WIS3401 Final Exam
Ruminant mammal
- four chambered stomach: Rumen, Abomasum, Omasum, and Reticulum - designed to break plants and stuff down
endotherms
- heat from within body
Bird digestion
- no teeth, often swallow things whole - Crop - store food; eat a whole bunch of stuff and then run back to cover (Doves, pigeons - produce a crop milk and feed it to their young) - Proventriculus - stomach; acids and enzymes made to break down very hard food like bone, shells and scales - gizzard - stomach; lots of skin foods and normally covered with keratin to grind food like seeds - Intestine - stuff goodies get absorbed; the longer the intestine the more stuff can get extracted - Ceca - special bacteria to break down hard stuff - Cloaca -
Why do we often only consider females when studying or managing wildlife reproduction?
- the limiting sex - females are more sensitive on to environmental changes
What are wildlife?
-An organic resource that can be managed on a sustained-yield basis -All undomesticated animals (in a natural environment) -What the class will focus on: Terrestrial Vertebrates
What affects do agricultural chemicals have on wildlife, directly and indirectly?
-Direct and indirect -Bio-magnification -Habitat -Endocrine disruption -Soils and weather -Persistence -Spread
What is the ultimate goal in wildlife management/conservation? What are 3 areas we can work to achieve the goal?
-Increase, decrease, maintain, or stabilize (Featured (single) species management, Multiple species management, Biodiversity management, Ecosystem management) -animal, habitat and human dimension
1. What are rangelands and why are they so important to wildlife?
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1. What are the historical and contemporary relationships between wildlife and agricultural practices?
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10. How might timber extraction be used to conserve wildlife in tropical forests? Is timber extraction necessary for wildlife conservation in tropical forests?
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10. What rangeland communities are in Florida?
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12. How do fencing and browsing interact to affect elephants and other wildlife in southern Africa?
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12. Why do some species do so well in urban areas? Suburbs?
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14. How is wildlife management different between urban and rural/wilderness areas?
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16. How does ownership impact the management of forests and its value to wildlife?
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17. What is the predominant Florida rangeland type?
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18. How might we control and manage saw-palmetto on Florida rangelands?
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19. What are fencing issues in rangelands, why are they so prevalent, and how might they be mitigated?
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19. What are warm-season grasses and why are they valuable to wildlife in pasture and hayfields?
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2. What are the major wildlife problems in rangelands and how can we solve them?
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2. What are the types of farmland habitat and how do they affect wildlife?
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20. How can grazing be used to manage habitat for quail on Florida's rangelands?
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20. What are common timber stand improvement methods and how do they affect wildlife?
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21. What is improved pasture? Is it good for wildlife? Why?
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23. What are grazing fees and why are they an issue?
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23. What is IPM and how can it benefit wildlife?
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24. How can crop irrigation both help and hurt wildlife and their habitat?
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25. Of what value are tree plantations for wildlife? Why?
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25. Should we be concerned about declines in most farmland wildlife species?
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26. Describe several current Farm Bill programs that benefit forestlands and their wildlife.
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27. Describe 3 pieces of legislation and their affects on forest management and wildlife.
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27. What is "clean" farming?
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28. How can agriculture help biodiversity in East Africa?
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28. What is mast? How can we manage a forest for more of it?
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29. What are "set-aside" programs as they relate to agriculture?
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3. What are the pros and cons of forest management practices for wildlife?
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3. What are the pros and cons of various farmland management practices?
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4. Fire, grazing, fencing, water, livestock, and wildlife: how do they interact?
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4. How do different types of parks differ in wildlife management?
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5. How have forests and their management changed?
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5. What is transfrontier park?
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7. Of what importance are urban areas to wildlife conservation?
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8. Describe a scenario where tilled fields may be an ecological trap.
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9. What are the trends in major forest types of the Southeast during the past ~60 years?
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According to Rollins & Carroll (Predation on Quail paper), what impacts do predators have on quail and what do they prose as a method of increasing quail numbers (be specific)?
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Describe the Useable Space Principle through an example. How can it be used in management?
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Describe the community-based conservation approach to protecting howler monkeys in Belize. Compare and contrast this approach to simply managing them on public lands such as a national park.
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Diminishing Returns
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How and why do we regulate the harvest?
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How do harvested and unharvested wildlife populations differ? Why?
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How do we manage wildlife habitat?
