WHAP: 1450-1750

Split of Christianity: 1450-1750 - Lutherans - Calvinism - Reformation in England

Lutherans - Martin Luther's followers referred to themselves as Lutherans & began to separate themselves from the Catholic Church - Seeing Luther's success, other theologians began to assert their own biblical interpretations Calvinism - John Calvin from France led a powerful Protestant group by preaching the ideology of predestination (said God had predetermined everyone's destiny, w/ most of ppl being damned. Only a few, known a the Elect, would be saved) - Calvinism greatly influenced religious development in Scotland & France Reformation in England - Motivated by. politics & religion - When King Henry VIII wanted to divorce his wife bc he had no heir & the pope denied it, he declared himself the head of religious affairs in England - Presided over what was called the Church of England (Anglican Church)

European Enlightenment: 1450-1750 - Overview - Divine Right: background info, result - The Social Contract: info, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jaques Rousseau, Voltaire, Montesquieu - Impact of Social Contract

Overview - The Enlightenment of the 1600s-1700s focused on the role of humankind in relation to government - The writers changed the world (ex. the Framers based the Const off of Enlightenment ideas) Divine Right - Background info: During the High Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the Counter-Reformation, the Church allied itself w/ monarchs who were convinced that God had given them the right to govern, so their subjects had moral & religious obligation to obey them - Pope also claimed to be ordained by God - Result: Ultimate authority became confusing, and during the Reformation, monarchs who resented the Pope's power decided to play along & support the reformists (Lutherans, Calvinists, etc) all the while claiming that God supported their reign. Rulers in S Europe (where Reformation hadn't touched) claimed the same thing The Social Contract - Info: During the 1600s, the idea of the social contract emerged, which held that governments were formed to only meet the social & economic needs of the ppl being governed - Philosophers who supported the theory reasoned that bc individuals existed first, governments arose only to meet their needs - Each had diff ideas abt the role of government - Thomas Hobbes (1583-1679): thought ppl were greedy by nature & prone to violence. Believed the role of the gov should be to preserve peace & stability @ all costs. Advocated for an all-powerful ruler who could rule w/ a heavy hand & suppress violence - John Locke (1632-1704): believed mankind was good & was born equal to one another & had natural & unalienable rights to life, liberty, & property. Bc ppl were good, Locke believed the primary responsibility of gov under the social contract was to secure & guarantee these natural rights. If they ever violated the trust/contract, ppl could revolt & replace - Jean-Jaques Rousseau (1712-1778): argued that all men were equal & that society should be organized according to the majority rule of the ppl. Believed individuals should subject themselves to this general will so they are protected by the community yet free. The essence of freedom is to obey laws that ppl prescribe for themselves. - Voltaire: believed in religious toleration - Montesquieu: argued for separation of powers among branches of gov Impact of Social Contract 1. Influenced revolutionary movements in the 13 colonies & Europe + antislavery movement 2. Affected leadership of 1700s European monarchs bc ideas of tolerance, justice, & improving quality of life became guidelines for them (subsequently called enlightened monarchs)

Trade/Colonization btwn Europe & Asia: 1450-1750 - Overview of European & Asian trade/colonization - Europe in Asia - Asia

Overview of European & Asian trade/colonization - Asian colonization didn't start happening until the 1800s, but btwn 1500-1700s, Europe managed to establish trade with the Asian Empires Europe in Asia - Dutch became biggest power in spice trades: under backing of Dutch East India Company, they raided Portuguese ships & trade posts after Portugal gained control over the Spice Islands - England, France, & Portugal set up trading posts in India Asia - China & Japan extremely isolationist & severely limited trade w/ Europe (Asian colonization didn't start happening until the 1800s) - Didn't go out to rest of world & pushed away those who came to them

English Commonwealth

Period in English history where the nation had no monarch; began w/ execution of Charles I and ended w/ restoration of Charles II (Stuart Restoration) Led by Oliver Cromwell

Developments in German Areas & Holy Roman Empire: 1450-1750 - Political situation in German areas during this time period: who dominated the German areas, Hapsburg family, religion - Thirty Years' War: Peace of Augsburg, cause of war, powers who fought, location of war, Peace of Westphalia - Results of Thirty Years' War: Holy Roman Empire, biggest beneficiary, another beneficiary - 3 things that occurred in German Areas from 1450-1750

Political situation in German areas during this time period - Holy Roman Empire geographically dominated the German areas (bc Italy controlled by ruling families possessing territory in present-day Austria and Germany); not really in Rome. Basically had a lot of spread-out land - Empire was very feudal w/ lots of local lords = weak central power = many city-states - Rise of powerful Hapsburg family of Austria that controlled the territory, along with emperor, within Holy Roman Empire, Spain, & Italy via intermarriage - Religion: Northern Germany was a collection of city-states & went Lutheran during Protestant Reformation, while Southern areas of Holy Roman Empire, Spain, & France stayed catholic Thirty Years' War - Devastated region & weakened role of Holy Roman Empire --> led to rise of 100s of nation states in region during 1800s - In 1555, the Peace of Augsburg was created & was intended to bring to an end the conflict btwn Catholics & Protestants during Reformation & Counter-Ref. However, peace didn't last - Cause of War: began when Protestants under the rule of Catholic Hapsburg clan challenged authority of Holy Roman Catholic emperor --> developed into huge religious & political war - Powers who fought: Grew into a war btwn major European powers: France (under Cardinal Richelieu, who helped Huguenots attack Holy Roman Empire to end it so France could be more powerful), Denmark, & Sweden. - Location of War: However, fighting stayed within German empire = left depopulated & devastating after 30 yrs of fighting - When the Peace of Westphalia was negotiated in 1648, the independence of small German city-states was affirmed, w Prussia being the strongest of them all Results of Thirty Years' War - Holy Roman Empire left very weak w its territories reduced & its emperor, along w the Hapsburg family, less powerful --> barely survived until 1806 - Biggest beneficiary of Thirty Years' War: France, as it became the most powerful European country during 1600s under Louis XIV (although weakened in 1700s after country overspent + War of Spanish Succession) - Another beneficiary: Prussia also benefitted & eventually rose to dominate the German territories & unified them into the powerful country of Germany Things that occurred during this time period: 1. Holy Roman Empire lost parts of Hungary to Ottoman Turks in 1500s 2. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) 3. By the 1700s, Northern German city-states, esp Prussia, were gaining momentum & power

Enlightenment writers: 1450-1750 - Hobbes - Locke

Politics & the development of social & political philosophy connected Hobbes: published Leviathan in 1651 in response to English Civil War (when Charles I was beheaded) --> violent view of human nature w/ necessity for all-powerful ruler to maintain peace Locke: wrote during Glorious Revolution & English Bill of Rights (Replacement of James II for being openly Catholic with Protestant William & Mary) --> viewed James II as having violated the social contract, which is why he was driven away by Parliament

Medici Family

Ruled Florence during the Renaissance, became wealthy from banking, spent a lot of money on art, controlled Florence for about 3 centuries

