Western Civilizations Ch 20: The Age of Ideologies
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon wrote "What Is Property?" one of the most widely read socialist pamphlets - to which the famous answer was "____"
"Property is theft"
The French Revolution redefined nation to mean "____"
"The sovereign people"
Liberalism had three components:
1) Equality before law, ed traditional privileges 2) Government needed to be based on political rights and consent of governed 3) Individuals should be free to engage in economic activities without interference
Which two revolutionaries 1) sought to liberate Chile and Peru, and 2) sparked revolutions from Venezuela to Bolivia
1) Jose de San Martin and 2) Simon Bolivar
Slave trade was abolished in England in what year?
1807
By what year was Beethoven completely deaf?
1819
When were the Greeks and Serbians finally granted independence?
1827, with the help of British, French, and Russian troops
The violent conflicts of ___ essentially ended Romanticism
1848
Even after winning independence, slavery in Brazil endured until ___
1888
What was a powerful incentive for Cuba to remain under the Spanish crown?
A Cuban independance movement would have detonated a slave revolution
Charles Fourier was ___
A Frenchman who tried to organize utopian communities based on the abolotion of the wage system
What is the definition of ideology?
A coherent system of thought that claims to represent the workings and structure of the social order and its relationship to political institutions
Liberalism's core was ___
A commitment to individual liberties or rights
Who were the Decembrists?
A group of army officers in Russia whose revolt was ended by the new tsar, Nicholas I
The Communist Manifesto depicted ___
A theory of history in short form, largely inspired by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel; the "class struggle" was the motor of human history; admired the revolutionary accomplishments of capitalism, but would also undermine the economic order; workers would create a communist society based on egalitarian principles
Robert Owen was ___
A wealthy industrialist turned reformer who bought a large cotton factory in Scotland and turned it and the area surrounding into a utopian society
How much of Cuba and Brazil's population were enslaved?
About 40 percent?
What was economic liberalism's founding text?
Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (1776)
What was the July Monarchy?
After forcing Charles X to abdicate, the revolutionaries put his cousin, Louis-Philippe on the throne
Socialists could point to what for their ideology?
Age-old collective traditions among rural communities
Who presented himself as the "liberator" of Europe?
Alexander I
In 16th c. the nation designated the ___
Aristocracy
What ideas were presented in Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations?
Attacked mercantilism, sought to identify basic economic laws, and argued that economic policy had to begin by recognizing these laws
Louis Blanc, a French politician and journalist, said the transformed state he spoke about would be the "____"
Banker of the poor
In 1815 the Congress of Vienna joined ___ to ___ to form a buffer against France known as the ___
Belgium; Holland; United Provinces
What was Metternich's primary goal in the post-Napoleonic decades?
Bolstering the legitimacy of monarchies
The revolution in Haiti made American landowners nervous and the "loss" of slave-based sugar in the former Saint-Domingue created an opportunity for what country?
Brazil
What two nations prevented the European powers from intervening with the Latin American revolutions?
Britain and the United States
The fascination with the Orient could be seen in great-power rivalries that surfaced in the ____
British incursion into India, Greek war for independence, and the French invasion of Algeria in 1830
The ___ on the Italian peninsula vowed to oppose the government in Vienna and its conservative allies by meeting in secret
Carbonari
What were the July Ordinances of 1830?
Charles called for a new election, and when they went against him, he tried to overthrow the parliament with this. He dissolved the new assembly before it had met, restricted suffrage even further, and announced strict press censorship
Metternich's main concerns at the Congress were ___
Checking Russian expansionism and preventing political change in Europe
The Christians in Europe saw the Ottoman rebellion as part of an ongoing struggle between ___
Christianity and Islam
Liberal nationalists believed that legitimate sovereignty could only be exercised by ___
Citizens acting collectively as a nation
The crucial distinction between the more moderate liberals and radical republicans depended on the criteria they used for defining:
Citizenship; (liberals - more likely to restrict citizenship/democracy) (republicans - open to political equality/democracy)
Because Romanticism placed a heavy emphasis on emotion as part of an artistic creation, female writers or painters were able to use these ideas to ___
Claim a place for themselves in the world of letters and arts
Socialists believed that problems of industrial society arose from the core principles of ____
Competition, individualism, and private property
The Congress also called for a ___ to secure the peace; Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia pledge to cooperate in the suppression of any disturbance
Concert of Europe
What modern political ideologies came more into focus during this time?
