WHAP Chapter 15: The Maritime Revolution to 1550
Why was the New World named for Amerigo Vespucci instead of Columbus?
Amerigo Vespucci's explorations, first on behalf of Spain and then for Portugal, led mapmakers to name the new continents "America" after him, rather than "Columbia" after Columbus.
Describe Columbus's journey west.
Columbus recorded in his log that he and his crew of ninety men "departed Friday the third day of August of the year 1492" toward "the regions of India." (Their mission, the royal contract stated, was "to discover and acquire certain islands and mainland in the Ocean Sea." Unfavorable headwinds had impeded other attempts to explore the Atlantic west of the Azores, but) Columbus chose a southern route because he had learned in his service with the Portuguese of west-blowing winds in the latitudes of the Canaries. In October 1492 the expedition reached the islands of the Caribbean.
Describe the conquests of the Aztecs by Cortez and the Inca by Pizarro. What enabled these smaller forces to conquer the larger empires?
Cortez's victory was aided by a smallpox epidemic that killed more of the city's defenders than did the fighting. The Inca military was decimated and the empire's political leadership weakened by the violence (between Huascar and Atahualpa); at this critical time Pizarro entered the region.
Describe how the Portuguese ensured that the ships in de Gama's fleet would make it to India and back.
Craftsmen built extra strength into the hulls to withstand the powerful storms. Small enough to be able to navigate any shallow harbors and rivers they might encounter (the ships were crammed with specially strengthened casks and barrels of water, wine, oil, flour, meat, and vegetables far in excess of what was required even on a voyage that would take the better part of a year) Arms and ammunition were also in abundance. Gotta have the guns m8ey.
Image 1. Coronation of Emperor Moctezuma
Depicts the Aztec ruler's coronation. Moctezuma receives the crown from a prince in the palace at Tenochtitlan.
How did climate and disease affect the population of Europe and Asia during the period from 1100‐ 1500?
Disease: diseases didn't really affect the general population of Europe and Asia until the Black Death hit. Climate: climate changes in the 1300s resulted in population losses in Europe. Unusually heavy rains caused crop failures and a prolonged famine in northern Europe from 1315 to 1319.
What is he willing to do/not do in return?
Do: Allow for traders to come in but not trade in marketplaces. Not do: Put his people into slavery, allow the Portuguese to trade in their own markets
Using map 15.2 describe Amerindian maritime activity into the early 16th century.
Early Amerindian voyages from South America brought new settlers to the West Indies and western Mexico. The arrival of Europeans in 1492 soon led to the conquest and depopulation of Amerindians.
Why were Europeans more successful in colonizing the New World compared to Africa or Asia in the 15-16th centuries?
Europeans made slow progress in establishing colonies (and asserting political influence) in Africa and Asia (even while profiting from new commercial ties.) In the Americas, however, Spain, Portugal, and later other European powers moved rapidly to create colonial empires.
Image 2. Execution of Inca Ruler Atahualpa
Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, a native Andean from the area of Huamanga in Peru, drew this representation of the execution. While Pizarro sentenced Atahualpa to death by strangulation, not beheading, Guaman Poma's illustration forcefully made the point that Spain had imposed an arbitrary and violent government on the Andean people.
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As a result of Prince Henry's efforts what forms of trade did Portugal enter into? Which proved to be the most profitable?
His official biographer emphasized Henry's mixed motives for exploration— converting Africans to Christianity, making contact with Christian rulers in Africa, and launching joint crusades with them against the Ottomans. Prince Henry also wished to discover new places and hoped that such new contacts would be profitable. The gold trade of North Africa proved to be most profitable.
Describe Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe as well as its importance.
In 1519 Ferdinand Magellan began his expedition to complete Columbus's interrupted westward voyage by sailing around the Americas and across the Pacific. Despite Magellan's death during his voyage for the king of Spain, he was considered the first person to encircle the globe because a decade earlier he had sailed from Europe to the East Indies as part of an expedition sponsored by his native Portugal. His two voyages took him across the Tordesillas line, through the separate spheres claimed by Portugal and Spain. His voyage proved the earth was actually round.