Prince Henry the Navigator

Sent others to explore for him, made very first explorer school, first person to value exploring Part of the Portuguese royal family that supported exploration (King John's son)

European Commercial Revolution: 1450-1750 - Background: what allowed it to occur? - Joint-Stock Company: definition, how it works, gaining popularity - Involvement in trade & expansion: info, examples - Mercantilism: def, method 1 & its benefits, method 2 & its result - 3 results of the Commercial Revolution

Background - What allowed it to occur? Church gave into state interests by revising its strict ban on loans & loan interests - As a result, a new business structure emerged: the joint-stock company Joint-Stock Company - Def: an organization created to pool the resources of many merchants, thereby distributing the costs & risks for individual investors - How it works: Investors bought shares (or stock) in the company. If the company made money (ex. successful voyage), each investor would receive a profit proportional to their initial investment. - Gaining popularity: investors drawn in as a result of the emerging middle class. Involvement in trade & expansion - These corporations later secured royal charters for colonies or monopolies to trade routes - Examples: Jamestown colony in Virginia funded, Dutch East India Company controlled routes to Spice Islands/Indonesia Mercantilism - Def: a country actively seeking to trade but not to import more than they export (trade deficits forced dependancies on other countries = weak) - Method 1: Bc one country's surplus had to be met w/ another's deficit, European countries were feverish to colonize. Benefits: colonies gave mother country raw resources (not considered imports bc they owned them) while creating new markets for exports - Method 2: Monarchies also promoted domestic industry by placing tariffs on imports from competing empires in both motherland and colonies. Result: revolts in colonies (bc they lost their resources & were forced to pay for products from Europe) 3 results of the Commercial Revolution 1. The Commercial Revolution & its financing schemes were what made the Age of Exploration possible 2. Governments began to lose their grips on controlling their own economies as the economic prosperity & risk diffused among many people 3. Modern-day stock market under way

African Slave Trade: 1450-1750 - Background info: preexisting slavery system in Africa - Slave trade: role of African rulers, Middle Passage

Background info - Preexisting slavery system in Africa: Europeans exploited the system of slavery that already existed in Africa (which required prisoners of war to serve their captors until eventual release) & chose to ignore the custom of eventual release - When the New World plantations & mines demanded more labor, a forced migration of Africans began Slave trade - Role of African rulers: African rulers faced w/ choice of cooperating w/ the Europeans of seeing their ppl get seized or slaughtered thru kidnapping & civil wars that the Europeans purposefully plotted - Middle Passage to the Americas began (13 mil Africans: 60% to South America, 35% to Caribbean, 5% to North America)

European Exploration and Expansion: 1450-1750 - Background info - Portugal: why it led the way in establishing new trade routes, Vasco de Gama - Spain: discovering the New World - Treaty of Tordesillas - Rest of Europe: info, the impact of colonialism & the expansion of trade routes

Background info - Ships had been used for trade but were bound to Muslim routes - A desire to find new & efficient marine trade routes was caused by the formation of the Hanseatic League & Crusades, as well as the desire to eliminate the Muslim middlemen - The Portuguese & Spanish (Europeans) set to sea & soon controlled major shipping routes in the Indian & Atlantic Oceans Portugal - Why it led the way in establishing new trade routes: was located near the coast of Africa, had long-standing relations w/ Muslim nations, & was led by a royal family that supported exploration - Vasco de Gama: rounded the Cape of Good Hope (tip of Africa) in 1497 & explored East African kingdoms & went to India where he established trade relations Spain - Discovering the New World: In 1492, Christopher Columbus wanted in on the action & convinced Isabella & Ferdinand, who'd recently unified the country, to finance his voyage to China & India. - During the journey, he thought the Earth was smaller & accidentally found Cuba & the West Indies, thinking he'd reached Asia Treaty of Tordesillas - Created btwn Spain and Portugal to resolve fight for land in the Americas - Established a line of demarcation on a N->S line running through the Atlantic Ocean (refer to picture) - Everything east was Portugal's, everything west was Spain's - Western side was enormous (to their surprise), so Spain became a mega power quickly Rest of Europe - Soon, England, the Netherlands, and France launched their own expeditions & rapidly acquired colonies (some created to protect merchants' trade routes) - Impact of colonialism & the expansion of trade routes: contributed to the rise in nationalism & the development of strong monarchies

European Scientific Revolution: 1450-1750 - Background info - The Copernican Revolution (quick overview) - The Scientific Method (quick overview)

Background info As Europe changed dramatically bc of the Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, and the growth of universities, educated Europeans began to examine the world with new vigor The Copernican Revolution The realization, toward the end of the sixteenth century, that Earth is not at the center of the universe. The Scientific Method Method used since 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.

Developments in England: 1450-1750 - Background info: King Henry VIII: role during Protestant Reformation - Elizabethan Age (1558-1603): Golden Age, economy, travel, art - James I (1607-1625): before his reign, during his reign - Charles I (1625-1649): Petition of Right, Long Parliament, Cavaliers, English Civil War, Oliver Cromwell - Oliver Cromwell (1649-1658): English Commonwealth, reign - Stuart Restoration (1660-1688): Habeas Corpus Act - James II (1685-1688): his info, Glorious Revolution, English Bill of Rights, Glorious Revolution impact

Background info: King Henry VIII - During Protestant Reformation, King Henry VIII nullified pope's authority in England & established himself head of a new Church of England (under 1534 Act of Supremacy) - Did this so he could divorce his wife & have a heir; however, he got another daughter, Elizabeth I, who oversaw the Elizabethan Age Elizabethan Age (1558-1603) - Golden Age: Commercial expansion & colonization in New World; destroyed Spanish Armada - Economy: Muscovy Company founded as 1st joint-stock company; British East India Company quickly followed suit - Travel: Drake circumnavigated the globe, 1st English colonists settled in Roanoke - Art: Shakespeare wrote his masterpieces James I (1607-1625) - Before his reign: Church of England battled Catholics; Protestants (including Puritans) regularly persecuted during Protestant Reformation - During his reign: When James I came into power in 1607 after Elizabeth's death, he attempted to accommodate Catholics & Puritans, but Puritans didn't recognize his power -> they crossed the Atlantic & established the Plymouth colony (Jamestown) Charles I (1625-1649) - James' son; desperate for money from Parliament, he agreed to sign the Petition of Right (limited taxes & unlawful imprisonment). However, he ignored the petition after securing funds, called divine right, & ruled w/out calling Parliament for 11 years - After England was invaded by Scotland, he was forced to call Parliament into session, which would be led by Puritans & called Long Parliament (sat for 20 yrs from 1640-1660) - Long Parliament limited the absolute powers of monarchy, & after they denied Charles' request for $ to fight Irish rebellion, he led troops to arrest the members (army called Cavaliers) - English Civil War sparked; Parliament raised army called Roundheads to fight Charles I under leadership of Oliver Cromwell - King tried & executed Oliver Cromwell (1649-1658) - Cromwell became leader of English Commonwealth (Period in English history where the nation had no monarch; began w/ execution of Charles I and ended w/ restoration of Charles II (Stuart Restoration)) - Reign: Ruled w/ religious intolerance & violence against Catholics & Irish. Encouraged Protestants to settle in Northern Ireland (caused many problems in the future) Stuart Restoration (1660-1688); Charles II - Restored monarchy after Cromwell died - Charles II, exiled son of beheaded Charles I, invited to take throne (was a closeted Catholic & acknowledged ppl's rights) - Agreed to the Habeas Corpus Act (protects ppl from arrests w/out due process) James II (1685-1688) - Charles' II brother who took over after his death; unpopular, openly Catholic, & believed in divine right - Glorious Revolution (1688): James II driven from power by Parliament (feared he'd make England Catholic); replaced by son-in-law & daughter, William & Mary (Protestants from Netherlands) - William & Mary immediately signed English Bill of Rights (outlined civil rights; gave Parliament power over monarchy) - Glorious Revolution impact: ensured that England's future monarchs would be Anglican (Church of England) & w/ limited powers

