Western Civilization I- topic 6

Emperor Justinian

After Constantine's death, he was succeeded by his sons. The most important Byzantine emperor, after Constantine, was Justinian. He ruled from 527 to 565 with the help of his influential wife, Theodora. Justinian quelled the Nika uprising among his own people, and won western territories (part of Italy and North Africa) back from the Vandals and Visigoths, two Germanic tribes. After the Nika rebellion in which two rival factions fought for power, Constantinople was in ruins. Justinian and Theodora then reconstructed the city. The most impressive part of the reconstruction effort was the Hagia Sophia, a beautiful Byzantine church, which was in Constantinople. The original construction has been credited to Constantine and a second edifice, built by Theodosius II, had burnt in 532 in the Nika uprising. Justinian was also a lawmaker. He commissioned a codification of Roman law that is now referred to as the Justinian Code.

Christian Conversions

After Justinian's death, the Byzantine Empire struggled to maintain its hold on territory, especially in Europe. In the ninth and tenth centuries, Christian missionaries went to eastern Europe, particularly the Balkans and modern-day Russia, to convert the inhabitants and bring them within the Byzantine Empire. The empire was able to assimilate Bulgaria, Ukraine, and much of Hungary. In this fashion, the Eastern European cultures were converted to Christianity-Greek Orthodox Christianity in particular. This is the reason why, for example, that the Russian language uses an alphabet adapted from Greek.

People who lived in monasteries

All of the above

The Latin and Orthodox Churches Divide

Although political power had been divided between the East and the West for centuries, church authority was a more complex matter. The Byzantine emperor claimed the power to govern the activities and structure of the church, even outside the empire. Eastern churches had begun to diverge from the Roman church on matters of policy and belief. For example, many worshipers had begun to use religious icons during their services, and monasteries made money by creating and selling the icons. Byzantine emperor Leo II ordered all icons to be destroyed, but Pope Gregory II in Rome defied the order. In 1054, the two branches of the church formally separated into the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Italy (ca. 490-750)

Although the Franks established their kingdom in the sixth century, another Germanic kingdom was taking shape in Italy. A brief timeline of Italy during this period is as follows: Justinian used Amalasuintha's death to reconquer Italy. His conquest did not last long, though. The Ostrogothic rulers of northern Italy were overthrown by Justinian during his reign. After Justinian's Empire weakened, the Lombards conquered Italy. The Franks then defeated the Lombards, conquered Italy, and refused to return it to the Byzantine Empire. This is the origin of the independent papal state in Italy, which is now known as the Vatican.

Feudalism

As early as the eighth century, Carolingian society developed in such a way that everyone had responsibilities and ties to someone above them or below them. This hierarchy developed slowly over the centuries. Manors were developed from the agricultural estates of the Roman Empire. The manors had serfs and lords. The lords needed help with their land and other chores, which is where the serfs came in. The serfs were given tiny plots for themselves but were asked to spend most of their time taking care of the manor for the lord in exchange for protection from invaders and for their own plots of land.

The Rise of the Papacy

As traditional governmental structures became less consistent, church leaders began to fill the vacuum in power. Local bishops became, in effect, political leaders. Using the Petrine Doctrine, the bishops of Rome claimed their supremacy and began to call themselves Popes. In addition, they claimed that under the Donation of Constantine, the government of the city of Rome had been given to the bishops. The documents of the Donation of Constantine were later shown to be a forgery. By the tenth century, the Pope was the supreme power in Europe, both the spiritual and the political leader.

The British Isles

As we discussed earlier, the Britons were conquered by the Germanic Anglo-Saxons. Celtic tribes remained independent in Scotland and Ireland as well as in patches throughout the rest of Britain. In 407, Rome recalled legions from Briton to help defend Italy against invaders. The few remaining Britons were pushed into Cornwall or Wales in western England. During these invasions, one British war chief was victorious. This war chief, Arthur of Britain, won the Battle of Badon over the Anglo-Saxons. The Britons attempted to fight the Anglo-Saxons under their Arthur of Britain, but were eventually defeated. These stories of Arthur have been adapted into the tales of King Arthur and the Round Table. Church schools and monasteries brought learning to the British Isles. Two important British scholars of this time period were

