Western Civ I Final

Counter-Reformation

(AKA the Catholic Revival or Catholic Reformation) was the period of Catholic revival beginning with the Council of Trent (1545-1563) and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War (1648), and was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation.

Medieval University

A medieval university is a corporation organized during the High Middle Ages for the purposes of higher learning. The first institutions generally considered to be universities were established in Italy, France, Spain and England in the late 11th and the 12th centuries for the study of Theology, Law, Medicine, and Arts.[1] These universities evolved from much older Christian cathedral schools and monastic schools, and it is difficult to define the date at which they became true universities, although the lists of studia generalia for higher education in Europe held by the Vatican are a useful guide.

Louis XI

A monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1461 to 1483. He succeeded his father Charles VII. A devious and disobedient Dauphin of France, Louis entered into open rebellion against his father in a short-lived revolt known as the Praguerie (1440). The king forgave his rebellious vassals, including his son Louis, to whom he entrusted the management of the Dauphiné.

Commercial Revolution

A period of European economic expansion, colonialism, and mercantilism which lasted from approximately the 13th century until the early 18th century. It was succeeded in the mid-18th century by the Industrial Revolution • Three-field system, population growth, rents and services into cash • Fairs, markets, and cities/towns spread as outgrowths of agricultural improvements • Lords who sponsored fairs gained tolls, sales taxes, an a wider variety of goods • With manses stretched with the population, serfs changed duties into cash and gained some control over their plots

Caliphate of Córdoba

A state in Islamic Iberia ruled by the Umayyad dynasty along with a part of North Africa. The state, with the capital in Córdoba, existed from 929 to 1031. The region was formerly dominated by the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba (756-929). The period was characterized by an expansion of trade and culture, and saw the construction of masterpieces of al-Andalus architecture (including the Great Mosque of Córdoba). In January 929, Abd-ar-Rahman III proclaimed himself caliph (Arabic: خليفة) of Córdoba[2] in place of his original title, Emir of Córdoba. Abd-ar-Rahman III was a member of the Umayyad dynasty, which had held the title of Emir of Córdoba since 756

Battle/Siege of Ctesiphon (637)

A successful siege by the Rashidun army, which lasted for approximately two months from January to March 637. Ctesiphon was one of the great cities of the Persian Empire as well as an imperial capital of the Arsacids and their successors, the Sassanids. Sassanid rule in Iraq ended soon after the conquest of the city by Muslims.

Peasants' War

A widespread popular revolt in the German-speaking areas of Central Europe, 1524-1525. It failed because of the intense opposition of the aristocracy, who slaughtered up to 100,000 of the 300,000 poorly armed peasants and farmers. The survivors were fined and achieved few if any of their goals. The war consisted, like the preceding Bundschuh movement and the Hussite Wars, of a series of both economic and religious revolts in which peasants and farmers, often supported by Protestant clergy, took the lead. The German Peasants' War was Europe's largest and most widespread popular uprising prior to the French Revolution of 1789. The fighting was at its height in the spring and summer of 1525

Albigensian Crusade

The Albigensian Crusade or Cathar Crusade (1209-1229) was a 20-year military campaign initiated by Pope Innocent III to eliminate Catharism in Languedoc, in the south of France. The Crusade was prosecuted primarily by the French crown and promptly took on a political flavour, resulting in not only a significant reduction in the number of practising Cathars but also a realignment of the County of Toulouse, bringing it into the sphere of the French crown and diminishing the distinct regional culture and high level of influence of the Counts of Barcelona.

Charles Martel

Frankish statesman and military leader who, as Duke and Prince of the Franks and Mayor of the Palace, was de facto ruler of Francia from 718 until his death. The illegitimate son of the Frankish statesman Pepin of Herstal and a noblewoman named Alpaida, Martel successfully asserted his claims to power as successor to his father as the power behind the throne in Frankish politics. Continuing and building on his father's work, he restored centralized government in Francia and began the series of military campaigns that re-established the Franks as the undisputed masters of all Gaul. In foreign wars, Martel subjugated Bavaria, Alemannia, and Frisia, vanquished the pagan Saxons, and halted the Islamic advance into Western Europe at the Battle of Tours.

Muhammad (570-632)

From Mecca, unified Arabia into a single religious polity under Islam. Believed by Muslims as well as Bábists and Bahá'ís to be a messenger and prophet of God, Muhammad is almost universally considered by Muslims as the last prophet sent by God to mankind. While non-Muslims generally regard Muhammad as the founder of Islam, Muslims consider him to have restored the unaltered original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets in Islam. Muslims discuss Muhammad and other prophets of God with reverence, adding the phrase "peace be upon them" whenever their names are mentioned.

Gothic Architechture

Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture. Originating in 12th-century France and lasting into the 16th century, Gothic architecture was known during the period as Opus Francigenum ("French work") with the term Gothic first appearing during the latter part of the Renaissance. Its characteristics include the pointed arch, the ribbed vault and the flying buttress. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the great cathedrals, abbeys and churches of Europe. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, guild halls, universities and to a less prominent extent, private dwellings.

Great Schism (1054)

In 1054 Pope Leo IX sent Humbert of Silva Candida to Constantinople to press his claims for churchly authority • The Emperor refused and both sides excommunicated each other (again)

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

In 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations, followed by a wave of Catholic mob violence, both directed against the Huguenots (French Calvinist Protestants), during the French Wars of Religion. Traditionally believed to have been instigated by Catherine de' Medici, the mother of King Charles IX, the massacre took place five days after the wedding of the king's sister Margaret to the Protestant Henry III of Navarre (the future Henry IV of France). This marriage was an occasion for which many of the most wealthy and prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris.