Developments in Russia: 1450-1750 - Background info: Third Rome - Overthrowing Mongols - Ivan IV: Expansion of Land - Time of Troubles: info, Michael Romanov - Michael Romanov - Peter the Great - Catherine the Great

Background info: Third Rome - When Turks conquered Constantinople & the Byzantine Empire fell, the center of Orthodox Christianity moved to Moscow (called "Third Rome", after Rome itself & then Constantinople) Overthrowing Mongols - At around the same time, Roman leaders were overthrowing Mongols - In 1480, Ivan III ("The Great") refused to pay tribute to Mongols & declared Russia free of Mongol rule - Later, his grandson Ivan IV ("The Terrible") established absolute of Russia, unified it, & expanded - Ivan IV ruled w/ such cruelty that he regularly executed anyone he perceived to be a threat to his power, incl his own son Ivan IV: Expansion of Land - Recruited peasants & offered them freedom from their feudal lords if they agreed to conquer & settle in new lands to the east - These peasant-soldiers, known as Cossacks, expanded Russian territory from 1500s-1700s Time of Troubles - After death of Ivan IV in 1584 & w no strong heir to take the throne, feudal lords battled over who should rule the empire - From 1604-1613 (Time of Troubles), one pretender to the throne would be killed by another pretender & so forth - Madness subsided in 1613 when Michael Romanov elected czar by the feudal lords Michael Romanov - Romanov Dynasty added stability to the empire & ruled until 1917 - The Romanovs ruled ruthlessly & the Cossacks were practically slaves. W/ the help of the Cossacks, Russian territory expanded from the Ukrainian region (west) to the Pacific Ocean (east) Peter the Great - Ruled from 1682-1725; Westernized Russia by building a navy & founding St. Petersburg as his capital (Moscow has been Russia's capital since 1400s, except for btwn 1715-1918 when capital was transferred) - Recruited Western European engineers, scientists, architects, & artists who resided in St. Petersburg - Noble women forced to dress in Western fashions, men forced to shave beards - Hard labor done to build new city accomplished by Cossacks-turned-slaves Catherine the Great - Ruled from 1762-1796; more enlightened Western policies implemented - However, Russia suffered from her fiercely-enforced, repressive serfdom, which limited the growth of the merchant/middle class - Aggressive Westward expansion, gaining Poland & territory on Black Sea gave access to Med. sea --> engagement w/ rest of the world thru this physical access (turned into cultural access thru trading, etc)

Developments in Islamic Gunpowder Empires: 1450-1750 - Before 1450: Islamic Empire, Byzantine Empire (Constantinople), Osman Bey, Ottomans - Ottoman Empire: Overview: territory, religion, overal contributions - Ottoman Empire: Selim I - Ottoman Empire: Suleiman I - Mughal Empire: Overview: founding, dominance - Mughal Empire: Akbar: who was he?, policy changes, golden age - Mughal Empire: After Akbar: 2 developments that forever changed India - The Safavids: relationship w/ Ottomans

Before 1450 - Islamic Empire: territories overrun by Mongols in 1200s (end of Abbasid Dynasty) - Byzantine Empire (Constantinople) controlled most of Turkey & influenced SE Europe & Russia - As Mongol Empire fell (which had conquered Islamic Empire & Russia + more), Osman Bey founded the Muslim Ottoman Empire in Anatolia (E part of Turkey) to challenge the Byzantine Empire (which, again, controlled most of Turkey) - Ottomans grew in power & came to dominate modern-day Turkey. Eventually ended Byzantine Empire in 1450 by attacking Constantinople Ottoman Empire: Overview - Territory: Made Constantinople capital city after taking over & renamed it Istanbul. Within 100 years, Ottoman empire conquered the remainder of Byzantine empire (Greece to Persia, Egypt, N Africa) - Religion: while they converted cathedrals into mosques, Christians & Jews were still allowed to practice their religions (more tolerant than other regimes of the era) --> religious persecution still happened w Selim I & Janissaries - Overall contributions: Empire would last until 1922 & expanded the reach of Islam while dominating in Western Europe & exploring the ocean (which allowed them to trade directly w Asia & Americas) Ottoman Empire: Selim I - Came into power in 1512 & claimed he was the heir to Islamic tradition --> Istanbul became center of Islamic civilization - As empire grew, so did religious persecution; to conquer large territories, Ottomans enslaved Christian children & turned them into fighting warriors, known as Janissaries Ottoman Empire: Suleiman I - Rose to power in 1520; Ottoman empire experienced a golden age under him bc he built up the Ottoman military & encouraged the development of arts - Took advantage of the weakening (bc of Protestant Reformation) of the Holy Roman Empire (who were Catholic) by laying siege to Vienna (significant European cultural center; part of Austria) - Tried to take the rest of Austria but failed Mughal Empire: Overview - Founding: Established by Babur in 1526, who was Muslim & claimed to be descended from Genghis Khan --> invaded North India & defeated the Delhi Sultanate (also Muslim) - Empire dominated Indian subcontinent for next 300 yrs - Within 150 yrs, empire able to unite almost all of India, most of it done by Akbar (Babur's grandson) via religious toleration Mughal Empire: Akbar - Who was he? Babur's grandson who ruled from 1556-1605; governed w/ religious toleration & allowed Hinduism & Islam to be practiced openly. Married a Hindu woman & welcomed Hindus into gov positions - Policy changes: Eliminated the jizya (head tax on Hindus) & tried to improve the position of women by attempting to eliminate satis (practice in which high-caste Hindu women would throw themselves onto their husband's funeral pyres) - Golden age:u For 100 years, Hindus & Muslims lived side-by-side, resulting in a golden age of art, architecture, & thought. Taj Mahal built under Akbar's grandson Mughal Empire: After Akbar - 2 developments forever changed India: 1. Religious toleration ended: new emperor, Aurangzeb, enacted pro-muslim policies, waged wars for conquer rest of India, reinstated jizya, & destroyed Hindu temples 2. Arrival of Europeans: Portuguese established trade in city of Goa & Brutish dominated trade in Bombay region & founded city of Calcutta as trading outpost. Mughal emperors annoyed w/ the Europeans, but allowed the trade to continue bc perceived them as harmless. Unbeknownst to them, the British would take over just a century later under Queen Victoria The Safavids - Rivals of the Ottoman Empire; located btwn the Ottomans (West) & the Mughals (SE) in what's now modern-day Iran - Centralized state based on military conquest. - Shia Islam religion (which introduced divide in Islamic empire) - Relationship w Ottomans: Its location btwn the Muslim states, alliances w European nations against the Ottomans, & the continuation of the rift btwn Sunni & Shia sects led to bad relationships

Neoclassical Period

Began in the middle of the eighteenth century and imitated the balanced, symmetrical style of ancient Greek and Roman architecture.

