WHAP Ch 20: Muslim Empires

Describe the merchant and artisan classes of the Ottoman state.

A sizable portion of the Ottoman population belonged to these classes. The Ottoman regime closely regulated commerce and handicraft production. The artisans were organized into guilds like their counterparts in medieval Europe.

Nadir Khan Afshar

After Isfahan was captured, he rose to power and began Safavid restoration. However, his dynasty was short-lived.

How was Constantinople restored and introduced to Ottoman culture?

After Mehmed II and his army sacked Constantinople, the sultan set about restoring its glory. Mosques, palaces, aqueducts, markets, houses, schools, hospitals, gardens, and shops were built to beautify the city.

Describe the aftermath of the battle at Chaldiran.

After their victory, the Ottomans were able to concentrate on ridding of their enemies in Egypt. Isma'il's dreams of further western expansion were crushed with his defeat. The outcome of Chaldiran determined that Shi'ism would be confined largely to Persia and neighboring areas. Chaldiran set limits to which either empire could expand and extend its variant of Islam.

Abbas I

Aka Abbas the Great, he made the greatest use of the youths captured in Russia and then educated and converted to Islam; they became the backbone of the military. He set about establishing his empire as a major center of international trade and Islamic culture.

Describe the main similarities and differences of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires.

All three empires had Turkic nomadic origins, religious fervor, vast military conquest, and were ruled by a succession of absolute monarchs. The primary difference between the three was the religion and culture of the population they were ruling.

Who was Babar and how did he start the Mughal empire?

Babar was a warrior prince who wanted new land after his original kingdom had been lost. In 1526, he entered India with a strong army. He defeated the Lodi army with his war elephants and superior firepower and took northern India for his own.

Humayan

Babar's son and successor who was a good soldier but couldn't successfully drive back neighboring enemies. He fled to Persia where he remained in exile while helping to restore Mughal India and later died.

Why were the Europeans impressed with the Mughal empire?

Because of the Mughal empire's huge armies, beauty, size, trade, an textiles.

How did the belittling of Europe affect the Ottomans in the 1600-1700s?

Because they belittled Europe and its advancements, the Ottomans weren't able to take seriously the revolutionary changes that were happening there. Throughout the 1600-1700s, groups such as the Janissaries and religious scholars blocked most of Western-inspired innovations. Because of all of this, the isolated Ottomans proved incapable of checking the forces that were steadily destroying it.

How were the societies of the Safavid and Ottoman empires alike?

Both encouraged handicraft production and trade. Both were dominated by warrior aristocracies.

How was the position of women declining in the later Mughal era?

Child marriage grew more popular, widow remarriage died out, and seclusion was more strictly enforced.

Tahmasp I

Claimed the throne after chaos caused by Isma'il. He set about restoring the Safavid dynasty and repeated efforts were made to bring the Turkic chiefs under control.

Din-i-Ilahi

Faith invented by Akbar used to unite Hindus and Muslims in Mughal India. Wasn't too successful.

Red Heads

Followers of the Safavids; called so because of their distinctive headgear.

How did Abbas I establish his empire as a major center of trade and Islamic culture?

He built roads, rest houses, workshops, mosques, gardens, and more to beautify his empire.

What did Akbar do to improve the position of women in the Mughal dynasty?

He encouraged widow remarriage, legally prohibited the burning of women at their husbands funerals, and tried to rescue women from seclusion in their homes.

How did Akbar cooperate with the Hindus?

He pursued a policy of reconciliation and cooperation with the Hindu princes and population. He abolished the head tax placed on Hindus and promoted Hindus to the highest ranks in the gov't. He ordered Muslims to be respectful of cows.

Who was Aurangzeb and how did his actions cause the decline of the Mughal state?

He was Shah Jahan's son and successor who was unsuccessful in restoring the declining empire. His expansion efforts drained the empire of money and resources. His religious policies weakened internal alliances and disrupted social peace.

How was Akbar a greater leader than his predecessors?

He was a fine military commander who had an obsession with uniting and expanding India. He patronized the arts, was tolerant of religion, improved the position of women, carried out social reforms.

Vizier

Head of the Ottoman bureaucracy which carried out daily administration. The vizier was the overall head of the imperial administration and often held more power than the sultan himself.

Nur Jahan

Jahangir's wife who continually amassed political power as her husband became more distant.

How were the Safavids similar to the Ottomans in their rise to power?

Like the Ottomans, the Safavid dynasty arose from the struggles of rival Turkic nomadic groups in the wake of Mongol and Timur invasions of the 1200-1300s. Also like the Ottomans, they rose to prominence as the frontier warrior champions of a highly militant strain of Islam.

Mehmed II

Ottoman military leader who led his army into Constantinople in 1453 and sacked the city, bringing it into Ottoman control.