Pope Gregory VII

• Medieval Reforms are so identified with Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085) Come back to this... Investiture: • In 1077, Henry crossed the Brenner Pass to beg forgiveness of the Pope at Canossa as a barefoot penitent • Pope Gregory VII and HRE Henry IV (r. 1056-1106) began a civil war (1075-1122) over the right to appoint Bishops to HRE when the Archbishops of Milan opened in 1075 • In 1076 Gregory excommunicated Henry and authorized rebellion in his kingdoms • HRE lost power to local princes in Germany and rising city communes in Italy • Concordat of Worms (1122) ended the conflict by splitting the difference: the Church gave the religious symbols of office and the Emperor the lands and titles that came with it in the HRE

Pope Leo IX

• Middles Ages = Era of religious revival and reform • Pope was subject to Roman politics and in 1046 the Roman aristocracy elected three Popes • HRE (Holy Roman Emperor) Emperor Henry III (r. 1039-1056) went to Rome to install a fourth, Leo IX at the Synod of Sutri (1049) • Leo reformed the Church under papal rather than Imperial leadership • Collection in 74 Titles reformed Canon Law to stress the Pope's power inside the Church RFAC Cont'd: Great Schism (1054) • In 1054 Pope Leo IX sent Humbert of Silva Candida to Constantinople to press his claims for churchly authority • The Emperor refused and both sides excommunicated each other (again)

Crusader States

• None are successful after the first one • First Crusade shocked the world and some Crusaders stayed with kingdoms and fiefs

Philip Augustus

• Philip Augustus dominated King John and transformed the Capetian monarchy into a rising power • He won territorial rights in Languedoc after the Albigensian Crusade and gained territory in the North and West by playing the leaders against each other

Pope Innocent III

• Pope Innocent III = Most powerful pope • He called the 4th (1202-1204) the Albigensian Crusades (1209-1229) • He also called the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) that streamlined church dogma like transubstantiation, but also enforced orthodoxy through the Inquistion • Excommunicated HRE Frederick II (r. 1212-1250), this took down HRE permanently

Jean Wycliffe

• Religious dissenters in England called the Lollards (meaning "mumbler") were inspired by John Wycliffe and criticized the church hierarchy, monasticism, excommunication, and the emphasis on Mass; Wycliffe called the lay community of believers and not the institution of the Church, the true Church • In Bohemia, the Hussites demanded the laity be allowed drink the wine during the Mass, a democratization of the service, with a call for Czech unity against their privileged German neighbors.

Alfred of Wessex

• Religious man; violent but in the name of God • Alfred of Wessex led Anglo-Saxon England during the Viking invasions • Royal rule was weak in rural England • Merged with the territories under Scandinavian rule under the Danish King Cnut (1017-1035) FITW: Hugh Capet (987-996) • In the 9th and 10th centuries the Carolingians alternated power with the Capetians in France • The alternation meant they struggled to keep a sense of unity among their peoples • In 987, Hugh Capet established the Capetian dynasty and was anointed with holy oil • The Capetians slowly increased their lands for a royal house that ruled France until the 14th century

Frederick Barbarossa

• The HRE was not a discrete state and failed to cohere as an Empire • Barbarossa gave German princes nearly royal rights in exchange for vassalage • He attempted and failed to enforce Imperial Rule in Italy after the investiture conflict • In 1167 most northern Italian cities joined the Pope in the Lombard League and defeated Barbarossa at Legnano in 1176

Blood Libel

• [Rumor] of Jewish law that Jews would sacrifice a Christian child • Jews were scapegoated in many ways; accused of poisoning wells, desecrating the host, etc. Happened around time and place of Crusader states

Babylon Captivity of the Church

The Babylonian captivity (or Babylonian exile) is the period in Jewish history during which a number of Jews of the ancient Kingdom of Judah were captives in Babylonia. After the Battle of Carchemish in 605 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem, resulting in tribute being paid by King Jehoiakim.[1] Jehoiakim refused to pay tribute in Nebuchadnezzar's fourth year, which led to another siege in Nebuchadnezzar's seventh year, culminating with the death of Jehoiakim, and the exile of King Jeconiah, his court and many others; Jeconiah's successor Zedekiah and others were exiled in Nebuchadnezzar's eighteenth year; a later deportation occurred in Nebuchadnezzar's twenty-third year. These deportations are dated to 597 BCE, c. 587 BCE, and c. 582 BCE, respectively.

[Battle of] Las Vegas de Tolosa

The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, known in Arab history as the Battle of Al-Uqab (معركة العقاب), took place on 16 July 1212 and was an important turning point in the Reconquista and in the medieval history of Spain. The Christian forces of King Alfonso VIII of Castile were joined by the armies of his rivals, Sancho VII of Navarre, Peter II of Aragon and Afonso II of Portugal in battle against the Berber Almohad Muslim rulers of the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula. The Caliph al-Nasir (Miramamolín in the Spanish chronicles) led the Almohad army, made up of people from the whole Almohad empire. Most of the men in the Almohad army came from the African side of the empire.

Merovingian Dynasty (485-751)

a Salian Frankish dynasty that ruled the Franks for nearly 300 years in a region known as Francia in Latin, beginning in the middle of the 5th century AD. Their territory largely corresponded to ancient Gaul as well as the Roman provinces of Raetia, Germania Superior and the southern part of Germania. The Merovingian dynasty was founded by Childeric I (c. 457 AD -481 AD), the son of Merovech, leader of the Salian Franks, but it was his famous son Clovis I (481 AD - 511 AD) who united all of Gaul under Merovingian rule.