Germanic Tribes and Culture

As we have seen, mass migrations in the fifth and sixth centuries due to invasions reshaped the structure of Europe. Many of those migrating tribes were classified as Germanic. There were many Germanic tribes, including Select the previous and next buttons to learn more. Germanic tribes settled in North Africa, Britain, Italy, Spain, and Gaul (France) and also throughout the areas now known as Germany and Austria. Germanic culture was an oral one; German poetry such as the story of Beowulf was passed down through generations before it was written down. Laws and traditions were also passed down orally. Germanic culture valued tribal coherence and superior fighting skills, and their myths cherished the ideal of heroes who had immense courage in battles. Women were important members of Germanic society; they joined clans together in marriage as well as created pottery and textiles and farmed.

The leader of the Huns, a tribe that invaded Europe in the fifth century.

Attila

Mass migrations in the early Middle Ages were due to

Barbarian invasions

The empire founded by the eastern portion of the Roman Empire, based in Constantinople.

Byzantine

A term used to refer to the empire of Charlemagne.

Carolingian

The man who was crowned Roman emperor by Pope Leo III in 800.

Charlemagne

Charlemagne and the War of Conversion

Charlemagne was in constant battle throughout his reign. In 30 years, he had waged 18 battles. He conquered Saxonia and forced all of his new subjects to convert to Roman Catholicism. Some scholars refer to this period as Charlemagne's "War of Conversion," although others call it the "Saxon campaigns." In one battle in 782, known as the Massacre of Verden, Charlemagne allegedly ordered the beheading of 4,500 Saxons who were caught practicing their native paganism instead of their new religion, Christianity, to which Charlemagne had forced them to convert. Although researchers have not been able to confirm this massacre, it triggered 2 years of renewed bloody warfare. The war ended with the people accepting baptism. After Charlemagne's death, the empire was given to his son, Louis. Louis then gave the empire to his sons and they divided it. These divisions laid the foundation for the modern states of France and Germany. Battles for supremacy ensued and the empire never regained the level of coherence it had under Charlemagne.

Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire

Charlemagne, the greatest of the Frankish kings, ruled from 768 to 814. Charlemagne's father, Pepin the Short (r. 747-768) owed his power to Pope Zachary (r. 741-752) and had a close relationship with the church. Charlemagne continued the close relationship with the church. He agreed to protect the Popes from the Byzantine Empire, and in return, Pope Leo III crowned him emperor of the West in 800. Charlemagne was a great military leader and his troops overthrew a variety of barbarian leaders across Europe and converted their subjects to Christianity. Charlemagne protected, defended, and saved the Pope's life many times during his reign. His empire was the largest in the West since the Romans-he controlled almost all of continental Western Europe. Charlemagne also introduced more consistent coinage and started several scholarly centers across Europe.

Constantine: The First Byzantine Emperor

Constantine (272-337; r. 306-337) is commonly referred to as Constantine the Great, or among Eastern Orthodox Christians, as Saint Constantine. He came to power after a Civil War, and is best remembered for the Edict of Milan in 313, which legalized Christianity in the empire. Constantine also sought to spread Christianity through the Council of Nicaea in 325. These actions gave him the additional title, "first Christian Emperor." Constantine shared power with other rulers and his share of the Roman Empire included Britain, Gaul, the Germanic provinces, and Spain. He commanded one of the largest Roman armies. Although Constantine tried to remain neutral in conflicts with the other rulers, he was unable to. In 312, he conquered Northern Italy and continued to conquer other areas and consolidated his authority.

A forged Roman imperial edict that was a defense against papal interests. It granted Pope Sylvester I and his successors the dominion over Rome, Italy, and the entire Western Roman Empire.

Donation of Constantine

A sixth century Pope from a monastic background; he had active involvement with various tribes.

Gregory the Great

Constantine: Protecting Christians

In the year 320, the ruler Licinius disregarded the Edict of Milan and began to persecute Christians. Constantine used his army to defeat Licinius and capture Adrianopole, Hellespoint, and Chrysopolis.

Introduction

It was during this period of relative isolation, known as the Medieval era or Middle Ages, that the European subcontinent began to develop the precursors to the complex modern culture we know now.