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How does succession affect wildlife habitat?
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How does understanding reproductive physiology & behavior help me as a biologist?
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How might global climate change influence wildlife distributions and habitat management at large scales?
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How might habitat management differ between single species and community approaches?
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Is space a welfare factor?
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Juxtaposition
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Landscape Conservation Cooperative
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List and define 4 management strategies/regulations and examples of how they would be used to effect harvest rates.
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List and define Leopold's Tools.
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Of what value is wildlife?
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What are 5 nationally recognized NGO's that relate to wildlife?
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What are some conservation management practices that will benefit large carnivores in Africa?
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What are the historical and contemporary relationships between wildlife and agricultural practices?
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What are the pros and cons of various farmland management practices?
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What are traditional hunters? What is happening to them? Why?
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What are warm-season grasses and why are they valuable to wildlife in pasture and hayfields?
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What is "clean" farming?
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What is quality deer management?
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What is the principle of inversity? Use a detailed example to illustrate how knowing this can be applied to manage a population.
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What's up with PETA?
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Why do we consider harvest as a special type of mortality?
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Why is density a misleading indicator of habitat quality for wildlife (provide at least 3 reasons)?
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Why is the P-R Act so important?
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Yield
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habitat type
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vegetation association
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Wildlife Mortality
1 - survival/mortality (same thing) - Patterns of survival - Slope of line (steeper slope, faster survival changes with age) - Type I: survival high for long time, drops off at once (elephants, few offspring, small reproductive rate) - Type II: constant decline in survival rate with age (some birds) - Type III: young don't survive well at all, but survival doesn't drop off suddenly at end; most common among all animals (most have many offspring) - Important - Populations (care about death rate) - Emotions (dealing with death)`]
The Land Ethic
" A thing is right if it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends to do otherwise."
Leopold Land Ethic
"A thing is right if it tends topreserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the bioticcommunity. It is wrong when it tends to do otherwise."
Space
"The final frontier" and a habitat component.
List and define Leopold's Tools
"game [wildlife] can be restored by the creative use of the same tools which have heretofore destroyed it - axe, plow, cow, fire, and gun
Who does it (hunting)?
% of U.S. hunters; 2011 - Race - 94% White, 3% African American, 3% Other - Ethnicity - 2% Hispanic, 98% Non-Hispanic - Gender - 89% male, 11% female - Women: fastest growing segment of hunting comm. - Age - 27% 16-24, 62% 35-64, 11% >64 - Education - 22% 4+ yrs college, 23% 1-3 yrs college, 43% 12 yrs school (through HS) - Income - 12% < $25,000 - 56% $25K - 100K - 21% > $100 K - 11% Unknown income - Employment status - 70% FT, 2% homemaker, 2% Unemployed, 10% PT, 7% Ret., 9% student
How many people are harvesting?
% of U.S. population; 2011 - Fishing: 10% (increased 11% since 2006) - Hunting: 6% (increased 9% since 2006) - Trapping: < 1% % of FL population; 2011 - Fishing: 12% - Hunting: 1% - Trapping: <1%
Era of Abundance
(1600-1849)
Era of Overexploitation
(1850-1899)
Era of Protection
(1900-1929)
Era of Game Management
(1930-1965)
Era of Environmental/Ecological Management
(1966-present)
4 Characteristics of harvested populations
*Population size & stability *Fecundity *Life span *Death from other causes
Leopold's Tools
- "Game [wildlife] can be restored by the creative use of the same tools which have heretofore destroyed it - Axe, plow, cow, fire, and gun (harvest mgmt.)" - Other 4: population management - Axe: mechanical treatments, timber harvest - Plow: agriculture, crops - Cow: agriculture, crop mgmt. - Fire: prescribed and wild fire, imp. to ecosystems - Can be beneficial tools if properly applied
PETA
- "PETA is calling on the Boy Scouts of American to retire its "Fishing" and "Fish and Wildlife Management" merit badges" - "Promoting fishing teaches young people that hooking, maiming, suffocating, and killing is acceptable. This is a dangerous lesson, one that hurts not only the fish struggling for their lives at the end of a hook, but all of us." - "...cruelty to animals is a warning sign often seen in people who eventually direct violence toward humans. In fact, published reported show that in every single case of recent school shootings, there has been one consistent factor: All the young killers abused or killed animals before turning on their classmates. Of course, not every child who abuses animals will hurt or kill a human begin. But every child who picks up a gun or a rod and uses it to harm another living being must deaden a piece of his or her heart." - " Animal slavery (livestock) is still causing an amount of pain and suffering that can only be compared to with that which resulted form the centuries of tyranny by white humans over black humans." - Holocaust - Child abuse - The oppression of women - Native American genocide