The Donation of Constantine

• "The Donation of Constantine" is a forged document that claimed Constantine's gave to the Pope his realm in all Italy and the West • Used to press for political rights in the West until the 15th century • In 799 Pope Leo III (r. 796-816) angered rulers in Italy and fled to the Charlemagne for protection • Charlemagne returned him to Rome, where Leo put an imperial crown on his head on Christmas Day 800 • The Donation of Constantine and the crowning strained the relationship between church and state.

The Treaty of Verdun

• Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious (r. 814-840) failed to hold the peace among his sons, Lothar, Pepin (died 838), Louis II, and Charles. • Charles got most of modern day France • Lothar got most of the upper parts of Italy, parts of Switzerland • Louis II got the German part • After Louis the Pious' death, the Empire was divided into East (Louis), Center (Lothar), and West (Charles "the Bald") • The Treaty of Verdun ended a united Western Empire • Medieval Life o Serfs (Peasants) are on the bottom: servants who farm the land, not free, they farm the land and pay rent in exchange for food, shelter, and protection o Knights (Vassals): technically free, owe homage and military service in exchange for food, shelter, and protection o Lords (Vassals): owe loyalty to the king and military aid in exchange for fief and peasants o King: All of the others work for him and he provides for them in exchange o Feudal/Manorial Relationships: System above the king o Cooperation and Mutual Obligations: " " o The manor (fief) = community center of life o Local lord (or religious houses) originally received the land in return for allegiance to the lord above up to the King but the plots became hereditary and produced local powers o Society was divided into three groups: those who prayed, those who fought, and those who worked. All groups were part of hierarchies of dependency but only the first two were free o During the Carolingian era, most laborers were free or semi-free with few dues and duties but around 80-90% of the population became serfs tied to the land after their fall o Serfs were forced to work the lord's lands and perform duties during the year including 30-50 days of military service in exchange for the right to a small plot of their own. While they could not be forced off their lands they also could not leave it o Feudal Economy = food, rent, tithe, taxes, and military service went up while lords redistributed food and provided shelter and legal protection for those underneath them

Concordat of Worms

• Concordat of Worms (1122) ended the investiture conflict by splitting the difference: the Church gave the religious symbols of office and the Emperor the lands and titles that came with it in the HRE

William the Conqueror

• Edward the Confessor died childless in 1066 • Rivals to the throne: Harold, Earl of Wessex; Harold Hardrada, King of Norway; and William, Duke of Normandy • William conquered and wrote The Doomsday Book; tax book that catalogues every piece of property that everyone owns • William got papal approval, won at Battle of Hastings (1066), and took all England as his personal property • In 1086, he ordered The Doomsday Book • Rivals like Louis VI "the fat" (r. 1108-1137), aided by Abbott Suger (1081-1152) similarly laid basis for consolidated control

Pepin III "The Short"

• Greatest Carolingian King = Charlemagne • In 751 Charles' son Pepin II ("the Short") deposed the Merovingians altogether

Carolingian Empire

• Greatest Carolingian King = Charlemagne • In 751 Charles' son Pepin II ("the Short") deposed the Merovingians altogether • In 751 the Lombard killed the last Byzantine Exarch in Italy and forced Pope Stephen II to flee to Pepin for help • In 755 the Pope anointed Pepin king, the first time a Pope sanctioned a kingship • Pepin defeated the Lombards and gave the Pope the Papal states (known as Donation of Pepin)

Great Schism (1054)

• In 1054 Pope Leo IX sent Humbert of Silva Candida to Constantinople to press his claims for churchly authority • The Emperor refused and both sides excommunicated each other (again)

First Crusade

• In 1071, Seljuk Turks captured most of Asia Minor from Byzantium at Manzikert • In 1095 Emperor Alexius I asked Pope Urban II (r. 1088-1099) for aid, hoping for mercenary troops • Urban turned it into Crusade by offering absolution of sins along with the prospect of land and booty • The Crusade was both a cause and effect of the rise of Papal power in the West

The Donation of Pepin

• In 751 the Lombard killed the last Byzantine Exarch in Italy and forced Pope Stephen II to flee to Pepin for help • In 755 the Pope anointed Pepin king, the first time a Pope sanctioned a kingship • Pepin defeated the Lombards and gave the Pope the Papal states (known as Donation of Pepin)

Pope Leo III

• In 799 Pope Leo III (r. 796-816) angered rulers in Italy and fled to the Charlemagne for protection • Charlemagne returned him to Rome, where Leo put an imperial crown on his head on Christmas Day 800

Magna Carta

• John (r. 1199-1216) was widely unpopular because he ruthlessly taxed his people for campaigns against Phillip that he rarely won • In 1215, his nobles forced him to accept the Magna Carta, or "Great Charter", a declaration of the rights of local noble rivals against capricious laws and taxes • While seen as the founding document of modern democracy, it applied only to a select few of the English nobility called "free men" • English kings tried and failed to repeal the Magna Carta several times, and ignored it as much as possible

Cosimo de Medici

The first of the Medici political dynasty, de facto rulers of Florence during much of the Italian Renaissance; also known as "Cosimo 'the Elder'" and "Cosimo Pater Patriae" (Latin: 'father of the nation'). His power derived from his great wealth as a banker, and he was a great patron of learning, the arts and architecture.

Christopher Columbus

A Genoese explorer, navigator, and colonizer, born in the Republic of Genoa (today part of Italy). Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean. Those voyages, and his efforts to establish permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola, initiated the Spanish colonization of the New World. In the context of emerging western imperialism and economic competition between European kingdoms through the establishment of trade routes and colonies, Columbus' proposal to reach the East Indies by sailing westward, eventually received the support of the Spanish Crown, which saw in it a chance to enter the spice trade with Asia through a new westward route. During his first voyage in 1492, instead of reaching Japan as he had intended, Columbus landed in a New World, landing in the Bahamas archipelago, on an island he named San Salvador. Over the course of three more voyages, Columbus visited the Greater and Lesser Antilles, as well as the Caribbean coast of Venezuela and Central America, claiming them for the Spanish Empire. Though Columbus was not the first European explorer to reach the Americas (having been preceded by the Norse expedition led by Leif Ericson in the 11th century[3]), his voyages led to the first lasting European contact with the Americas, inaugurating a period of European exploration, conquest, and colonization that lasted for several centuries. They had, therefore, an enormous impact in the historical development of the modern Western world. Columbus himself saw his accomplishments primarily in the light of spreading the Christian religion.