A Byzantine emperor from 527-565 and builder of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. He quelled the Nika riots and commissioned a codification of Roman law.

Justinian

A movement of people joining monasteries or nunneries.

Monasticism

Claimed that St. Peter had been the first bishop of Rome, and through him the bishops of Rome were the highest authorities in the church.

Petrine Doctrine

Gregory the Great

Pope Gregory I (r. 590-604), or Gregory the Great, is a prime example of the active involvement that early Popes had with neighboring tribes. Gregory's most notable achievements included the following: Gregory was the first Pope from a monastic tradition; monasticism was a growing movement in Europe during the Middle Ages.

Serfs' Obligations

Serfs had other obligations in exchange for working their own land. Not all serfs entered into this arrangement voluntarily; sometimes, armed lords who needed their lands cultivated forced the peasants into servitude. In exchange, the lords offered their protection from invaders. As a result of the Black Plague in 1348, many people died and there was a shortage of labor. The lords responded by asking the serfs to work even more hours and take on additional tasks. In response, the peasants in England and Germany revolted. Over several years, the situation vacillated between the peasants making short-term gains and being militarily crushed.

Arian Christians who joined Rome. They lived in Spain.

Spanish Visigoths

The Rise of Monasticism

St. Benedict, a clergyman of the fifth and sixth centuries, developed a monastic rule that created monasteries for men and women. These monasteries served as centers of learning, copying, and preserving texts, and mediation centers for feuding parties. Monasteries also became involved in missionary work and local political issues. Benedictines believed in peace and a moderate division between work and prayer. St. Benedict's model for the monastic life was the family. In this family, the abbot was the father and all the monks were brothers. None of them were priests. Because of this, all of Benedict's rules also applied to women. The women lived together in an abbey and were under the authority of an abbess. Monastery life was one of the few choices of social mobility available during the Middle Ages, particularly for women. Monasteries allowed for a somewhat more independent life. They became crucial parts of their local areas and important links back to the larger church in Rome.

The Arabic World

The Arabic world of this period was formed by the influence of Islam in areas near Asia, northern Africa, and the Fertile Crescent. Muhammad's teachings, collected in the Q'uran (or Koran) quickly spread, and millions became Muslims. The Q'uran and biographical accounts of Muhammed by his contemporaries form the basis for Islamic theology. In many ways, the Arabic world was the center of culture and learning during the centuries while Europe lived through what has been called the Middle Ages. The Middle Ages, which this lesson details, is the time period from 476-1000.

The Byzantine World

The Byzantine Empire, which lasted from the fifth to the fifteenth century, was a direct extension of the Roman Empire. Its reach was far smaller, however; it covered only Asia Minor, the Balkans, and part of Italy. It was a Christian Empire and predominately Greek in culture, taking as its inspiration the traditions of Greece and Rome. Constantinople stood at the meeting of two trade routes, one overland to Asia Minor and one across the Mediterranean sea. A wall built in 410 shielded Constantinople from the invasions of Huns and Germanic barbarians. Eastern emperors also paid invaders to go west and leave Constantinople. These measures allowed the Byzantines to maintain their power and influence. Take a closer look at this map of Constantinople and its walls during the Byzantine Era.

The Vikings were also known as

The Norse

The Roman Influence Ends

The Roman Empire limped on for many years in various forms before finally falling. Before its dissolution, it divided into an Eastern Empire and a Western Empire. The Western portion was divided, invaded, and overcome by a variety of invaders and native tribes. The emperor Constantine founded Constantinople (now known as Istanbul) on the site of Byzantium in 330, and the lands ruled by Constantine became the Byzantine Empire. Constantine envisioned making a new Rome. However, the Byzantine Empire became dramatically different from the Roman Empire. Between 400 and 1000, the Byzantine Empire distanced itself from the West and focused on the traditions of the North and the East. In 410, the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II built a great wall around the city to protect it from invaders. However, the Persians to the East and the Muslims to the South threatened the empire. A third region, the Muslim or Arabic world, appeared in this period to threaten the superiority of the Byzantine Empire. There were differences between the Eastern and Western Empires. The Eastern Empire spoke Greek and did not have a middle class. The Western Empire spoke Latin and did have a middle class.