Mercantilist

Belief in the benefits of profitable trading; commercialism.

Predestination

Calvin's religious theory that God has already planned out a person's life.

Dutch East India Company

Government-chartered joint-stock company established in the Netherlands that controlled the spice trade in the East Indies & expanded its trade in Asia

Michaelangelo

Italian Renaissance artist who sculpted the Pieta and the David, and painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel Applied humanistic ideals

Donatello

(1386-1466) Renaissance sculptor. Probably exerted greatest influence of any Florentine artist before Michelangelo. His statues applied humanistic ideals

John Calvin

1509-1564. French theologian. Developed the Christian theology known as Calvinism. Attracted Protestant followers with his teachings. Preached the ideology of predestination (said God had predetermined everyone's destiny, w/ most of ppl being damned. Only a few, known a the Elect, would be saved)

Edict of Nantes

1598 - Granted the Huguenots religious freedom (issued by Henry IV/1st of the Bourbon Kings) After Catholics & Huguenots (French Protestants) in France fought for decades Was revoked by Louis XIV (who ruled with Divine Right)

Renaissance art

3D, responded to light/shading, religious and everyday situations, active and looked real

The Columbian Exchange: 1450-1750 - What was the Columbian Exchange? - 2 key products

What was the Columbian Exchange? - 1 consequence of Spanish & Portuguese empires in New World was the Columbian Exchange (the transatlantic transfer of animals, crops, diseases, & ideas among Europe, the Americas, & Africa) - Europe & Africa --> Americas: horses, pigs, chili peppers, sugarcane, Bubonic Plague, smallpox, influenza, Catholicism, slaves - Americas --> Europe & Africa: corn, beans, squash, potatoes, syphilis - European populations grew & rural areas developed w/ the introduction of new crops 2 Key Products - Sugarcane: production led to the development of plantations throughout the Spanish colonies & created a need for more slaves - Silver: Spanish monopoly on world's silver market created once they took over the mines in Mexico & the Andes Mountains. Opened relationships w/ Asia (for their new silver currency) - Both resulted in an encomienda; native labor eventually shifted to African slaves

Major European developments: 1450-1750 - The 4 developments - Their 2 effects

1. The Renaissance 2. The Protestant Reformation 3. The Scientific Revolution 4. The Enlightenment In just a few hundred years, Europe became home to some of the most dominant civilizations in the world Populations swelled as the middle-class grew

Purgatory

A place of temporary punishment and of purification that takes place after death for those who need to be made clean and holy before meeting the all-holy God in Heaven.

Recant

(v.) To withdraw a statement or belief to which one has previously been committed, renounce, retract

Ancient Innovations that Fueled the Age of Exploration: 1450-1750 - Sternpost Rudder - Lateen Sails - The Astrolabe - The Magnetic Compass - Three-Masted Caravels

*Many of these inventions existed before the 1400s; however, it was then when they all converged in Europe & were able to be taken advantage of by the race of innovation *A lot of history is about timing! The Sternpost Rudder: invented in China during the Han Dynasty (before 1200s Song); allowed for better navigation & control of ships of increased size Lateen Sails: invented during early Roman Empire; allowed ships to sail in any direction, regardless of the wind The Astrolabe: portable navigation device that measured the distance of the sun & stars above the horizon & helped determine latitude The Magnetic Compass: developed in Han Dynasty China (before 1200s Song) & traveled west through trade w/ Arabs; allowed sailors to determine direction Three-Masted Caravels: large ships that employed significantly larger lateen sails & could hold provisions for longer journeys

Protestant

A member or follower of any of the Western Christian churches that are separate from the Roman Catholic Church and follow the principles of the Reformation, including the Baptist, Presbyterian, and Lutheran churches.

Scholasticism

A philosophical and theological system, associated with Thomas Aquinas, devised to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy and Roman Catholic theology in the thirteenth century.

Leonardo da Vinci

A well known Italian Renaissance artist, architect, musician, mathematician, engineer, and scientist. Known for the Mona Lisa. Applied humanistic ideals

Conquering the New World: 1450-1750 - Hernando Cortés - Francisco Pizarro - Expansion in the Americas vs. Elsewhere

Although Columbus failed to locate gold or spices in the Americas, the next generation of Spanish explorers found great wealth in the Aztec & Inca Empires Hernando Cortés - Found the Aztec Empire in 1519 & teamed up w/ their neighbors (who loathed the Aztecs & their conquering of communities for religious sacrifice) to take over the empire - Was approached by Montezuma, the Aztec ruler, who sent a gift of gold which only fueled the Spaniards' appetite - Because their motivation for exploring the New World was to acquire gold & spices, they didn't hesitate to seize Tenochtitlan - W/ their powerful weapons, disease, & hep from Aztec enemies, they reduced the population from 20 mil in 1520 to 2 mil in 1580 Francisco Pizarro - Landed in the Inca Empire shortly after a civil war that had left them unstable - Disease, superior weapons, & help from Inca enemies quickly allowed Pizarro to take control of the region Expansion in the Americas vs. Elsewhere - Other empires (the Romans, Mongols, Muslims, etc.) allowed conquered areas to either keep their culture/traditions or forced them to convert - On the other hand, in the Americas, the existing populations were largely wiped out & replaced, with Spain/Portugal building the continents in their own imafe

European Explorers in the 1500s - Amerigo Vespucci - Ponce de Leon - Vasco de Balboa - Giovanni de Verrazano - Ferdinand Magellan - Sir Francis Drake - John Cabot - Henry Hudson

Amerigo Vespucci: (Italy) explored S America several times around 1500 & realized that the continent was huge & not part of Asia; America named after him Ponce de Leon: (Spain) In 1513, he explored Florida as part of Spain's search of the fountain of youth Vasco de Balboa: (Spain) In 1513, explored much of Central America; laid sight on the Pacific Ocean Giovanni de Verrazano: (France) In 1524, he explored the N American coast Ferdinand Magellan: (Portugal) In 1519, he sailed around the tip of South America to the Pacific Ocean. Made it as far as the Philippines, where he died. His crew continued & became the 1st to circumnavigate the globe Sir Francis Drake: (England) In 1578, he became the 1st Englishman to circumnavigate the globe John Cabot: (England) In 1497, he explored the coast of N America Henry Hudson: (Dutch) Looked for a Northwest Passage to Asia beginning in 1609. Explored the Hudson River & made claims to it

