. 2. Father involvement is associated with positive child development.

What are the roles of grandparents as parents, as classified in their four categories by Reynolds, Wright, and Beale (2003)?

1. Limited Caretaking: - Grandparents have limited contact with their grandchildren, and parents have primary responsibility. 2. Participatory Caretaking: - In these situations, grandparents are engaged and involved in their grandchildren's lives, such as taking an active interest in the children's education and their activities. Care may be provided for grandchildren while the parents are at work, but parents have primary responsibility for them. 3. Voluntary Caretaking: - Grandparents assume the parental role and responsibilities for raising their grandchildren. Although situations vary, typically these types of caregivers assume the role of grandparents as parents to make sure their grandchildren are in a safe, stable environment in the absence of their parents. 4. Involuntary Caretaking: - These grandparents are full-time caregivers of their grandchildren, and most often they have little to no warning; many times, it is not the grandparents' preference—the situation was more or less thrust on them. These types of arrangements are often difficult for children because of the unexpected shift in environments and caregivers.

What are the psychosexyal stages, according to Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)?

1. Oral Stage - Birth to about age 1 - The focus of sensual energy is the mouth and the tongue; the emphasis for personality development is thus centered on breastfeeding. 2. Anal Stage - Ages 1-3 - The focus of the sensual energy is associated with potty training, particularly with respect to the anus. 3. Phallic Stage - Ages 3-6 - Freud believed children were intensely interested in the physical differences between men and women. - He also maintained that the focus of the sensual energy during this stage was the genitals, and believed that children engaged in self-stimulation of their genitals to derive pleasure. 4. Latency Stage - Ages 7-11 - According to psychoanalytic theory, the sensual energies subside for a time. 5. Genital Stage - Ages 12 and beyond - People developed mature sexual interests in the opposite sex.

What are the first two of the four primary areas associated with the changes associated with parenthood, whether through birth, adoption, or the formation of stepfamilies?

1. Psychological Well-Being - Among biological parents, the transition to parenthood has been associated with increased levels of depression for both mothers and fathers, and these in turn affect marital satisfaction. Because of the stressors associated with adopting a child (such as the drawn-out adoption process and perhaps prolonged periods of infertility), the transition to parenthood for adoptive parents is typically associated with overall positive quality of life and high marital satisfaction. Among stepfamilies who are gaining a stepchild, the transition to step-parenthood has been associated with increased levels of depression. 2. Marital Quality: - Following the birth of a child, marital relationships are often characterized by negative interactions, declines in marital satisfaction and sexual intimacy, increased levels of conflict, and drops in leisure time spent as a couple. Most research, however, indicates that these declines persist for only about one year, and that they are modest. In a majority of the studies, parents indicated that the rewards of parenting outweighed the initial negative experiences. Adoptive parents may experience these same declines, but to a lesser extent than biological parents do; creating a stepfamily with children creates a difficult transition for most couples.

What are the substages of the sensorimotor stage in Piaget's four stages of cognitive development?

1. Use of reflexes - 0-2 months - During this stage, children typically use their reflexes. They cannot consolidate information from their sensory organs into a single, unified concept. 2. Primary Circular Reactions - 1-4 months - Children start to consolidate information from different sensory organs. They start to engage in behavior that satisfies the way their body feels or their needs. For example, they repeat pleasurable behaviors, and they adapt their behavior to feed from different objects. They turn to respond to sounds and sights in their environment. 3. Secondary Circular Reactions - 4-8 months - Children's behaviors become more intentional, and the types of behaviors that they repeat expand to include those that result in interesting responses external to their body. For example, they might push buttons on a toy. Children also start to take more interest in their environment. They repeat behaviors that generate interesting responses. 4. Coordination of Secondary Schemes - 8-12 months - At this point, children's behaviors become more goal oriented, and they can combine different behaviors to achieve goals. 5. Tertiary Circular Reactions - 12-18 months - Instead of performing the same actions, children try new behaviors and actions to achieve different results. These behaviors are not spontaneous or by accident, but are purposeful. Unlike primary and secondary reactions, children can combine more complicated behaviors and even perform a behavior similarly but not the same to get the desired result. 6. Mental Combinations - 18-24 months - Children start to rely on mental abstractions to solve problems, use gestures and words to communicate, and can pretend. Instead of relying on numerous attempts to solve problems/puzzles, children can deliberate and carefully choose their actions.