Conservatism, liberalism, socialism, and nationalism
Who was another liberal political economist, other than Adam Smith?
David Ricardo of Britain
Liberals could point to what for their ideology?
Debates about the rule of law in the English revolution of the 17th c.
In Latin America, slavery's fate was determined by ___
Demographics, economics, and the politics of breaking away from the Spanish and Portuguese empires; relative ease of escape and other sources of labor
The end of the Napoleonic Wars brought a major agricultural ___ to Britain
Depression
The twenty-three volume, lavishly illustrated ____ published in French between 1809 and 1828
Description of Egypt
19th c. Europeans cast the East as a contrasting mirror for their own civilization, a process that ____
Did more to create a sense of their own identity than promote an accurate understanding of the diversity of cultures
It became increasingly clear that nationalism could be molded to fit any ___
Doctrine
The Congress sought to restore order by insisting that Europe's ___ were the only legitimate political authority
Dynastic rulers
Nationalism also went hand in hand with liberal demands for ___
Economic modernity
What conservative writer published Reflections on the Revolution in France that became influential in this new context?
Edmund Burke
What did the Reform Bill of 1832 do?
Eliminated rotten borroughs and reallocated 143 parliamentary seats
The Monroe Doctrine, issued by then president James Monroe, declared that ___, but was unenforcable
European meddling in the Americas would be seen as a hostile act
Goethe's other major work ___ tells the story of a man who sold his soul to the devil for eternal youth and universal knowledge?
Faust
The first decisive blow against the Concert of Europe came in 1830 in ___
France
Why were the French and British, and separately, the Russians, interested in helping the revolts against the Ottoman Empire?
France and Britain: Hoped to expand commercial networks; Russia: sought greater influence over the Balkan territories
French conservative ___ wrote Genius of Christianity (1802) which emphasized the primacy of religious emotions and feeling that was woven in the national past and could not be ignored
Francois Chateaubriand
What influential German economist sought to develop national economics and national infrastructures, linking the ending of German territorial fragmentation and the development of manufacturing to "culture, prosperity, and liberty"?
Friedrich List
What woman Romantic played a key part in popularizing German Romanticism in Franc and described herself as a genius?
Germaine de Stael
The poet Friedrich Schiller retold the story of William Tell (1804) to promote ____
German national consciousness
Friedrich Schiller's poem was turned into a famous opera to promote Italian nationalism by ___
Gioacchino Rossini
Conservative monarchs believed their authority came not from the people, but from ___
God
Alexander I pushed for what he called a ____ dedicated to justice, Christian charity, and peace
Holy Alliance
Where did Romanticism first develop?
In England and Germany as a reaction against the Enlightenment
What were some consequences of slave rebellions?
Increased slaveholders' sense of vulnerability and isolation and polarized debate
19th c. liberalism held these beliefs regarding slavery: _____
Individual liberty collided with vested economic interests, determination to preserve order and property, and increasingly "scientific" theories of racial inequality
Socialism was a direct response to ___
Industrialization
Ludwig van Beethoven's insisted that ___ without ____ could be more expressive of emotion
Instrumental music; vocals
Besides John Constable, who was another famous Romantic painter?
J.M.W. Turner
A month-long insurrection occured in ____
Jamaica in 1831
Early Romantics developed ideas originating from some of the Enlightenment's dissenters such as ___
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
One of the most influential British liberals was ____, whose major work was ____ that illustrates how 19th c. liberalism continued the Enlightenment legacy and also transformed it; society should adopt the organizing principle of utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham; The Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789)
Who wrote The Passions of Young Werther in (1774) that had an enormous influence on the Romantic movement and supposedly inspired many readers to commit suicide?