What delayed Spain's entrance into the Age of Discovery?
In contrast to the persistence and planning behind Portugal's century-long exploration of the South Atlantic, haste and blind luck lay behind Spain's early discoveries. The Spanish kingdoms were preoccupied with internal affairs: completion of the reconquest of southern Iberia from the Muslims; amalgamation of the various dynasties; and the conversion or expulsion of religious minorities. (The Portuguese had already found a new route to the Indian Ocean by the time the Spanish monarchs were ready to turn to overseas exploration).
Why were West Africans eager to open up commercial relations with Portugal?
It offered new markets for exports and access to imports cheaper than those transported overland from the Mediterranean.
Does King Afonso see himself as an equal to King John or his subordinate? Do you agree with that analysis?
King Afonso sees himself as subordinate, stating multiple times " your highness" and ending the letter with "I kiss your hands many times." I personally agree with King Afonso's choice to present himself as subordinate due to the fact that the Portuguese could easily demolish the Kongolese as well as that the Kongolese need the Portuguese for trade.
What sorts of things does King Afonso desire from the Portuguese?
Kongolese rulers sought to introduce Christian beliefs and rituals while at the same time Africanizing Christianity. The kings of Kongo sought a variety of more secular aid from Portugal, including schools and medicine.
How were the Viking mariners in the North Atlantic similar to their Pacific counterparts?
Like the Polynesians, the Vikings used their knowledge of the heavens and the seas rather than maps and other navigational devices to find their way over long distances.
What settlement activity makes Madagascar "unique"?
Madagascar's settlers are genetically unique, but they (still) speak Malayo-Polynesian languages. Africans probably crossed the 300 mile journey early on, but the Polynesians also got to Madagascar before the 7th or 8th century.
Why did the Iberian kingdoms sponsor voyages of exploration I the 15th century?
Militarily unable to push inland and gain direct access to the gold trade, the Portuguese sought more direct contact with the gold producers by sailing down the African coast. (To be able to participate in the gold trade)
Using the drawing "Chinese junk" on p. 431: How does the Chinese treasure ship compare to the European caravel in its efficiency?
Much, much larger. One reason, of course, was "shock and awe." It would have enhanced Ming China's prestige immeasurably. On the other hand, the caravels were small, light and for trading. These ships were meant to carry a profitable amount of goods quickly.
Using map 15.1, trace the colonization of the eastern Pacific dating from 400 CE to 1300 CE.
Polynesia -> (@500 C.E. Easter Island && @1100-1300 C.E. Hawaiian Islands) && Fiji -> Samoa -> @400 C.E. Marquesas Islands -> @500 C.E. Easter Island && Hawaiian Islands && @1200 C.E. New Zealand
How did expeditions of the Iberian kingdoms "begin a maritime revolution that profoundly altered the course of world history"?
Portugal's decision to invest significant resources in new exploration rested on a well-established Atlantic fishing industry and a history of anti-Muslim warfare. (When the Muslim government of Morocco in northwestern Africa showed weakness in the 15th century, the Portuguese attacked, conquering the city of Ceuta in 1415)
What advantage did Portugal have in making the Indian Ocean a Portuguese sea? Results?
Previously the Indian Ocean had been an open sea, used by merchants of all the surrounding coasts. Now the Portuguese crown intended to make it a Portuguese sea, the private property of Portugal alone.
Summarize Zheng He's Expeditions in the Indian Ocean between 1405 and 1433 (purpose, means, results)
Purpose: The purpose was to show Chinese supremacy and superiority. Means: The Chinese emperor paid for the construction of ships and the voyage. It was just to show off, there was no trade taking place and the ship was frickin huge. Results: (it was basically a clusterf**k) The result was that the Chinese emperor nearly went bankrupt because of the above reasons.
Explain why "the voyages of Polynesian peoples over vast distances across the Pacific Ocean were some of the most impressive feats in maritime history before 1450".