Define: Piaget's Four Stages of Cognitive Development The last two stages

3. Concrete Operational Stage - 7-11 years old - Categorization abilities improve so that children can arrange items along a dimension, understand that categories have subcategories, and relate two objects to each other through a third object. - Their numerical abilities improve a lot, and they can perform more complicated mathematical operations. - Children in the preoperational stage struggle with problems of conservation: - Number of items (e.g., two sets of 10 items arranged differently) - The volume of liquid (e.g., the same volume of liquid in two differently shaped glasses) - They understand reversibility (i.e., items can be returned to original states). - They can decenter (i.e., concentrate on multiple dimensions of items, rather than just one). - They better understand identity (i.e., an item remains the same even if it looks different). 4. Formal Operational Stage - 11 years old-adulthood - Abstract thought characterizes this stage. Children can think about abstract concepts and are not limited to a current time, person, or situation. - They can think about hypothetical situations and various possibilities, like situations that don't exist yet, may never exist, or might be unrealistic and fantastical. - During this stage, children are capable of hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which allows them to test hypotheses and draw conclusions from the results. Unlike younger children who haphazardly approach problems, children in the formal operational stage can apply their reasoning skills to apply more complicated problems in a systematic, logical manner.

What are the last two of the four primary areas associated with the changes associated with parenthood, whether through birth, adoption, or the formation of stepfamilies?

3. Family relations and social support: - For some families, the birth of a child enhances family relationships, and oftentimes relatives help new parents adjust to their roles of mother and father by providing practical and emotional support; some parents experience higher levels of depression and distress if their extended family does not offer such support. Among adoptive parents, studies to date show that the emotional and practical support from family members exceeded their expectations, and this support was related to positive family experiences. 4. Roles: - After the birth or adoption of a child, roles significantly change for mothers and fathers. Some research suggests that adults indicate that the "parent" role is greater than the "partner" role. Among men, the "worker" role remains stable, but women report sharp declines in that role and relate more to the "mother" role.

Figure 11.6 - Time-Line of the Development of Racial and Ethnic Identity Years 5 - 13+

5 years: - Children develop a care sense of their racial/ethnic identity; they explore what it means to be one race compared to another. Negative societal messages undermine their self-esteem. 6-8 years: - Children continue to build on their ideas about racial/ethnic identities; this also includes acquiring a group identity. 9-10 years: - Children become very interested in learning about their group identity through oral histories and written biographies. Racial/ethnic attitudes are solidified. 11-12 years: - Children are interested in their ancestry, history, and geography. They understand racism. 13+ years: - Adolescents and young adults receive messages that reinforce already formed attitudes and beliefs.

Figure 11.6 - Time-Line of the Development of Racial and Ethnic Identity 6 Months - 4 Years

6 months: - Children find skin color interesting. 18 months: - Toddlers can correctly place a photo of themselves in their racial/ethnic group. 2 years: - Children notice and are curious about others' differences. 2-3 years: - Children become aware of and begin to absorb socially prevailing stereotypes, feelings, and ideas about people, including themselves. 4 years: - Children seek labels for racial/ethnic identity, and they develop their own theories about what causes differences in skin color. Adults' responses and reactions influence this.

Define: Individualized Family Model

ASDF ?

Define: Predictor Family Model

ASDF ?

What are some specific challenge lesbian co-mothering (LCM) mothers face, according to Katherine Walker (2017)?

Ambiguous Roles—Beyond the Mother/Father Binary: - What is the role of the mother who does not give birth? As Walker has discovered in working with LCMs, lesbian co-mothers often find it difficult to identify with the role of mother or father. As one of her clients stated, "[When we went to our childbirth classes] I dreaded the prospect of potentially being the only woman in a group of 'dads.' It felt strange at times to be part of this group because there was an assumption that I would simply take on the role of a 'dad' during my partner's pregnancy [and birth experience]." Walker's research also discovered that the non-birth LCM often feels invisible and insecure due to the maternal gatekeeping of the birth LCM. Bonding and Breastfeeding: - A common fear among lesbian co-mothers is that a baby will form a stronger emotional and physical bond with the breastfeeding birth mother than with the co-mother, particularly because breastfeeding is known to enhance the development of maternal identity (Zizzo, 2009). It is not uncommon for LCMs to experience jealousy; this is also common among heterosexual fathers. Walker notes that some lesbian mothers have successfully established co-breastfeeding, or shared feeding. Other lesbian mothers enjoy non-nutritive breastfeeding, where babies suckle at the breast without receiving milk. Emotional Support: - Lack of emotional support following birth is known to increase the likelihood of postnatal depression (PND; Hatloy, 2013). Today, scant literature exists that addresses PND among lesbian co-mothers, but Walker's (2017) review of the literature suggests that LCMs are at greater risk because they do not have the cultural and community support that heterosexual couples do following the birth of a baby.