Johannes Gutenberg

A German blacksmith, goldsmith, printer, and publisher who introduced printing to Europe. His invention of mechanical movable type printing started the Printing Revolution and is widely regarded as the most important event of the modern period. It played a key role in the development of the Renaissance, Reformation, the Age of Enlightenment, and the Scientific revolution and laid the material basis for the modern knowledge-based economy and the spread of learning to the masses

Martin Luther

A German friar, Catholic priest, professor of theology and seminal figure of the 16th-century movement in Christianity known later as the Protestant Reformation. Initially an Augustinian friar, Luther came to reject several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar, with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517. His refusal to retract all of his writings at the demand of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the Pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the Emperor

Ignatius of Loyola

A Spanish knight from a local Basque noble family, hermit, priest since 1537, and theologian, who founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) and, on 19 April 1541, became its first Superior General. Ignatius emerged as a religious leader during the Counter-Reformation. Loyola's devotion to the Catholic Church was characterized by absolute obedience to the Pope. After being seriously wounded in the Battle of Pamplona in 1521, he underwent a spiritual conversion while in recovery. De Vita Christi by Ludolph of Saxony purportedly inspired Loyola to abandon his previous military life and devote himself to labour for God, following the example of spiritual leaders such as Francis of Assisi. After experiencing a vision of the Virgin Mary and the infant Jesus at the shrine of Our Lady of Montserrat in March 1522, he went to Manresa, where he began praying for seven hours a day, often in a nearby cave, and formulating the fundamentals of the Spiritual Exercises. In September 1523, Loyola reached the Holy Land to settle there, but was sent back to Europe by the Franciscans

Signori

A conventional Italian term of address or title of respect for a man, either used separately or prefixed to the name.

Gift Economy

A gift economy, gift culture or gift exchange is a mode of exchange where valuables are not sold, but rather given without an explicit agreement for immediate or future rewards.[1] In contrast to a barter economy or a market economy, social norms and custom govern gift exchange, rather than an explicit exchange of goods or services for money or some other commodity.

Battle of Poitiers

A major battle of the Hundred Years' War between England and France. The battle occurred on 19 September 1356 near Poitiers, France. Preceded by the Battle of Crécy in 1346, and followed by the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, it was the second of the three great English victories of the war

Otto I

Also known as Otto the Great, was German king from 936 and emperor of the Holy Roman Empire from 962 until his death in 973. The oldest son of Henry I the Fowler and Matilda, Otto was "the first of the Germans to be called the emperor of Italy". Otto inherited the Duchy of Saxony and the kingship of the Germans upon his father's death in 936. He continued his father's work of unifying all German tribes into a single kingdom and greatly expanded the king's powers at the expense of the aristocracy. Through strategic marriages and personal appointments, Otto installed members of his family in the kingdom's most important duchies. This reduced the various dukes, who had previously been co-equals with the king, into royal subjects under his authority. Otto transformed the Roman Catholic Church in Germany to strengthen the royal office and subjected its clergy to his personal control

Guilds

An association of artisans or merchants who control the practice of their craft in a particular town. The earliest types of guild were formed as confraternities of tradesmen. They were organized in a manner something between a professional association, trade union, a cartel, and a secret society. They often depended on grants of letters patent by a monarch or other authority to enforce the flow of trade to their self-employed members, and to retain ownership of tools and the supply of materials. A lasting legacy of traditional guilds are the guildhalls constructed and used as meeting places

Prince Henry the Navigator

An important figure in 15th-century Portuguese politics and in the early days of the Portuguese Empire. Through his administrative direction, he is regarded as the main initiator of what would be known as the Age of Discoveries. Henry was the fifth child of the Portuguese king John I and responsible for the early development of Portuguese exploration and maritime trade with other continents through the systematic exploration of Western Africa, the islands of the Atlantic Ocean, and the search for new routes.

John Calvin

An influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism. Originally trained as a humanist lawyer, he broke from the Roman Catholic Church around 1530. After religious tensions provoked a violent uprising against Protestants in France, Calvin fled to Geneva, Switzerland, where he published the first edition of his seminal work Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536.

Madrasa

Arabic word for any type of educational institution, whether secular or religious (of any religion).

Ummah

Arabic word meaning "nation" or "community"

Emperor Basil II

As a Byzantine Emperor from the Macedonian dynasty who reigned from 10 January 976 to 15 December 1025. He was known in his time as Basil the Porphyrogenitus and Basil the Young to distinguish him from his supposed ancestor, Basil I the Macedonian. The early years of his long reign were dominated by civil war against powerful generals from the Anatolian aristocracy. Following their submission, Basil oversaw the stabilization and expansion of the eastern frontier of the Byzantine Empire, and above all, the final and complete subjugation of Bulgaria, the Empire's foremost European foe, after a prolonged struggle. For this he was nicknamed by later authors as "the Bulgar-slayer" by which he is popularly known. At his death, the Empire stretched from Southern Italy to the Caucasus and from the Danube to the borders of Palestine, its greatest territorial extent since the Muslim conquests four centuries earlier.