Sex Ratios
- % males: % females (most commonly expressed); first number is always males and second is female - 36:64 - # males/#females - 1 buck/2 does - # males/100 females - 2 males/100 females
Mortality Rates
- %/time, #/time, or ind/ind*time (d) - Daily - Seasonal - Annual (most common) - Sex/age class - Different ones have different survival rates
Public Trust Doctrine
- 1842 Supreme Court Decision - Natural resources belong to all people in the U.S. - Entrust government to manage it on our behalf
Population Structure
- 2 degree factors (population ecology) - Age of population pyramid - graphically represent sex structure/age structure - Suggest things about a population - Left side: male, right side: female - Longer the bar, the more individuals - For most populations, large mounts of offspring (larger bottom) but decrease as age increases (healthy population; should look like this graph) - If larger area is in middle of age group, either there are reproductive values or were reproduced and had really high survival in the beginning weeks (may be declining if continues) - If blip every other year, could be natural or bad year for something (back bear populations have reproductive success every other year due to food, nutrition which for bears is acorns; oak trees have abundant crops every other year)
Carbohydrates
- 3.9 - 4.2 kcal/g - Cellulose, starches, sugars (quick) - Plants (opposed to meats) - Availability/digestibility - Sugars are easily digestible, get most energy from them
Protein
- 5.7 kcal/g - Amino acids (need for growth building blocks) - Meat and legumes (beans, peas, clover) - Availability/digestibility
" I tried but I can try no more I cried byt I can cry no more I failed to bring young chick's cry into this world Time now bids me say farewell The sun is setting and I must go But I will come again next year.. and try Until I die."
- A Curlew's Farewell, J.N. Allen - Seems that for many species, focus is to reproduce to carry on species and genetic traits
Dispersal
- A one-way movement, where an animal abandons its home range in search of a new one - Emigration (E): exit - Immigration (I) into - Migration = dispersal - Inter- (between species) and intra- (between individuals of same species) specific differences - Poorly understood - Active (move yourself [walk, run, etc.])vs. passive (hitch ride, i.e. move down stream) - Why disperse? - Greater access to rescues/mates, when benefits outweigh costs
Ideal Harvest Management
- Adaptive Harvest Management - Determine the status of the resource - Research and monitoring - Mandatory reporting, check stations, surveys, large scale studies - Use less quality, less data approaches - Determine the objectives and goals - Biological, social, economic, and enforcement considerations - Mgmt. increase, decrease, maintain, stabilize pop. size - Split wildlife mgmt. into population mgmt. and habitat mgmt. and both can help achieve goals (1 of 4 things) - Wildlife viewing, hunting, fishing, etc. - Wildlife damage - Wildlife disease (e.g. CWD, rabies) - Habitat and community effects (e.g. brain worm) - MSY or OSY - Quality vs. quantity - Establish management strategies - Seasons - Opening day phenomenon: have more hunters if on weekend, so higher harvest rate; doesn't matter when it is, but highest harvest rates will occur on opening day - Bag limits; Methods; Sex and age taken; Permits; Areas; effects on and of farming, timer, and non- consumptive wildlife uses; safety; enforcement - Determine how closely the management strategy achieves the objectives and goals - Adjust management strategies - Adaptive management - History, trial and error, and human dimensions - Typically two steps are skipped: monitoring and research because these two cost money - Without monitoring, don't know if harvest mgmt. plan had effect - Harvests can stabilize populations (mgmt. tool)
Compensatory
- Additive vs. Compensatory Mortality - Help understand why no effect but help determine number harvested without having effect - Additive: add harvested individuals to increase overall death rate - Compensatory: harvest individuals that wouldn't died anyway - Temporal Study (collect data year after year) - Determine what level when harvest switches from additive to compensatory - When introduce hunting, becomes additive - Waterfowl and intersex differences - Case Study: Ruffed Grouse - ACGRP (Wildlife Monograph #168) - First 3 yrs: all sites with hunting - Next 3 yrs: 3 sites closed to hunting - S(hunting) = S (no hunting) - Surivival didn't change with hunting, so hunting = compensatory - Not just # of individuals harvested that determines additive or compensatory, but also TIMING of harvest - Late season harvest = additive - Beginning of season = not additive - Management Implications - Harvest as compensatory mortality so no longterm effects - Doomed surplus: animals that would've died - Harvestable surplus includes doomed and any inidivudals that can be removed w/o causing problem - Predation is compensatory so doesn't improve survival
Nutrition
- Affects condition, mortality, and reproduction - Wildlife goal: control population size - Population Dynamics (i.e., N) - Food and water = welfare or decimating factors? - Depends on situation and how acting or affecting environment
Food (& Components) Availability
- Affects wildlife as management tool - Quantity - Accessibility/availability - Digestibility - Plant defenses - Hard animal parts - Effects on movements and distribution - Native - Food plots - Supplemental feeding
Wise Use (Roosevelt) Doctrine
- All natural resources are an integrated whole - Conservation of natural resources through wise use as a public responsibility, and their private ownership as a public trust - Science as a tool for and foundation of conservation
What is cover?