Isfahan

Safavid capital

Shah Abbas I

Safavid ruler who helped the empire reach the height of its strength and prosperity.

Mumtaz Mahal

Shah Jahan's wife who became active in court politics. The Taj Mahal was built for her burial.

Describe the initial Safavid decline and what caused the end of their power.

Succession was problematic, and the rulers became weaker which only weakened the dynasty. In March 1722, Isfahan was besieged by Afghani tribes and in October, the city fell and Safavid power ended.

Jahangir and Shah Jahan

Successors of Akbar who expanded the empire. They were both tolerant of Hindus and mounted campaigns to crush enemies. Neither was interested in politics or conquest as much as drinking and entertainment. They are remembered as two of the finest patrons of the fine arts in history. They encouraged art and built astounding architectural works (Taj Mahal).

Imams

Successors of Ali

Sail al-Din

Sufi mystic who belonged to the family of Sufis who helped start the Safavid dynasty. He gave the dynasty its name and began a militant campaign to purify and reform Islam and spread Muslim teachings among the Turkic tribes of the region. He gained growing support and him and his followers preached Shi'ite doctrines while their enemies multiplied.

Isma'il

Surviving Sufi commander who succeeded Sail al-Din. He led his followers to a string of victories on the battlefield. In 1501, they took the city of Tabriz where he was proclaimed emperor and the city was made the Safavid capital. His followers continued to conquer most of Persia, driving out enemies and moving into present-day Iraq.

How did the decline of the Ottomans begin and escalate?

The Ottoman decline began in the mid-1600s with internal revolts, periodic conflicts with foreign rivals, an oversized bureaucracy and weakening imperial administration. Sultans became weak rulers, addicted to drugs and drinks, while the Janissaries became more influential. Civil strife increased while the leadership and discipline of the army decreased.

How did the Ottomans began to fall behind in the art of war, on land and sea?

The Ottoman's reliance on huge siege guns, and the Janissaries' determination to block all military changes that might jeopardize their power, caused the Ottomans' military strength to deteriorate. The Ottoman dominance of the sea ended in 1571 with the naval battle of Lepanto; the combined Spanish and Venetian fleet defeated the Ottomans. The Ottomans soon lost their control of the Mediterranean after launching an assault on North Africa. The Ottomans were also introduced to long-term inflation after the sudden influx of silver from Latin America.

Describe the Ottoman rise to power and their conquests up to the 1600s.

The Ottomans arose to power in the 1200-1300s. The collapse of the Seljuks in eastern Anatolia opened the way for the Ottomans. In the 1350s, they entered Europe and conquered the Balkans. In 1453, Mehmed II and his army sacked and conquered Constantinople. In 1683, the Ottomans laid siege to Vienna. The empire spread through the Balkans into Hungary and extended into Syria and Egypt.

Describe the conflict between the Safavids and Ottomans and the battle at Chaldiran in the 1500s.

The Safavid success and the support their followers received in the Ottoman borderlands brought them into conflict with the Ottomans. In 1514, at Chaldiran, the armies of the two states met; it was a clash between Shi'i and Sunni. The battle demonstrated the importance of muskets and field cannon in the gunpowder. In the end Isma'il's army was no match for the Ottoman's and was defeated.

Describe religion in the Safavid empire.

The Shi'ite ideology became a major pillar of the dynasty and empire, but as the dynasty weakened, religious leaders grew more independent and disputed the legitimacy of the shahs.

Describe the power and attitude of the Ottoman sultans.

The sultans were absolute monarchs but maintained their positions by playing off competing factions within their state. As the sultan's empire grew in size and wealth, he generally became more distant from his subjects. Sultans followed elaborate court rituals and were surrounded by slaves and concubines.

Describe the role of the Safavid warrior nobles and their threat to the Safavid monarchs.

The warrior nobles were similar to their Ottoman counterparts; they were assigned villages whose peasants were required to supply them with food and labor. The most powerful warrior leaders occupied key posts in the imperial administration, posing a constant threat to the monarchs.

Describe the warrior aristocracy of the Ottoman state.

They developed from the Turkic cavalry and were granted control over land and peasant producers in annexed areas. They vied with religious leaders. As their power shrank at the center, they built up regional and local bases of support which competed with the sultan and bureaucracy for revenue.

Janissaries

Troops which made up infantry divisions in the Ottoman state. Most of them were forcibly conscripted as young boys. They were legally slaves, but treated fairly and converted to Islam. They controlled the artillery and firearms and rapidly became the most powerful part of the Ottoman military. In the late 1400s, they were involved in court politics and their political continued to grow.

How were women treated in the Safavid and Ottoman states?

Women in both states faced several disadvantages. They were subordinate to their husbands and seldom had religious or political power.