Primogeniture

Belief that all of the inheritance goes to the first born child

Christian Humanists

Christian humanism emphasizes the humanity of Jesus, his social teachings and his propensity to synthesize human spirituality and materialism. It regards humanist principles like universal human dignity and individual freedom and the primacy of human happiness as essential and principal components of, or at least compatible with, the teachings of Jesus. Christian humanism can be perceived as a philosophical union of Christian ethics and humanist principles.

Pope Gregory I (540-604)

Commonly known as Saint Gregory the Great, was Pope from 3 September 590 to his death in 604. Gregory is well known for his writings, which were more prolific than those of any of his predecessors as pope. He is also known as St. Gregory the Dialogist in Eastern Christianity because of his Dialogues. For this reason, English translations of Eastern texts will sometimes list him as "Gregory Dialogus".

Joan of Arc

Considered a heroine of France and a Roman Catholic saint. She was born to a peasant family at Domrémy in north-east France. Joan said she received visions of the Archangel Michael, Saint Margaret and Saint Catherine instructing her to support Charles VII and recover France from English domination late in the Hundred Years' War. The uncrowned King Charles VII sent Joan to the siege of Orléans as part of a relief mission. She gained prominence after the siege was lifted in only nine days. Several additional swift victories led to Charles VII's coronation at Reims. On 23 May 1430, she was captured at Compiègne by the allied English-Burgundian faction. She was later handed over to the English, and then put on trial by the pro-English Bishop of Beauvais Pierre Cauchon on a variety of charges. After Cauchon declared her guilty she was burned at the stake on 30 May 1431, dying at about nineteen years of age.

Humanism

Essentially: bringing back the ancient Greek and Roman texts

Frederick II

Excommunicated by Pope Innocent III; one of the most powerful Holy Roman Emperors of the Middle Ages and head of the House of Hohenstaufen. His political and cultural ambitions, based in Sicily and stretching through Italy to Germany, and even to Jerusalem, were enormous; however, his enemies, especially the popes, prevailed, and his dynasty collapsed soon after his death. Viewing himself as a direct successor to the Roman Emperors of Antiquity,[3] he was Emperor of the Romans from his papal coronation in 1220 until his death; he was also a claimant to the title of King of the Romans from 1212 and unopposed holder of that monarchy from 1215. As such, he was King of Germany, of Italy, and of Burgundy. At the age of three, he was crowned King of Sicily as a co-ruler with his mother, Constance of Hauteville, the daughter of Roger II of Sicily. His other royal title was King of Jerusalem by virtue of marriage and his connection with the Sixth Crusade. He was frequently at war with the Papacy, hemmed in between Frederick's lands in northern Italy and his Kingdom of Sicily (the Regno) to the south, and thus he was excommunicated four times and often vilified in pro-papal chronicles of the time and since. Pope Gregory IX went so far as to call him the Antichrist.

Battle of Badr

Fought on Saturday, 13 March 624 CE (17 Ramadan, 2 AH in the Islamic calendar) in the Hejaz region of western Arabia (present-day Saudi Arabia), was a key battle in the early days of Islam and a turning point in Muhammad's struggle with his opponents among the Quraish in Mecca. The battle has been passed down in Islamic history as a decisive victory attributable to divine intervention, or by secular sources to the strategic genius of Muhammad. It is one of the few battles specifically mentioned in the Quran. Most contemporary knowledge of the battle at Badr comes from traditional Islamic accounts, both hadiths and biographies of Muhammad, recorded in written form some time after the battle

Pope Boniface VIII

He organized the first Roman Catholic "jubilee" year to take place in Rome and declared that both spiritual and temporal power were under the pope's jurisdiction, and that kings were subordinate to the power of the Roman pontiff. Today, he is probably best remembered for his feuds with Dante Alighieri, who placed the pope in the Eighth Circle of Hell in his Divine Comedy, among the simoniacs. • Boniface stated that only the Pope could tax religious offices and Edward I of England retaliated by declaring religious officials outside the help of the law ("outlaws") and Phillip IV of France by banning precious metals or money to leave France • Boniface backed down and the ideal of a universal Christendom with a territorial Empire under Papal political leadership was faced with limited, but tightly knit and internally controlled territorial state

Council of Trent

Held between 1545 and 1563 in Trento (Trent) and Bologna, northern Italy, was one of the Roman Catholic Church's most important ecumenical councils. Prompted by the Protestant Reformation, it has been described as the embodiment of the Counter-Reformation.

Henry II

Henry extended and consolidated royal rule in England • Marrying Eleanor of Aquitaine increased English lands in France • Used royal courts and regular judicial visits called "eyres" to extend the reach of royal law to cover crimes against the peace and civil cases among free and brought fees to the treasury • Churchmen refused to cede legal jurisdiction and the conflict simmered past when Henry had Thomas Beckett murdered

Ninety-Five Theses

Written by Martin Luther in 1517 and are widely regarded as the initial catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. The disputation protests against clerical abuses, especially nepotism, simony, usury, pluralism, and the sale of indulgences. On 31 October 1517, Luther posted the ninety-five theses, which he had composed in Latin, on the door of the church in Wittenberg, according to university custom.

Indulgences

In the teaching of the Catholic Church, an indulgence is "a remission before God of the temporal punishment due to sins whose guilt has already been forgiven, which the faithful Christian who is duly disposed gains under certain prescribed conditions through the action of the Church which, as the minister of redemption, dispenses and applies with authority the treasury of the satisfactions of Christ and the saints".

Edict of Nantes

Issued probably on 30 April 1598, by Henry IV of France, granted the Calvinist Protestants of France (also known as Huguenots) substantial rights in a nation still considered essentially Catholic.