- Any structural resource of the environment that enhances reproduction and/or survival of wildlife by providing for any of the natural functions of the species - Shelter for wildlife that consists of vegetation and topographic features that provide places to feed, hide, sleep, play, and raise young
Home Range
- Area traversed by an animal during its normal daily activities (space where animal gets all of what it needs) - Fulfill all requirements: food, cover, water, space, mates, etc. - No sally's (temporary random movements [not part of normal daily activity]) or temporary movements (not considered part of home range) - Important? - Important because home range determines what kind of environment an animal prefers to live in and what type of environment supports it best - Movement rates species - Can have more than one home range - Why? - Summer vs. Winter - Migration route in-between doesn't count as HR - One space can't provide all that's needed all the time (seasonal) - Sexual segregation (differ between sexes) - Fidelity - Variation in size: why? - Larger > smaller - Gregarious > solitary - Carnivores > herbivores (trophic levels and energy transfer) - Males (more resource needs) > females - Age: Sometimes juvie > adult, adult > juvie - Season - Conditions - Population density - Hard to put general trend on age --> population density because situational - Spatial requirements - Habitat relationships
Types of disease (living organisms)
- Avian cholera - Tularemia - Brucellosis - Sylvatic Plague - Dick Virus Enteritis - Aspergillosis: fungal disease - Botulism - Leptospirosis - Anthrax - West Nile Virus - Lyme Disease - Rabies - Distemper - Avian Pox - Salmonella - Tuberculosis - Hemorrhagic Disease - Chronic Wasting Disease - List given: known name of virus and effects
"Cover is a magic word in wildlife management. It is, indeed, often a magic wand with which wild animals and birds are made to populate places formerly uninhabitable. ... It seems desirable that we should week to analyze the complex nature of cover more carefully."
- C. Elton
Types of Predation
- Chance - Habit* (one of most common) - Know what prey looks like, searches specifically for - Sucker list* (one of most common) - When predator takes unsophisticated, stupid (young) prey - Starvation of prey, no food source, venture out and die - Sanitary (only ever kill weak, old, and injuried) - All may be used by one species Depredation? - Technically same thing - Used when referring to predation of nests or livestock Jaguar case study - Which of these was most common for jaguar? -
"...as more individuals are produced than can possibly survive, there must be a struggle for existence."