The Viking Culture

The Scandinavians (Vikings) were Germanic and their way of life resembled those of the earlier Germanic tribes in many ways. The Vikings also were fishermen and great boat builders. For their raids, they built vessels that held between 50 and 100 men. These men rowed the boats with oars and worked together to navigate. The shallow keel of the boat and the long timber that extended the length of the ship allowed the Vikings to steer the boat up rivers during raids. These ships were well engineered and were highly prized and guarded possessions. The Anglo-Saxons feared the Vikings and often said the prayer, "God, save us from the wrath of the Northmen."

The Great Migrations

The Slavs were among many of the European tribes that migrated in the centuries after the dissolution of the Roman Empire. Slavs moved in all directions and formed new colonies. Many of the Germanic tribes, including the Goths whose two main branches were the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths, migrated in search of better land or in response to other invaders. The group called the Vandals was forced by invaders from eastern Germany through Gaul into North Africa. Germanic tribes moved into Britain and became the Anglo-Saxons.

Viking Travels and Conquests

The Vikings had superior boats and great navigational skills. These two things gave them access to all of Europe. Some Vikings went to Constantinople and settled there, making their livings from the trading that occurred along the Black Sea route. Although some Vikings were traders, others were mercenaries for the Byzantine emperor, who employed only Vikings to be his guards. The most famous guard, Harold Sigurdson of Norway, grew wealthy from serving the emperor and left for Norway where he became a great King. Other Vikings went to Kiev, in Eastern Europe and established a Scandinavian state. Still, other Vikings sailed west across the North Atlantic to establish permanent settlements in Iceland and Greenland. Within western Europe, Vikings created settlements in France (Normandy), Sicily, and England. Although many Europeans perceived the world as flat, the Vikings knew the world was round as they sailed past the horizon and out of sight of land.

Scandinavia and the Vikings

The Vikings, also known as the Norse, came from Scandinavia. Between the eighth and tenth centuries, they explored and traded throughout Europe and the known world. The Vikings were excellent sailors and explored much of Greenland as well as other parts of North America. Viking raids helped lead to the collapse of the Carolingian Empire because the Carolingians were unable to defend the empire against the Vikings. A group of Vikings settled in Normandy in Northern France. These Normans later conquered England and southern Italy in the eleventh century. Thanks to the Vikings' travels, Norse legends and myths spread throughout Europe. Stories of Thor and Valhalla are still familiar to many people today.

Spain (ca. 418-711)

The Visigoths were Arian Christians when they became federates of Rome. So those from two cultures-Roman and Goth-lived separate but parallel lives in Spain. In 580, the Visigothic kings converted to Roman Christianity. The Visigoths had two flaws that kept them from being great rulers: They enjoyed and carried out many political assassinations. These assassinations weakened the kingdom. The Visigoths were strongly anti-Semitic and passed many laws that punished the Jews; this further weakened support for the kingdom.

Serfs and the Social Order

The serfs used some of the land for their own needs, but also plowed and planted for the needs of their lord. These Medieval serfs were at the bottom of the social ladder in that they had obligations to everyone above them, but they did not have anyone below them who was obliged to them. The serfs were free, they were not slaves, but they were bound to the land. If a lord received a land grant from a king, then he also gained the service of the serfs who worked the land.

Summary

The split between the eastern and western branches of the Christian Church in 1054 made formal a division that had been developing since the fall of the Roman Empire in the West. Europe had become a fully formed world region. Its power was less than the Muslim and Byzantine Empires, but the structures of the papacy and the Church of Rome would grow and solidify. Medieval Europe was poised on the brink of immense changes in technology and societal structure. Although the Middle Ages have been referred to as the Dark Ages, many important movements and structures were put into place that would affect the rest of European history.

The Franks

The tribe of the Franks settled in Gaul-what is now France-in the late fifth century. Their leader, Clovis, and his successors, known as the Merovingians, conquered territory past the Danube River into Germany. This trend was continued by the Frankish king Charlemagne, crowned Roman emperor by papal authority. Charlemagne and Clovis were from different families. Charlemagne had close ties to the church as well.