The European Counter-Reformation: 1450-1750 - Background info, flexible & inflexible reforms - Effort 1: Jesuits + effects - Effort 2: Council of Trent - Result of Counter-Reformation Efforts

Background Info - During the Catholic Reformation/Counter-Reformation (1500s), the Catholic Church reformed & won back some lost followers due to the Protestant denominations - Flexible reforms: led by Spain (a dedicated Catholic country); banned indulgences & trained its priests to adhere to Catholic teaching more strictly - Inflexible reforms: weekly mass became obligatory, supreme authority of Pope reestablished - However, made it clear that they were just clarifying their position, not bowing to Protestant demands Effort 1: Jesuits - During this time, a Spaniard named Ignatius Loyola founded the society of the Jesuits - Teaching and missionary order to resist the spread of Protestantism. - Effects: influential in restoring faith in the teachings of Jesus as interpreted by the Catholic Church - Many appointed to high palace positions for their political skills Effort 2: Council of Trent - Def: series of meetings held by church officials to direct the Counter-Reformation from 1543-1563 - Dictated & defined the Catholic interpretation of religious doctrine - Clarified the Catholic Church's position on important religious questions like salvation - Heretics once again punished - Latin re-established as language for worship (despite Luther's efforts) Result of Counter-Reformation Efforts - Church staged amazing comeback & prevented southward spread of Protestantism (so Southern Europe stayed very Catholic)

European Reading and Literacy: 1450-1750 - Background info, inventor of printing press - Effects of Printing Press - Renaissance Authors/Playwrights: Machiavelli, Erasmus, Sir Thomas more, Shakespeare

Background Info - While printing was developed during the Song dynasty in China, Europe got its 1st moveable type in the mid 1400s when Gutenberg invented the printing press Effects of Printing Press - Books easy to produce & became more affordable - Book industry & related industries flourished - The growing middle class fueled demand for books on a variety of subjects in their own vernacular (native language) - Reading became a casual endeavor & entertainment --> led to literature that focused on the daily lives of ppl & humanized traditional institutions Renaissance Authors/Playwrights Machiavelli - Published The Prince, one of the first books; was a how-to book for monarchs who wanted to retain power by acting out of self-interest - Now, "machveiallian" has a negative connotation & implies a ruler who's ruthlessly selfish & manipulative Erasmus - One of the most well-learned ppl of his time; counseled kings & popes - Wrote In Praise of Folly, which satirized foolish political movements Sir Thomas More - Wrote Utopia, which describes an ideal society William Shakespeare - His writing illustrated the era's obsession with the politics & mythology of ancient civilization, specifically Greek & Roman

European Renaissance: 1450-1750 - Background info - Humanism: focus during Middle Ages, how it shifted, what it shifted to, humanism and its impact

Background info - After the Black Death, Europe's population began to grow & the demand for goods & services grew rapidly - Urbanization, emergence of middle-class, bankers/traders (due to increase in global trade) - Experienced influx of money Humanism - During Middle Ages: thoughts of salvation and afterlife dominated personal priorities so much that many ppl believed life on Earth was something to be suffered on the way to heaven, rather than an experience of its own - As Europeans rediscovered literature & philosophy (because of their obsession with ancient Greek & Roman civilization), they realized that humanity (personal accomplishment & happiness) was just as important - Emphasis began to shift from fulfillment in the afterlife to participating in the here-and-now & celebrating human accomplishments - Humanism: the shift in focus on human endeavors. Impact: focus on present-day life led to focus on individuals, which led to a reduction in the authority of institutions + a boom in creativity

Martin Luther: 1450-1750 - Background info - Two of his claims - Response from the Church - Impact (3)

Background info - In 1517, he, a German monk, hung up 95 lists outlining his frustrations w/ current church practices, including indulgences - Unnerved by the Vatican getting a Renaissance makeover that was clearly paid for with churchgoer money Two of his claims 1. Salvation was given directly by God through grace, not through the authorization of the Church (indulgences) 2. Church services should be conducted in the local language of the people, not in Latin only --> resulted in him translating the Bible into German Response from the Church - Pope Leo X outraged & ordered Luther to recant, who refused & was excommunicated. Later, when he was allowed to address church leaders & princes at an assembly, he refused to abandon his convictions & was almost arrested - Continued to write & spread his ideas, which was speeded up by the printing press Impact 1. Reduced the role of the Church & marginalized it to an aid for salvation, not the grantor 2. Creation of Lutherans, which fueled the split in Christianity 3. Made it acceptable to question the wisdom of the Church by challenging the pope (said ppl didn't need church or priests to interact w/ God; only needed Bible)

Developments in Africa: 1450-1750 - Background info: trend of increasing power - Songhai Empire (1460-1591): economy, Sunni Ali, downfall - Ashanti Empire (1670-1902) - Kongo (1390-1914): economy, religion, downfall - Angola: economy, downfall

Background info - In 900s, strong centralized states developed in S & W Africa due to trade. - Trend of increasing power continued w/ the transatlantic slave trade & establishment of powerful kingdoms (ex. Songhai Empire) Songhai Empire (1460-1591) - Replaced Mali empire - Economy: Islamic state w economic ties to the broader Muslim world through trans-Saharan salt & gold trade - Empire built on conquests & military force - Sunni Ali (ruled 1464-1493): consolidated empire in Niger River valley using an imperial navy & financed the city of Timbuktu as a major Islamic center - Downfall: Songhai Empire fell to Moroccans w/ muskets Ashanti Empire (1670-1902) - Rose in 1670, wealthy from gold trade - Highly organized military = prepared to face invasions & also expanded territory Kongo (1390-1914) - Centralized kingdom on Western coast of Africa - Economy: Traded heavily w/ Portuguese, who established close relations w/ Kongo kings - Religion: Kongo kings converted to Catholicism; King Alfonso I particularly successful at converting ppl - Downfall: Over long term, Portuguese desire for slaves undermined the authority of the Kongo kings --> hostilities & wars; kingdom eventually destroyed Angola - Economy: Portuguese established a trading post in Angola in 1575 to expand their slave trade from the interior - As a result, Angola became very powerful & resisted Portuguese authority & control - Downfall: For 40 yrs, Queen Nzinga led her troops into battle, studied European military tactics, & made alliances w/ Portugals Dutch rivals. In the end, still fell to Portuguese

Developments in Japan: 1450-1750 - Centralization of Power & Westernization (1500s) - Edo Period (1600-1868): its importance, Tokugawa Ieyasu (shogun), [4 things that were done under him]: governmental power, land power, social system, religion, international relations - Culture