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Who was among the most influential nationalist thinkers that argued that civilization sprang from the culture of the common people and insisted that each nation must be true to its own particular heritage and history?
Johann von Herder
What British painter studied Isaac Newton and the properties of light, but aimed to capture the "poetry" of a rainbow, and paintings featured unconventional brushstrokes and color that were disliked by critics of the time
John Constable
The hymn "Amazing Grace" was written by a former slave trader turned minister named ___
John Newton
Who was the key figure in the development of socialism?
Karl Marx who wrote The Communist Manifesto
Who was Friedrich Engels?
Karl Marx's friend who wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 and coauthored The Communist Manifesto in 1848
Perhaps the most influential conservative diplomat of the early 19 c. who called revolution a "sickness"
Klemens von Metternich
Liberal political economists believed that ___
Labor should be contracted freely, unhampered by guild or unions, property unencumbered by feudal restrictions, good should circulate freely, and lassaiz-faire economics
When Louis XVIII claimed absolute power, he granted a "charter" that conceded some important rights:
Legal equality, careers open to talent, and a two-chamber parliamentary government
How did liberals, republicans, marxist socialists respond to nationalism?
Liberals and republicans praised the nation as a body of free citizens; marxist socialists said the interest of social classes trumped national identity
The nation is imagined as ___
Limited, sovereign, and as a community based on comradeship
What poet was an aristocrat, rich, handsome, and had frequent love affairs that earned Romantics a reputation as rebels against authority?
Lord Byron
Who was the head of the Whig Party that seized an opportunity to push through reform?
Lord Grey
Who was recognized as the legitimate sovereign of France by the Congress?
Louis XVIII
What was the most popular romantic work?
Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1818)
The issue of slavery cut across ___
Material interests and class politics
Some liberals were ok living under a constitutional ____, while others believed that voting should only be extended to ___
Monarchy; wealthy property owners
Who said that "Only in the East... is it possible to found great empires and realize great revolutions"?
Napoleon
In the early 19th c., ___ came to symbolize legal equality, constitutional government, unity, and an end to feudal privileges and divisions
Nation
What word comes from the Latin verb "nasci" meaning "to be born"?
Nation
Enlightenment thinkers had persuaded many Europeans that slavery contradicted ___
Natural law and natural freedom
Burke, in Reflections on the Revolution in France, opposed talk of ___ and believed the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason was ___
Natural rights; dangerous
The Orien was a term used to refer to ___
Non-European cultures of North Africa, eastern Mediterranean, the Arabian Peninsula, and eventually southern and eastern Asia
What was the crucial issue for British political leaders after opposition from below?
Parliamentary representation
Who wrote the lyrical drama Prometheus Unbound (1820)?
Percy Shelley
The years 1830-32 became full-fledged crisis for the Concert of Europe because after France and Belgium, revolt also spread to ___
Poland
The guiding principle of the Congress's peace was the balance of ___
Power
Liberals believed what were essential prerequisites for participation in politics?
Property and education
Charles X antagonized property holders by ___
Pushing the assembly to compensate nobles whose land had been confiscated and sold during the revolution
Socialists argued that political reform was not enough to free society; justice was only possible with a ____
Radical reordering of society that redistributed property equitably
18th c. revolts against Ottoman control in the regions had usually been resolved within the imperial system by ___
Redistributing tax burdens or instituting legal reforms
What did peace depend on, according to 19th c. conservatives?
Reinforcing the power of conservative monarchies in all corners of Europe
Although the economy of Belgian cities suffered by being separated from the Atlantic trade of the Dutch ports, ___ between the largely Catholic provinces of Belgium and ___ Holland reinforced the division
Religious divisions; Protestant
In England, and especially in the United States, ___ supplied much of the energy for the abolitionist movement
Religious revivals
___ was the first to declare independence in 1816 from King Ferdinand's Latin American empire
Rio de la Plata (Argentina)
National identity rested on what specific 19th c. political and economic developments?