The Formation of Europe

These great migrations redrew tribal boundaries and began to create the entity that is now called Europe. The term Europe was not used during the days of the Roman Empire (the term Europa was not used until around 1500). The focus of trade and culture was on the lands surrounding the Mediterranean. Britain, for example, was a remote outpost of the Roman Empire, and its northern half was still controlled by local tribes and the Southern half was controlled by the Roman Empire. After the Roman troops left, local Britons were conquered by the Germanic Anglo-Saxons, carrying with them their language and traditions. The scope of the Germanic migration was large, and it allowed a new Europe to begin forming-a Europe that did not take all of its cues from Greco-Roman tradition.

Also known as the Norse, these explorers were traders from Scandinavia who traveled across Europe and even to North America during the early Middle Ages.

Vikings

Stories of King Arthur and the Round Table were based on

War chief Arthur of Britain

Avicenna (Ibn Sina) had a reputation both in the Islamic world and the Western world as the author of a standard text on history.

false

Charlemagne envisioned that after his death his empire would remain united under a single ruler rather than be partitioned among multiple heirs.

false

Charlemagne was a Celtic king.

false

Charlemagne's great enemy in the Islamic world was the caliph of Baghdad, Harun al Rashid.

false

In the medieval manor, the peasant lived on the land he farmed.

false

Justinian was unable to drive the Vandals out of North Africa.

false

Muhammad was born into a wandering Arab Bedouin tribe.

false

Of all the invaders of the Carolingian Empire, the ones who did the most damage were the Magyars.

false

Tacitus, the Roman historian, wrote a book denouncing the customs and morals of the Germans.

false

The Donation of Constantine gave control over Constantinople to the Pope.

false

The English scholar invited to Charlemagne's court to improve education was Bede.

false

The Islamic world was notable for its cultural diversity.

false

The Russians converted to Latin rather than Greek Christianity.

false

The capital of the Byzantine Empire was Damascus.

false

The early pope who dramatically forwarded the case for papal supremacy was Leo I.

false

The great early English monk and historian who authored the Ecclesiastical History of the English People was Alcuin.

false

The livestock on the medieval manor provided peasants with a diet rich in meat.

false

The monastic Rule of Benedict of Nursia emphasized fasting and other ascetic activities.

false

The western popes supported the Byzantine emperor in the iconoclast controversy.

false

Theodoric, the king of the Ostrogoths in Italy, persecuted Roman Christians because of his Arian beliefs.

false

Those who believe that the caliph should be chosen from among the family of the Prophet are called Sunnites.

false

Wergeld fines were the same regardless of the status of the persons involved.

false

Alfred the Great was not only king of England but also an important translator of works from Latin to Old English.

true

Charlemagne founded schools and monasteries.

true

Dissident Christians in the Byzantine Empire often preferred Muslim to Byzantine rule.

true

Emperor Justinian built the Hagia Sophia.

true

Germanic law at the time of the great migrations was often designed to limit the exercise of vengeance.

true

Justinian's greatest achievement may have been his Corpus Iuris Civilis, which has influenced Western legal codes to the present.

true

Of the major Viking kings, only Canute succeeded in conquering England.

true

The "fall" of Rome occurred in such a manner that many contemporaries did not believe that Rome had "fallen."

true

The 114 revelations that, according to Islamic tradition, were given by God to Muhammad are known as the Qur'an.

true

The Merovingian dynasty in France was overthrown by Pepin the Short with the approval of the pope.

true

The Treaty of Verdun confirmed the breaking up of the Carolingian Empire into three kingdoms, each ruled by a descendant of Charlemagne.

true

The Visigothic kingdom in Spain maintained strict laws against the Jews living there.

true

The conflicts and disruptions of the division of Charlemagne's empire caused the virtual disappearance of the long-distance trade that had begun to enrich western Europe.

true

The famous "Arabic" numbers were brought to Islamic mathematicians from India.

true

The major innovation of the abbey of Cluny in late Carolingian times was that it was not subordinate to any noble or king and instead was subordinate only to the pope.

true

The movement of the Huns, an Asian rather than a Germanic people, seems to have been the trigger for the Germanic invasions of the Roman Empire.

true

The political turmoil in the Byzantine Empire was a factor in Charlemagne's coronation as emperor in 800.

true

Warfare played a central role in early Germanic society.

true