The Polynesians didn't have large, efficient ships that used sails. The Polynesians only had canoes with oars to power themselves across vast seas and oceans. Ships had to be sturdy enough to survive heavy winds and seas, and pilots had to learn how to cross featureless expanses of water to reach their destinations
How did the centuries of warfare with Muslim kingdoms give the Iberian kingdoms an edge over the Italians?
The Portuguese didn't have anywhere else to go but west, and their centuries of fighting with the Muslims meant they had better military strategies, which they used in their normal expeditions.
Why did Portugal have little impact on the mainland of Africa and Asia?
The Portuguese sought to control trade routes, not occupy large territories.
How did the Spanish influence on the Americas differ from Portugal's influence on Africa and Asia?
The Spanish established a vast territorial empire in the Americas in contrast to the trading empires the Portuguese created in Africa and Asia
What areas were colonized by Vikings in the North Atlantic? Why were these areas later abandoned?
The Vikings first settled Iceland in 770 and established a colony on Greenland in 982. By accident one group sighted North America in 986. Fifteen years later Leif Ericsson established a short-lived Viking settlement on the island of Newfoundland, which he called Vinland. When a colder climate returned after 1200, the northern settlements in Greenland went into decline and the Vikings abandoned Vinland. (***Basically Greenland, Newfoundland and Iceland. Greenland and Newfoundland were abandoned because of cold climates***)
How did the Portuguese maintain a commercial monopoly in the Indian Ocean—stretching to Macao?
The ability of little Portugal to assert control over the Indian Ocean stemmed from the superiority of its ships and weapons over those of the regional powers, especially the lightly armed merchant dhows. Force was not always necessary
What evidence is there that the Polynesians have originated from Malaysia?
The ancestors of the Polynesians originated in Asia. They most likely island-hopped across Melanesia and settled in Malaysia, and formed the Polynesian civilization.
What was the agreement between Spain and Portugal in the Treaty of Tordesillas?
The demarcation at 45 degrees longitude meant Portugal got everything east of it, and Spain got everything west of it.
Why did the Mughals and Chinese ignore the Portuguese? Why did the Ottomans resist?
The emperors of China, the Mughal emperors of India largely ignored Portugal's maritime intrusions, seeing their interests as maintaining control over their vast land possessions. The Ottomans responded more aggressively because they saw these actions as a power grab.
What makes the Indian Ocean sailing easier than any other area?
The fact that there are strong monsoon winds helps boats with sails to go faster, which in turn makes trading easier and more efficient. Landmasses of Southeast Asia and eastern Africa enclose the Indian ocean on each side and the Indian subcontinent provided coasts that seafarers can safely follow & coves for protection.
What resulted from the African voyages in the 14th century commissioned by Mansa Muhammed?
The first voyage was a large failure, with only one ship, from a fleet of 400, returning to report that the rest were destroyed in a "violent current in the middle of the sea". Muhammad himself then set out at the head of a second, even larger, expedition, from which no one returned. BIG fail.
Give examples of how medieval Islam gave the Indian Ocean trade a boost.
The great Islamic cities of the Middle East provided a demand for valuable commodities. Islamic traders tied the region together through their share of common languages, ethics, and laws.
What was the Muslim reaction to Portuguese encroachment on their trade centers along the Swahili Coast?
The talented warlord of the Muslim state of Adal launched a furious assault on Ethiopia. Adal's decisive victory in 1529 reduced the Christian kingdom to a precarious state. At that point Ethiopia's contacts with the Portuguese became crucial.
Identify the importance of the following Portuguese explorers: ● Bartolemeu Dias ● Vasco da Gama ● Pedro Cabral
● Bartolemeu Dias - Portuguese explorer who in 1488 led the first expedition to sail around the southern tip of Africa from the Atlantic and sight the Indian Ocean. ● Vasco da Gama - Portuguese explorer. In 1497-1498 he led the first naval expedition from Europe to sail to India, opening an important commercial sea route. ● Pedro Cabral - In 1500 ships on the way to India under the command of Pedro Cabral sailed too far west and reached the South American mainland. This discovery established Portugal's claim to Brazil, which would become one of the Western Hemisphere's richest colonies.