Rising literacy, creation of national institutions like schools or military, national rituals, holidays, village festivals, singing anthems, national languages, textbooks, theater, and poetry
What was the most significant cultural movement in the early 19th c.?
Romanticism
Among the artifacts the French took from Egypt was the ___ with versions of the same text in three different languages
Rosetta Stone
What 2 people dominated The Congress of Vienna?
Russian tsar Alexander I and Austrian diplomat Klemens von Metternich
Frankenstein captured the Romantic critique of ___
Science and Enlightenment reason
Romanticism prized _____ and had no single political creed
Subjectivity, feeling, and sponteneity
Slave rebellions like the ones in Louisiana, South Carolina, and British colonies were had virtually no chance of ___
Succeeding
The Greek and Serbian revolts against the Ottoman Empire were ___ by the European powers
Supported
Who were editors of a famous collection of fairy tales and traveled across Germany to study native dialects and folktales?
The Brothers Grimm
Where did the European powers meet to settle pressing questions about the post-Napoleonic political order?
The Congress of Vienna
What was the best known book in England during the abolitionist movement of 1780?
The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (1789)
What was the outcome of the "Peterloo" massacre, where 60,000 people gathered to demonstrate for political reform and militia killed 11 and injured 400?
The Parliament quickly passed the Six Acts (1819), outlawing "seditious" literature, increasing the stamp tax on newspapers, allowing house searches, and restricting rights of assembly
What stopped the Spanish revolutionaries?
The Troppau Memorandum (1820), where conservative regimes pledged to assist one another in suppressing revolt
By 1848 slavery remained legal in only ___
The United States, Brazil, and Cuba
What did Marx call the entrepreneurial middle class?
The bourgeoisie
In works such as Hugo's Les Miserables and Delacroix's painting Liberty Leading the People, political life was no longer the preserve of social elites, but also embraced by ___
The commoners on the street
Why were efforts to restore the old order successful only in part?
The developments of the early 18th c. were impossible to reverse and expansion of an informed public continued
Conservatives believed ___
The monarchy guaranteed political stability, nobility were rightful leaders of the nation, both needed to play active roles in public life, change had to be slow and incremental, and conserving the past and cultivating tradition would ensure an orderly future
Other conservative writers such as Joseph de Maistre and Louis-Gabriel-Ambroise Bonald believed ___
The monarchy, the aristocracy, and the Church were the mainstays of the social and political order
From what were the ideas of liberalism in the 17th and 18th c. based on?
The work of John Locke and the Enlightenment writers
What famous painters were in France?
Theodore Gericault and Eugene Delacroix
What were utilitarians?
They acknowledged the importance of the individual; they should be free to pursue their own interests; only when the individual's interests conflict with the interests (happiness) of the greatest number is individual freedom curtailed; "greatest happiness of greatest number"
What were the Corn Laws that were repealed in 1846 thanks to the middle-class power?
They protected British landowners and farmers from foreign competition by establishing tariffs for imports, thus keeping bread prices high
Conservatives could point to what for their ideology?
Traditional religious justifications for royal authority and absolutist's conception of indivisible monarchial power
About how many members of the House of Commons owed their seats to the patronage of the richest titled landowners?
Two-thirds
Republicans called for more radical changes, including ____
Universal (male) suffrage and an end to monarchy
What six demands did the "People's Charter" make?
Universal white male suffrage, a secret ballot, an end to property qualifications as a condition of public office, annual parliamentary elections, salaries for members of the House of Commons, and equal electoral districts
Who wrote that "Romanticism is only liberalism in literature"?
Victor Hugo
Who said "We are now all Orientalists"?
Victor Hugo in 1829
Herder extolled the special creative genius of the German people, the ___
Volk
What ended the Chartist movement?
When a demonstration had a small turnout, and the rain and unwillingness to do battle put an end to the demonstration
What poet championed the individual imagination and poetic vision could break humanity's "mind-forged manacles" and looked to the past when he thought society was more organic and humane?
William Blake
What poet's central themes were nature, simplicity, and feeling and considered nature to be humanity's most trustworthy teacher and the source of true feeling?
William Wordsworth