Henry VIII

King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. He was Lord, and later assumed the Kingship, of Ireland, and continued the nominal claim by English monarchs to the Kingdom of France. Henry was the second monarch of the Tudor dynasty, succeeding his father, Henry VII. Besides his six marriages, Henry VIII is known for his role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church. His disagreements with the Pope led to his separation of the Church of England from papal authority, with himself, as King, as the Supreme Head of the Church of England, and to the Dissolution of the Monasteries. Because his principal dispute was with papal authority, rather than with doctrinal matters, he remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings, despite his excommunication from the Roman Catholic Church. Henry oversaw the legal union of England and Wales with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. He is also well known for a long personal rivalry with both Francis I of France and the Habsburg monarch Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire (King Charles I of Spain), his contemporaries with whom he frequently warred.

Macedonian Renaissance

Macedonian Renaissance is a label sometimes used to describe the period of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire (867-1056), especially the 10th century, which some scholars have seen as a time of increased interest in classical scholarship and the assimilation of classical motifs into Christian artwork.

Iconoclasm

The opposition to the veneration of inanimate representations, religious icons, and other symbols or monuments. In time, the word has also come to refer to the opposition to institutional inertia in one's own culture, usually for religious or political motives. It is a frequent component of major political or religious changes. The term does not generally encompass the specific destruction of images of a ruler after his death or overthrow

Genghis Khan

Mongol leader Genghis Khan (1162-1227) rose from humble beginnings to establish the largest land empire in history. After uniting the nomadic tribes of the Mongolian plateau, he conquered huge chunks of central Asia and China. His descendents expanded the empire even further, advancing to such far-off places as Poland, Vietnam, Syria and Korea. At their peak, the Mongols controlled between 11 and 12 million contiguous square miles, an area about the size of Africa. Many people were slaughtered in the course of Genghis Khan's invasions, but he also granted religious freedom to his subjects, abolished torture, encouraged trade and created the first international postal system. Genghis Khan died in 1227 during a military campaign against the Chinese kingdom of Xi Xia. His final resting place remains unknown.

Jan Huss

Often referred to in English as John Hus or John Huss, was a Czech priest, philosopher, reformer and master at Charles University in Prague. After John Wycliffe, the theorist of ecclesiastical Reformation, Hus is considered the first Church reformer, as he lived before Luther, Calvin and Zwingli.

Black Death

One of the most devastating pandemics in human history, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 75 to 200 million people and peaking in Europe in the years 1346-53. Although there were several competing theories as to the etiology of the Black Death, analysis of DNA from victims in northern and southern Europe published in 2010 and 2011 indicates that the pathogen responsible was the Yersinia pestis bacterium, probably causing several forms of plague.

Treaty of Tordesillas

Signed at Tordesillas (now in Valladolid province, Spain) on 7 June 1494 and authenticated at Setúbal, Portugal, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between the Portuguese Empire and Spanish Empire along a meridian 370 leagues[note 1] west of the Cape Verde islands (off the west coast of Africa). This line of demarcation was about halfway between the Cape Verde Islands (already Portuguese) and the islands entered by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage (claimed for Spain), named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antilia (Cuba and Hispaniola).

Gregorian Reforms

See Pope Gregory VII slide

Investiture Conflict

See Pope Gregory VII slide

Hijra

Term used to refer to individuals in India, South Asia who are transsexual or transgender

Fourth Lateran Council

Streamlined church dogma like transubstantiation, but also enforced orthodoxy through the Inquistion

Ferdinand and Isabella

The Catholic Monarchs is the joint title used in history for Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon. They were both from the House of Trastámara and were second cousins, being both descended from John I of Castile; on marriage they were given a papal dispensation to deal with consanguinity by Sixtus IV. They married on October 19, 1469, in the city of Valladolid; Isabella was eighteen years old and Ferdinand a year younger. Their marriage united both crowns under the same family. John Elliott and other historians consider that the unification of Spain can essentially be traced back to the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, but newer historical opinions recognize that under their rule what later became Spain was still a union of two crowns rather than a unitary state, as to a large degree Castile and Aragon remained separate countries, with their own separate institutions, for decades to come. The court of Ferdinand and Isabella was constantly on the move, in order to bolster local support for the crown from local feudal lords.

Columbian Exchange

The Columbian Exchange or Grand Exchange refers to the widespread transfer of animals, plants, culture, human populations, communicable diseases, technology and ideas between the American and Afro-Eurasian hemispheres in the 15th and 16th centuries, related to European colonization and trade (including African/American slave trade) after Christopher Columbus' 1492 voyage. The contact between the two areas circulated a wide variety of new crops and livestock, which supported increases in population in both hemispheres. Traders returned to Europe with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, which became very important crops in Europe by the 18th century. Similarly, Europeans introduced manioc and peanut to tropical Asia and West Africa, where they flourished and supported growth in populations on soils that otherwise would not produce large yields

Fourth Crusade (1202-1204)

The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) was originally intended to conquer Muslim-controlled Jerusalem by means of an invasion through Egypt. Instead, in April 1204, the Crusaders of Western Europe invaded and sacked the Orthodox Christian city of Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire. This is seen as one of the final acts in the Great Schism between the Eastern Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church, and a key turning point in the decline of the empire and of Christianity in the Near East.

Hundred Years War

The Hundred Years' War was a series of conflicts waged from 1337 to 1453 between the House of Plantagenet, rulers of the Kingdom of England, against the House of Valois for control of the Kingdom of France. Each side drew many allies into the war. Through their French possessions, the English kings since the Norman Conquest were vassals of the kings of France. The French kings had endeavored, over the centuries, to reduce the possessions of their over-mighty vassals, to the effect that only Gascony was left to the English. The confiscation or threat of confiscating this duchy had been part of French policy to check the growth of English power, particularly whenever the English were at war with the Kingdom of Scotland, an ally of France.