Centralization of Power & Westernization (1500s) - Shoguns continued to rule while the emperor remained a figurehead - Feudalism began to wane & centralized power emerged (Shogun consolidated power away from emperor at the expense of feudal lords) - ^Coincided w/ Japanese exposure to Portuguese (1542): established trade, introduced Christian missionaries, & took control of port city Nagasaki (trade flourished) Edo Period (1600-1868) - Importance: Marked reversal in attitudes toward Western influences; Westernization trend from 1500s changed dramatically - Tokugawa Ieyasu (shogun) established the Tokugawa Shogunate: a strict & rigid Japanese gov that ruled until 1868 1. Governmental power: Tokugawa further consolidated power away from emperor at the expense of feudal lords 2. Land power: Tokugawa claimed personal ownership to all Japanese land 3. Social system: Enacted rigid social class model, similar to the caste system: 4 classes (warrior, farmer, artisan, & merchant) established & movement btwn the 2 forbidded 4. Religion: Christians persecuted within 20 yrs of Edo period establishment 4. International relations: National Seclusion Policy: established in 1635; prohibited Japanese from traveling abroad & foreigners to visit (except select few). Also, Tokugawa worried abt being conquered by Europeans, so he executed every Portuguese diplomat who tried to negotiate Culture - Absence of foreign influences allowed culture to undergo its own renaissance (strictly for domestic consumption, unlike Europe's) - Buddhism & Shintoism remained center of culture - Kabuki theatre & haiku became popular

Interactions w/ Europe: 1450-1750 - China & Japan - Africa - Americas - Middle East (Ottoman Empire, Arabia)

China & Japan: highly organized & closed off, so weren't influenced by Western culture Africa: harder to fend off Europeans bc societies were fragmented & no centralized power existed. Also, Europeans weren't initially obsessed w/ penetrating the entire continent, & were content w/ just trading goods & abducting slaves to achieve their individual goals Americas: civilizations quickly overwhelmed by European tech & disease Middle East (Ottoman Empire, Arabia): Europeans not as dependent on land trade as they were w maritime trade w/ India & China + unsuccessful Crusades = interaction limited & conquest of the region not even considered

Divine Right vs. Mandate of Heaven

Divine Right vs. Mandate of Heaven - Mandate of Heaven: emperors believed they were divinely chosen but would only be given authority to rule as long as they pleased heaven. If they didn't, they would fall. Upheld so long as rulers acted justly - Divine Right: used to justify absolute rule w/out any corresponding religious responsibilities; monarchies saw themselves as God's personal reps. Also promoted intermarriage among royalty to maintain this divine right. Privilege without qualification

European Protestant Reformation: 1450-1750 - Church's power - Corruption: details, anger, impact - Impact of Reformation

Church's Power - United Western Europe - Pope had considerable power bc royalty knew their power would increase if the Church blessed their reign - With such widely accepted credentials, the Church had undisputed authority on all things otherworldly (heaven/God) & the ultimate endorsement on all things worldly Corruption - Sold indulgences (pieces of paper to buy and use to reduce time in purgatory) to finance its immense building projects & pay its Renaissance artists - Anger: landowning nobles especially resentful, as Church had exploited a lot of their resources. Peasant class also mad bc couldn't afford indulgences - Impact: resentment & mistrust fueled anti-church semantics & set the stage for confrontation Impact of Reformation - As Europeans began to question the world around them (w/ more books being printed) & the authority of the Church, revolutions in education, politics, & science were made

Global Technology & Innovations: 1450-1750 - Europe: how did it become a powerful force?, its effect on the world - Effects of religion (2) - The seeking of risk/stability in Europe, China/Japan, & Muslims

Europe - How did it become a powerful force? Bc of its willingness to adapt & take advantage of 3 key innovations: gunpowder, navigation & ship technology, & the printing press - Its effect on the world: With their superior weapons & larger trading ships, Europe transformed the interactions of the world w/ its trading empires & transportation of ppl, crops, & animals. Increased contact led to spread of ideas & religion Effects of Religion - Establishment of new Protestant Churches in N Europe increased the power of kings & nation states @ the expense of the Catholic Church (bc they couldn't limit & take advantage of them anymore). - Also led to increased migration to New World The seeking of risk/stability in Europe, China/Japan, & Muslims - Competition among Europeans resulted in big risks & innovations. - China & Japan returned to more traditional lifestyles to maintain stability - Muslims, w/ powerful land-based empires, didn't feel the need to take to the seas or radically shake up social orders

Van Eyck Brothers

Flemish painters who applied great attention to the details in their work, particularly in their capturing of human facial expressions. Their altarpiece for a church in Ghent captures the expressions of Adam and Eve in a way that is more realistic than the symbolic depiction of the Middle Ages artists.

Brunelleschi

Florentine architect who was the first great architect of the Italian Renaissance (1377-1446)

Russia vs. Western Europe: 1450-1750 - Government/authority - Growth (physical & intellectual) - (1400s-1600s) Russian history progressed on very different path - Russian engagement w/ Western Europe

Government/authority - Despite centralization of authority under Ivans, Russia still very feudal w/ powerful local lords - Europe more centralized under kingdoms Growth - W Europe went through the Renaissance, expanded influence in Americas, & went thru intellectual movements - Russia remained isolated & pushed eastward (growth territorial, not intellectual or artistic) (1400s-1600s) Russian history progressed on very different path - Not part of Renaissance, as under Mongol control at the time - Not part of Reformation bc not part of Catholic Church Russian engagement w/ Western Europe - However, in the late 1600s, Peter & Catherine positioned Russia for engagement w/ the rest of the world (particularly the West) - Gained physical access to W by the Baltic & Black Seas, gained cultural access by actively seeking - Unlike China & Japan, which avoided the W during the same time

1534 Act of Supremacy

Henry VIII passed the act of supremacy, which made the king the head of the church. Created the Anglican church. All people were forced to accept this doctrine and worship the new religion.

The Encomienda System: 1450-1750 - Hierarchy (6 levels) - How the system ran - Change in labor pool

Hierarchy - The Spanish colonial societies established in the New World were organized in hierarchies (from highest to lowest): 1. Peninsulares: select group of Spanish officials (sent to govern the colonies; upperclass Spaniards born in Spain) 2. Creoles: ppl born in the colonies to Spanish parents; looked down upon & were banned from high positions. Eventually became leaders of independence movements & demanded recognition 3. Mestizos: those w/ Spanish & Native American ancestry 4. Mulattos: those w/ Spanish & African ancestry 5. Native Americans: workers w/ little to no freedom 6. Slaves: brought from Africa & Carribbean How the system ran - System of forced labor was established by viceroys (appointed governors of each of the 5 regions of New Spain; officers who ruled in name of king) - System provided the peninsulares with land & native laborers. In return, they protected & converted the natives to Christianity Change in labor pool - Christian missionaries were shocked by the treatment of the natives & appealed to the viceroys, emperor, & Catholic Church to improve their conditions --> disastrously interpreted as a need for more workers for the toughest job (as native populations also diminishing) - These workers ended up being African slaves - Both slaves & natives were @ the bottom of the hierarchy & didn't have rights

The Elect

In Calvinist doctrine, those who have been chosen by God for salvation.