A declining patriarchal system allows men to display more emotions to their family. a. true b. false

a. true

What are several factors that contribute to the division of household chores?

Women's Employment: - When there are two wage earners in the family, these couples tend to share household tasks more than those couples where only one spouse works. Men's Employment: - Men who work fewer hours outside the home tend to pitch in more around the house and with childrearing responsibilities. Earnings: - Women who earn more money benefit from more shared divisions of household tasks. Education: - In households in which one or both spouses have high education levels (a college degree or a postgraduate degree), women tend to perform fewer household tasks and are more likely to hire outside help to render services such as house cleaning. Men with high education levels tend to engage in more household labor. Presence of Children: - When children enter the marriage (and change the family dynamic), household labor is less frequently shared evenly between the marital partners, and the woman assumes the majority of housework, along with the responsibilities of childrearing.

Which racial category of single mothers are more likely to have never been married? a. African Americans b. whites c. Hispanics d. Asian Americans

a. African Americans

Which of the following is a consequence for children if they have an uninvolved parent? a. Children are more likely to engage in delinquent behaviors in adolescence. b. Children are focused on education and learning about experiences of involved parents. c. Children are more dependent on others instead of that parent. d. Children have to learn how to regulate their emotions associated with adolescence.

a. Children are more likely to engage in delinquent behaviors in adolescence.

Which single-family model promoted the idea that each family has its own strengths and weaknesses that make it unique? a. Risk and Protective Factor Model b. Individualized Family Model c. Family Deficit Model d. Predictor Factor Model

a. Risk and Protective Factor Model

Which of the following factors differentiates single fathers from single mothers? a. Single fathers are more likely to be employed. b. Single fathers are more likely to receive child support. c. Single fathers tend to be younger. c. Single fathers are more likely to live in poverty.

a. Single fathers are more likely to be employed.

According to the Risk and Protective Factor Model, which of the following is an example of a protective factor? a. geographic location b. mental health status c. number of siblings d. mother's age

a. geographic location

Which of the following concepts is defined as the process where someone performs the relational and logistical work of caring for others? a. mothering b. fatherhood involvement c. nurturing d. authoritarian parenting

a. mothering

Which learning theory explains why children learn behaviors through a series of rewards and punishments? a. operant conditioning b. psychoanalytical theory c. classical conditioning d. cognition recognition

a. operant conditioning

Which of the following is an example of a socialization need of children as provided by parents? a. teaching values b. provisions of food c. providing discipline d. providing love

a. teaching values

What percentage of full-time working mothers indicate they have little free time to engage in hobbies with friends? a. 20% b. 80% c. 60% d. 40%

c. 60%

Which of the following examples describes the parenting skill of being a teacher? a. A parent volunteers at a soup kitchen on Thanksgiving to expose their children to the needs of others. b. A parent that tries to have a conversation with their child, instead of talking at them. c. A parent enthusiastically helps their child collect bugs and insects to make a collection for school. d. A parent that consistently communicates the value of love to their children.

c. A parent enthusiastically helps their child collect bugs and insects to make a collection for school.

Which well-known theorist is responsible for the four stages of cognitive development theory? a. Sigmund Freud b. Charles H. Colley c. Jean Piaget d. Erik Erikson

c. Jean Piaget

Families in transition are impacted in various ways. Which of the following examples best represents an impact to family relations? a. Marital satisfaction and sexual intimacy decline with the birth of a child. b. The transition to parenthood is associated with increased levels of depression for parents. c. The birth of a child enhances family relationships and provides couples with a new role. d. Women experience a decline in their role of a worker, while reporting an increase in the role of a mother.

c. The birth of a child enhances family relationships and provides couples with a new role.

Which of the following represents a change to the psychological well-being of a family transitioning to parenthood? a. The birth of a child enhances family relationships and provides couples with a new role. b. Women experience a decline in their role of worker, while reporting an increase in role of mother. c. The transition to parenthood is associated with increased levels of depression for parents. d. Marital satisfaction and sexual intimacy decline with the birth of a child.

c. The transition to parenthood is associated with increased levels of depression for parents.