Islamic Renaissance

The Islamic Golden Age refers to the period during the history of Islam when the Muslim world was politically united under caliphates, experiencing a scientific and cultural flourishing. This period is mostly taken to have lasted from the 8th to 13th centuries, and sometimes extended to the 14th to 16th centuries. It began with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun ar-Rashid (786 to 809), where scholars from various parts of the world sought to translate and gather all the known world's knowledge into Arabic.[4][5] It is traditionally taken to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate with the Mongol invasions and the Sack of Baghdad in 1258, while several contemporary scholars place the decline around the 15th to 16th centuries

"Inquisition"

The Medieval Inquisition was a series of Inquisitions (Catholic Church bodies charged with suppressing heresy) from around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisition (1184-1230s) and later the Papal Inquisition (1230s). The Medieval Inquisition was established in response to movements considered apostate or heretical to Christianity, in particular Catharism and Waldensians in southern France and northern Italy. These were the first inquisition movements of many that would follow.

Northern Crusades

The Northern Crusades or Baltic Crusades were crusades undertaken by the Christian kings of Denmark, Poland and Sweden, the German Livonian and Teutonic military orders, and their allies against the pagan peoples of Northern Europe around the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. Swedish and German Catholic campaigns against Russian Eastern Orthodox Christians are also sometimes considered part of the Northern Crusades. Some of these wars were called crusades during the Middle Ages, but others, including most of the Swedish ones, were first dubbed crusades by 19th-century romantic nationalist historians. The east Baltic world was transformed by military conquest: first the Livs, Latgallians and Estonians, then the Semigallians, Curonians, Prussians and the Finns underwent defeat, baptism, military occupation and sometimes extermination by groups of Danes, Germans and Swedes.

Peace of Westphalia

The Peace of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in Osnabrück and Münster. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic. The Peace of Westphalia treaties involved the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand III, of the House of Habsburg; the Kingdom of Spain; the Kingdom of France; the Swedish Empire; the Dutch Republic; the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire; and sovereigns of the free imperial cities. It can be denoted by two major events. The signing of the Peace of Münster between the Dutch Republic and the Kingdom of Spain on 30 January 1648, officially ratified in Münster on 15 May 1648. The signing of two complementary treaties on 24 October 1648, namely: The Treaty of Münster concerning the Holy Roman Emperor and France and their respective allies. The Treaty of Osnabrück concerning the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of France, Sweden and their respective allies. The treaties did not restore peace throughout Europe, but they did create a basis for national self-determination.

Thirty Years War

The Thirty Years' War was a series of wars in Central Europe between 1618-1648. It was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history, and one of the longest. Initially a war between Protestant and Catholic states in the fragmenting Holy Roman Empire, it gradually developed into a more general conflict involving most of the great powers of Europe, becoming less about religion and more a continuation of the France-Habsburg rivalry for European political pre-eminence. The Thirty Years' War saw the devastation of entire regions, with famine and disease significantly decreasing the population of the German and Italian states, the Kingdom of Bohemia, and the Low Countries. The war also bankrupted most of the combatant powers. Both mercenaries and soldiers in armies were expected to fund themselves by looting or extorting tribute, which imposed severe hardships on the inhabitants of occupied territories

Umayyad Caliphate (661-750)

The second of the four major Islamic caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. This caliphate was centered on the Umayyad dynasty hailing from Mecca. The Umayyad family had first come to power under the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644-656), but the Umayyad regime was founded by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, long-time governor of Syria, after the end of the First Muslim Civil War in 661 CE/41 AH. Syria remained the Umayyads' main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital. The Umayyads continued the Muslim conquests, incorporating the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 5.17 million square miles (13,400,000 km2), making it the largest empire the world had yet seen, and the fifth largest ever to exist.

Scholasticism

The system of theology and philosophy taught in medieval European universities, based on Aristotelian logic and the writings of the early Church Fathers and having a strong emphasis on tradition and dogma.

Gallo-Romans

The term Gallo-Roman describes the Romanized culture of Gaul under the rule of the Roman Empire. This was characterized by the Gaulish adoption or adaptation of Roman morals and way of life in a uniquely Gaulish context.[1] The well-studied meld of cultures[2] in Gaul gives historians a model against which to compare and contrast parallel developments of Romanization in other, less-studied Roman provinces.

Price Revolution

The term price revolution refers to the relatively high rate of inflation that characterized the period from the first half of the 16th century to the first half of the 17th, across Western Europe, with prices on average rising perhaps sixfold over 150 years. This level of inflation amounts to 1-1.5% per year, a relatively low inflation rate for the 20th century standards, but rather high given the monetary policy in place in the 16th century. Generally it is thought that this high inflation was caused by the large influx of gold and silver from the Spanish treasure fleet from the New World, especially the silver of Bolivia and Mexico which began to be mined in large quantities from 1545 onward. According to this theory, too many people with too much money chased too few goods. Other accounts emphasize the role of urbanization which increased the velocity of money in circulation, or the increase in silver production within Europe itself, which took place at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries.

Abbasid Caliphate

The third of the Islamic caliphates to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The Abbasid dynasty descended from Muhammad's youngest uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566-653 CE). They ruled as caliphs, for most of their period from their capital in Baghdad in modern-day Iraq, after taking back authority of the Muslim empire from the Umayyads in 750 CE (132 AH). The Abbasid caliphate first centered their government in Kufa, but in 762 the caliph Al-Mansur founded the city of Baghdad, north of the Persian capital city of Ctesiphon. The choice of a capital so close to Persia proper reflects a growing reliance on Persian bureaucrats, most notably of the Barmakid family, to govern the territories conquered by Arab Muslims, as well as an increasing inclusion of non-Arab Muslims in the ummah. Despite this cooperation, the Abbasids of the 8th century were forced to cede authority over Al-Andalus and Maghreb to the Umayyads, Morocco to the Idrisid dynasty, Ifriqiya to the Aghlabids, and Egypt to the Shi'ite Caliphate of the Fatimids. The political power of the caliphs largely ended with the rise of the Buyids and the Seljuq Turks.