What problem with his own people has the slave trade created, and what has King Afonso done about it?
"(The thieves and men of bad conscience grab them so as to have the things and wares of this kingdom that they crave; they grab them and bring them to be sold) In such a manner, sir, has been the corruption and deprivation that our land is becoming completely depopulated (and your highness should not deem this good nor in your service)"
Discuss the unique relationship shared between Ethiopia and Portugal.
(For decades, delegations from Portugal and Ethiopia had explored a possible alliance based on their mutual adherence to Christianity) A key figure was Queen Helena of Ethiopia (who acted as regent for her young sons after her husband's death in 1478) In 1509 Helena sent a letter to "our very dear and well-beloved brother," the king of Portugal, along with a gift of two tiny crucifixes said to be made of wood from the cross on which Christ had died in Jerusalem. (In her letter she proposed an alliance between her army and Portugal's fleet against the Turks; however, Helena's death in 1522 occurred before the alliance could be arranged)
Discuss the commercial relationship between the Portuguese and Benin.
(In response to a Portuguese visit in 1486, the oba sent an ambassador to Portugal to learn more about these strangers.) He then established a royal monopoly on trade with the Portuguese, selling pepper and ivory tusks (for export to Portugal) as well as stone beads, textiles, and prisoners of war (for resale at Elmina). In return, Portuguese merchants provided Benin with copper and brass, fine textiles, glass beads, and a horse for the king's royal procession.
What was the African reaction to guns, the demand for slaves, and Christianity/Catholicism? Compare Benin's reaction to Kongo's. Eastern Africa
(In the early sixteenth century, as the demand for slaves for the Portuguese sugar plantations on the nearby island of São Tomé grew) The oba first raised the price of slaves and then imposed restrictions that limited their sale. (Early contacts generally involved a mix of commercial, military, and religious exchanges) Some African rulers appreciated the advantage of European firearms over spears and arrows in conflicts with their enemies and actively sought them in trade. The rulers of Benin and Kongo accepted both Portuguese missionaries and soldiers as allies in battle to test the efficacy of the Christian religion and European weaponry.
How did the Africans keep an upper hand over Portugal, at least early on?
(Neither side made a show of force, but) The Africans' upper hand was evident in Caramansa's warning that he and his people would move away (depriving their fort of food and trade) if the Portuguese acted aggressively.
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How did the capture of Ceuta in 1415 give the Portuguese a lead in the Age of Exploration? What was the curriculum of Prince Henry's School of Navigation? What improvements to navigation did the student‐explorers make?
1. When the Muslim government of Morocco in northwestern Africa showed weakness in the 15th century, the Portuguese attacked, conquering the city of Ceuta in 1415. The capture of this rich North African city gave the Portuguese better intelligence of the caravans bringing gold and slaves to Ceuta from African states south of the Sahara. 2. To study navigation that built on the pioneering efforts of Italian merchants and fourteenth-century Jewish cartographers. This center collected geographical information from sailors and travelers and sponsored new expeditions to explore the Atlantic 3. Henry's staff also improved the magnetic compass, the astrolabe, an instrument of Arab or Greek invention that enabled mariners to determine their location at sea by measuring the position of the sun or the stars in the night sky.
Why were the consequences of Columbus's voyages momentous for European expansion?
Those who followed in his wake laid the basis for Spain's large colonial empire in the Americas and for the empires of other European nations. In turn, these empires promoted the growth of a major new trading network whose importance rivaled and eventually surpassed the Indian Ocean network. Both the eastward and the westward voyages of exploration marked a tremendous expansion of Europe's role in world history.
What was the initial reaction to da Gama's attempts to open trade with the Indian states?
Vasco da Gama did not make a great impression on the citizens of Calicut when he arrived on the Malabar coast of India. The samorin (ruler) of Calicut and his Muslim officials showed only mild interest in the Portuguese as new trading partners, since the gifts brought by da Gama had provoked derisive laughter.