India, China, & Japan on European aggression: 1450-1750

India most open, but eventually overrun China somewhat open & partially overrun Japan closed off & became a colonizing empire itself

European Art in the Middle Ages vs the Renaissance - Medieval - Renaissance: compare to Medieval, what did da Vinci and Donatello do?

Medieval: - Humans depicted as flat, stiff, & out of proportion - Almost all religious - Existed mostly in cathedrals - Artists didn't sign names Renaissance: - Realism; application of humanistic ideals. - Painters & sculptors like da Vinci & Donatello depicted humans as realistically as possible. Use of linear perspective advanced realism - Both religious & non-religious; commissioned by both religious & secular leaders - Existed in public plazas & in homes - Artists signed work & competed in competitive marketplace

Developments in China: 1450-1750 - Ming Dynasty (1368-1644): established, government, exploration, currency, social system, architectural advancements, decline (3 causes) - Qing/Manchu Dynasty: Qing people, civil service exams, emperor policies, international interactions, trade

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) - Established: after Mongols were booted out & Chinese power was restored. - Government: Built strong, centralized gov based on traditional Confucian principles & reinstating the civil service exam - Exploration: In early 1400s, huge fleets were built. Zheng He, a Chinese navigator, led fleets through Asia & Africa b4 the Europeans had done so. Had China continued to explore & trade, they might've become the dominating power. However, they stopped & Chinese society turned inwards - Currency: Ming gov tried to prop up its failing economy by switching from easily-counterfeited paper money to silver currency --> established trade relations w/ the Spanish w/ the discovery of American silver sources. Although this fueled a period of commercial expansion, the silver ended up flooding the Chinese market, causing inflation - Social system: rigid, rural-based system was attempted in order to support large army - Architectural advancements: Forbidden City constructed, Grand Canal constructed - Decline (3 causes): 1. Europeans & pirates raided port cities, 2. famines crippled the economy & peasant revolts erupted, 3. Qing warriors from Manchuria invited to stop peasant uprising, but instead took over the empire & begin the Qing/Manchu Dynasty (ruled until 1911) Qing/Manchu Dynasty - Qing people: from Manchuria & therefore not ethnically Chinese; attempted to remain ethnically elite by forbidding Chinese to learn their language or intermarry - However, they were only 3% of the population & needed Chinese to help run country --> civil service exams gained new status & gave lower class the opportunities to rise to positions of power (looking for best of brightest) - Emperor policies: were Confucian scholars & supported the arts & expanded the empire (added Mongolia, Tibet, Vietnam, Burma, & Nepal) - International interactions: stayed focused on China & didn't aspire to conquer the rest of the world. Did give trading rights to few European countries, but very careful & expelled their influences when feeling threatened (banned Christianity & restricted trade to 1 city) - Trade: although restricted to 1 city to reduce foreign influence, it was still substantial = merchants received lots of silver = new rising class of Chinese merchants

Vernacular

Native language of a region

European Scientific Revolution: The Copernican Revolution: 1450-1750 - Nicolaus Copernicus: contributions, gaining traction - Galileo: contributions, Catholic Church

Nicolaus Copernicus - Contributions: Developed a mathematical theory that asserted that the Earth & other celestial bodies revolved around the Sun, & that the Earth rotated on its axis daily --> brought about much debate - Gaining traction: In 1543, Copernicus published On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres to prove his point, but it wasn't until Galileo (who discovered the moons of Jupiter w/ his telescope) that the Copernican model really took off Galileo - Published his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World in Italian to reach a wider audience & defeat Ptolemy (who promoted the Earth as the center of the universe) - Contributions: Was the first person to use a telescope to observe objects in space. Discovered that planets and moons are physical bodies - Made proofs that made it difficult for scholars to continue to accept the Ptolemaic model (supported by the Catholic Church) - Catholic Church: put Galileo on trial for heresy & forced him to recant. His book placed on The Index (a list of banned heretical works) - Continued tor research while under house arrest

Global societies: 1450-1750 - Social classes/hierarchies - Women: jobs/labor, African marriage, Europe (marriage, education), older women/widows

Social classes/hierarchies - Racial categories were used more widely to determine status/class hierarchy - Restrictions developed regarding marriages & relationships btwn the classes. Women - Women's status & freedoms changed little from the previous period, even w/ the rise of Elizabeth I of England & Isabella of Spain - Jobs & labor: traditional women jobs increasingly dominated by men (who were also starting to get paid more w/ changes in trade) - African marriage: the forced migration of males due to slave trade left a disproportionate # of females --> reinforced polygamy - Europe: Marriage: many men also migrated away, but their predominantly Christian societies didn't allow multiple marriages = created a problem in societies that regarded marriages as the goal for all women. Education: while education was widely available to all classes (Renaissance & Enlightenment), opportunities for girls lagged behind & roles limited to wife & mother - Older women/widows: regarded w/ respect (Africa & Native Americans had councils of older women as part of the political process), but also feared bc they couldn't be controlled

Pope Leo X

Sold indulgences to raise money to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica in Rome; tried to get Luther to recant his criticisms of the church Condemned him an outlaw and a heretic when he would not do so; banned his ideas and excommunicated him from the church

Developments in Spain & Portugal: 1450-1750 - Spain: Isabella & Ferdinand's contributions to Spain's success (before 1500s): - Spain: Charles V: growth of Spain's international importance, position as Holy Roman Emperor, retirement - Spain: Philip II: social growth under his reign, social decay under his reign (religious, political, navy), results from the social decay - Portugal: strength, eventual failure

Spain: Isabella & Ferdinand's contributions to Spain's success (before 1500s): - By aggressively supporting exploration (Columbus' exploration, establishing empires in New World), Isabella & Ferdinand ensured the survival & expansion of Spanish language, culture, & religion (Catholicism). Also built a naval fleet that allowed Spain to rule the seas Spain: Charles V - Grandson of Ferdinand & Isabella - Growth of Spain's international importance: through series of carefully arranged marriages, he created a huge empire stretching from Austria to Germany to Spain, growing Spain's international importance. Elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1519, giving him land in France, the Netherlands, Austria, & Germany. These lands + the colonies in America brought wars + riches - ^fought France for control of Italy, & Ottoman Turks for control of Eastern Europe. In Germany, defended Catholicism from Protestantism (Spain allied w Catholic Church) - Retirement: Retired in 1556 & gave Holy Roman throne of Germany & control over Austria to his brother, Ferdinand I. Gave throne of Spain & jurisdiction of Burgundy, Sicily, Netherlands, New World, & Portugal to his son, Phillip II Spain: Philip II - Social growth under his reign: oversaw great expansion into the New World & a rebirth of culture under Spanish Resistance - Social decay under his reign: Religious: oversaw continuation of Spanish Inquisition to oust heretics, led Catholic Reformation against Protestants, & supported missionary work in New World. Political: Dutch Protestants revolted in 1581, gained their independence from Spain, & became known as the Dutch Netherlands. Navy: Spanish Armada defeated by the English as they tried to attack the British Isles - Results from the social decay: Although Spain amassed enormous amts of gold from the New World, it spent its wealth quickly on wars, missionary activities, & maintenance of its huge fleets. Glory days had passed, & England & France replaced it as dominant European powers Portugal - Focused domination on coastal Africa, Indian Ocean, & the Spice Islands - Strength: With its strong naval presence, it became a "floating empire" & took part in the transatlantic slave trade & controlled sea routes - Eventual failure: Unable to exert control over interior Africa & India & couldn't maintain control of their far-flung colonies = lost them to Dutch & British