Fall of Constantinople

This was the capture of the capital of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire by an invading army of the Ottoman Empire on Tuesday, 29 May 1453. The Ottomans were commanded by 21-year-old Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, who defeated an army commanded by Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos. The conquest of Constantinople followed a seven-week siege that had begun on Friday, 6 April 1453.

Donation of Pepin

Upon the death of Charles Martel, rule of the Kingdom of the Franks passed to his sons Carloman and Pepin. When Carloman retired to pursue the religious life, voluntarily or otherwise, Pepin became de facto sole ruler of the Franks. With the support of Pope Zachary, he then deposed the figurehead Merovingian monarch and was proclaimed King of the Franks.

Marco Polo

Venetian merchant traveller whose travels are recorded in Livres des merveilles du monde (Book of the Marvels of the World, also known as The Travels of Marco Polo, c. 1300), a book that introduced Europeans to Central Asia and China. He learned the mercantile trade from his father and uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, who travelled through Asia, and met Kublai Khan. In 1269, they returned to Venice to meet Marco for the first time. The three of them embarked on an epic journey to Asia, returning after 24 years to find Venice at war with Genoa; Marco was imprisoned and dictated his stories to a cellmate. He was released in 1299, became a wealthy merchant, married, and had three children. He died in 1324 and was buried in the church of San Lorenzo in Venice.

Vernacular High Culture (Study further)

Vernacular culture is the cultural forms made and organized by ordinary, often indigenous people, as distinct from the high culture of an elite. One feature of culture is that it is informal. Such culture is generally engaged in on a non-profit and voluntary basis, and is almost never funded by the state The term is used in the modern study of geography and cultural studies. It generally implies a cultural form that differs markedly from a deeply rooted folk culture, and also from tightly organized subcultures and religious cultures.

Sunni and Shiites in 661

Violence and turmoil spread among the Muslims; Ali is assassinated.

Vladimir the Great

Vladimir's father was prince Sviatoslav of the Rurik dynasty. After the death of his father in 972, Vladimir, who was then prince of Novgorod, was forced to flee to Scandinavia in 976 after his brother Yaropolk had murdered his other brother Oleg and conquered Rus. In Sweden, with the help from his relative Ladejarl Håkon Sigurdsson, ruler of Norway, he assembled a Varangian army and reconquered Novgorod from Yaropolk.[5] By 980 Vladimir had consolidated the Kievan realm from modern-day Ukraine to the Baltic Sea and had solidified the frontiers against incursions of Bulgarian, Baltic, and Eastern nomads. Originally a follower of Slavic paganism, Vladimir converted to Christianity in 988 and Christianized the Kievan Rus

Elizabeth I

Was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, the childless Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII by second wife, Anne Boleyn, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeth's birth. Anne's marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Her half-brother, Edward VI, ruled until his death in 1553, bequeathing the crown to Lady Jane Grey and ignoring the claims of his two half-sisters, Elizabeth and the Roman Catholic Mary, in spite of statute law to the contrary. However, Edward's will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.

Erasmus of Rotterdam

Was a Dutch Renaissance humanist, Catholic priest, social critic, teacher, and theologian. Erasmus was a classical scholar who wrote in a pure Latin style. Amongst humanists, he enjoyed the sobriquet "Prince of the Humanists"; he has been called "the crowning glory of the Christian humanists".[2] Using humanist techniques for working on texts, he prepared important new Latin and Greek editions of the New Testament. These raised questions that would be influential in the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation. He also wrote On Free Will,[3] The Praise of Folly, Handbook of a Christian Knight, On Civility in Children, Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style, Julius Exclusus, and many other works. Erasmus lived against the backdrop of the growing European religious Reformation; but while he was critical of the abuses within the Church and called for reform, he kept his distance from Luther and Melanchthon and continued to recognise the authority of the pope. Erasmus emphasized a middle way, with a deep respect for traditional faith, piety and grace, and rejected Luther's emphasis on faith alone. Erasmus therefore remained a member of the Catholic Church all his life. Erasmus remained committed to reforming the Church and its clerics' abuses from within. He also held to Catholic doctrines such as that of free will, which some Reformers rejected in favour of the doctrine of predestination. His middle road approach disappointed and even angered scholars in both camps.

Emperor Charles V

Was ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I, of the Spanish Empire from 1516 until his voluntary abdication in favor of his younger brother Ferdinand I as Holy Roman Emperor and his son Philip II as King of Spain in 1556.

Hugh Capet

Was the first "King of the Franks" of the House of Capet from his election in 987 until his death. He succeeded the last Carolingian king, Louis V.

Manor System

o Feudal/Manorial Relationships: System above the king o Cooperation and Mutual Obligations: " " o The manor (fief) = community center of life o Local lord (or religious houses) originally received the land in return for allegiance to the lord above up to the King but the plots became hereditary and produced local powers o Society was divided into three groups: those who prayed, those who fought, and those who worked. All groups were part of hierarchies of dependency but only the first two were free o During the Carolingian era, most laborers were free or semi-free with few dues and duties but around 80-90% of the population became serfs tied to the land after their fall o Serfs were forced to work the lord's lands and perform duties during the year including 30-50 days of military service in exchange for the right to a small plot of their own. While they could not be forced off their lands they also could not leave it o Feudal Economy = food, rent, tithe, taxes, and military service went up while lords redistributed food and provided shelter and legal protection for those underneath them