Global Labor Systems: 1450-1750 - Spanish part of the New World - Portuguese - Russia

Spanish part of New World - Haciendas established (natives owed labor to landlords; unlike feudalism) - Fell apart as native population decreased due to disease + their conversion to Catholic faith Portuguese - Took advantage of existing intra-African slave trade & transformed it into trans-oceanic - Transported Africans ended up on plantations in Brazil & Caribbean Russia - Serfdom differed in that Russian economy was domestic only (no international trade) & both laborers & landowners were Russian (unlike Spain in New World & Portugal) - Cossacks, expanded Russian territory from 1500s-1700s (offered freedom from their feudal lords if they agreed to conquer & settle in new lands to the east) - Cossacks were practically slaves under Romanovs

England vs. France during the 1600s - Stability - Governing bodies

Stability - France ruled by series of strong monarchs under Bourbon Dynasty - England unstable after Elizabeth's death & went from monarch to Commonwealth (Period in English history where the nation had no monarch; began w/ execution of Charles I and ended w/ restoration of Charles II (Stuart Restoration)) to Restoration to Glorious Revolution Governing bodies - France's Estates-General (governing body representing the people) was not nearly as powerful as the English Parliament & didn't even meet for most of the 1600s bc the French Kings (specifically Louis XIV) ruled under divine right

European Art: 1450-1750 - Strong "rebirth" in the arts: details, Medici family - Architecture & Art - Northern Europe

Strong "rebirth" in the arts - Powerful families in Italian city-states financed art on a scale not seen since the classical civilizations of Greece & Rome (people in the era were obsessed with ancient civilizations) - Example: Medici family in Florence not only ruled the city, but turned it into a showcase of architecture & art by being the patron for Michaelangelo & Brunelleschi Architecture & Art - Catholic Church had Michaelangelo paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel - Renaissance architects borrowed Greek & Roman traditions & built domes on cathedrals Northern Europe - Italian artistic movements spread through Northern & Western Europe - Van Eyck brothers (Dutch) adopted Italian naturalism - Most Northern paintings religiously motivated w/ colors & symbols

European Scientific Revolution: The Scientific Method: 1450-1750 - The Scientific Method: overview, background info, method - Contributors: Copernicus & Galileo, Tycho Brahe, Francis Bacon - Impact of the Method

The Scientific Method - Overview: Scholastic method of reasoning used during High Middle Ages to determine scientific meaning (sometimes led to heresies, other times complimented faith). Took 100+ years to be widely used - Background info: Born out of scholastic tradition (Thomas Aquinas; devised to reconcile philosophy w Catholicism), but "reason" (reason vs faith) wasn't enough anymore - Method: Now, one had to prove their theory, document it, repeat it for others, & open it up to experimentation. Conclusions should come from data and math Contributors to the Scientific Method - Copernicus & Galileo: 2 fathers of the scientific method; together, their work proved the rotation of the Earth around the Sun & that planets were physical bodies. Conflicted with Catholic Church (Galileo forced to recant) - Tycho Brahe (1546-1601): astronomer who developed instruments & helped fix positions of stars - Francis Bacon (1561-1626): created the first version of the modern-day scientific method Impact of the Method - Eventually led to the Industrial Revolution - ^would cause many Christians to begin to reject the Church's rigid pronouncements that conflicted w/ scientific findings - Those Christians would become atheists (believed no god existed) or deists (believed God existed but plays a passive role in life)

Renaissance architecture

Use of classic Roman orders Dignity & Formality achieved through symmetry Structures: Churches, Palaces

Developments in France: 1450-1750 - Transition from 1250-1450 - Religious differences: Catholics vs. Huguenots, Henry IV - Cardinal Richelieu: role in French crown, role in the Thirty Years' War, bureaucratic class - Louis XIV: reign, politics, appointed who? - Jean Baptiste Colbert: stance - War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714) - Weakening

Transition from 1250-1450 - Began to unify & centralize authority under a strong monarchy (Bourbon Kings; Henry IV the first) after the Hundred Years' War drove the English away Religious differences - France largely Catholic, but during the Protestant Reformation, a group of French Protestants, known as Huguenots developed influence - From 1550s-1598, the Catholics & Huguenots fought until Henry IV (1st of the Bourbon Kings) issued the Edict of Nantes which created an envir of toleration Cardinal Richelieu - Catholic & chief advisor to the Bourbons. Primary political role was to strengthen the French crown - When Catholics & Huguenots (Protestants) fought, he sought to make compromises & even helped the Huguenots attack the Catholic Hapsburgs of the Holy Roman Empire to end it & make France stronger (part of the Thirty Years' War) - New bureaucratic class established under him & his successor (Cardinal Mazarin); the bureaucracy they created would prepare France to hold its strong position while under Louis XIV Louis XIV - Was 4 yrs old when he inherited the crown; his mother & Cardinal Mazarin ruled in his name until he reached adulthood - Reign: Held an absolute monarchy under divine right & reigned from 1643-1715. Called himself the "Sun King" & "The Most Christian King" & declared "I am the State" & built the lavish palace of Versailles to prove it - Supported arts as long as they contributed to the glorification of France & its culture - Politics: Never summoned the Estates-General (lawmaking body) & revoked the Edict of Nantes, forcing many Huguenots to leave France - Most importantly, he appointed Jean Baptiste Colbert to manage royal funds Jean Baptiste Colbert - Stance: Managed royal funds under Louis XIV; strict mercantilist (supported profitable trading/commercialism); wanted to inc size of French empire to increase opportunity for business & taxes. To accomplish this, France almost constantly @ war; along w/ mercantilist policies, he allowed France to gain territory & wealth War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714) - Through intermarrying, Phillip V (one of Louis XIV's grandsons) inherited the Spanish throne which alarmed the rest of Europe as they could potentially form an unstoppable power (both had big claims in the Americas + world) - Under the perceived common threat, England, the Holy Roman Empire, & German princes united & settled the question of Spanish succession - Phillip V was able to rule Spain, but Spain couldn't combine w France & France had to give up a lot of its territory to England (=English became more powerful) Weakening - While France's position as a center for arts was established by Luis XIV & Colbert, their many territorial invasions & wars under mercantilist policies proved costly & ineffective, as their military power was weakening during the 1700s

Muscovy Company

• English trading company chartered in 1555 • First joint-stock company • Monopolized trade routes to Russia