- Charles Darwin - Natural process, most mortality forms are thought of as beneficial to population - Species evolve reproductive rates to balance mortality
Activity Patterns and Biological Clocks
- Circadian rhythms - What time is it? - Circannual cycle- What day/season is it? (more of calendar) - Environmental cues: photoperiod (when most active) - Diurnal (daytime), nocturnal (nighttime), crepuscular (dawn and dusk) - Sets clock for animals (food, temperature, etc., but photoperiod most important) - Photoperiod: length of the day (can tell roughly with time of day it is by looking at sunrise, sunset, etc.) - How much daylight, and if it's getting longer/shorter
Island Biogeography
- Closer habitat patches are together, easier access = higher colonization, use - When a corridor is applied, facilitates movement - Lower colonization rate further away from each other - Greater use and fewer extinctions in large islands that are close together - Smaller island patch that are further apart = less resources, more likely to go extinct
Wildlife Conservation
- Conservation includes humans and social processes with the management stuff - social process encompassing both lay and professional activities that define and seek to attain wise use of wildlife resources and maintain the productivities of wildlife habitats
Critical Ares
- Core or key area - Part(s) of the home range where limiting resources or conditions are located - Concentrated movements - Important? - Provide information on what is used most by wildlife in that location as well as what is needed by wildlife in that area
Cover
- Cover vs. Habitat: when talking about habitat, typically mean cover - Covert: same thing as cover, just has extra letter (t) - Any estruture resource of the environment that enhances reproduction and/or survival of wildlife by provision for any of the natural functions of the species (Baily 1984) - A place that encase survival or reproduction (welfare factor) - Shelter for wildlife that consists of vegetation and topographic (could be more than vegetation and topographic features) features that provide places to feed, hide, sleep, play, and raise young (Leopold 1933) - Doesn't include artificial structures - Recognizing wildlife adaptations to cover to provide correct cover - Jack rabbit (hairless ears to dissipate heat) - Live in open range-land systems, eyes in front of heat, fast - Cottontail rabbit - Old field, scattered bushes, eyes on side of heat to see predator close, maneuverable - Management - Multi-dimensional and 360 degrees - Movement, shelter, and visibility - Might be able to see from some angles but not others
"Food shortage appears to be the chief natural factor limiting the numbers of many birds, of various carnivorous and herbivorous mammals, of many larger marine fish, and of certain predatory insects."
- D. Lack
"...starvation outside the breeding season is the most important density dependent factor in wild birds."
- D. Lack - For many species, particularly with birds
"All living things ew destined to die and be recycled as a part of the flow of energy through the life community. Which is to say, a creature must feed, and sooner or later it will be fed upon."
- D.L. Allen - Predation can be significant decimating factor
Aldo Leopold's Population Model
- Decimating factors: Include harvest, predation, starvation, disease, accidents; kills animals directly - Welfare factors: food, cover, water; indirectly affect population size, growth rate, makes more vulnerable to decimating factors if in small amounts - Other possibilities? - Exposure to very adverse situations (extreme) - Space: 4th factor; quality, quantity - Harvest = removal (not biological factor; any type of removal) - The limiting factor (link)? - Depends on species and situation - Arrow pulling most (affect K most) - Influences: land-uses, weather, fire - "Cover": enhance reproduction and survival - Special factors: wallow, dust, etc.
Deer Yards
- Deer can't exist without these in winter - Limiting type - Snow, wind, and temperature - Food (use more energy trying to get food vs. digesting) - Limting factor/link - Think about the brushy hillside
Other Patterns of Abundance
- Density-dependent vs. density-independent factors - Causes? A. More common; almost always reproductive lag - Factors have more influence B. Chaotic growth: grow due to density-independent factors C. Cycle: occurs when initial growth phase missed - Simple ecosystems - Caused by removing large limiting factor/effect D. Population hovers around K but then spikes and returns back to hovering around K; eruptive growth - Whatever most important limiting factor is = removed
Starvation and Malnutrition
- Difference? - Starvation: quantity issue (more important for carnivores; can still have malnutrition issues) - Malnutrition: quality issue, lack various nutrients (herbivores; can still starve to death) - How common are these forms of mortality? - More common than thought of - Welfare or Decimating factors? - Food can be decimating or welfare factor - Proximate or ultimate factor? - Can be either (weaken or starve to death [proximate cause]) - Artificial feeding v. Habitat improvement - Food is limiting for many species; some have to be fed or else they wouldn't exist due to habitat loss and degradation - Would like to provide food natural through wildlife management - Artificial feeding can often have bad consequences - Baiting and ethics - Attract with food to boost hunting - Management implications - Failed as managers? - If temporary, not big deal, but don't want to have to continue - Good intentions with bad results - If given too good food, can result in death due to starvation because can't be broken down
Water
- Digestion, metabolism, excretion, and cooling - Cover - Sources - Free water (drink): pond, puddles, dew, etc. - Foods (juicy foods): seeds (2-3%), animal tissue and succulent plants (up to 70%) - Metabolism (metabolic water): byproduct of food breakdown; fats (1.07 ml/g; provide plants high in fat because if can digest, get most water from fats), proteins (0.40 ml/g), carbohydrates (0.56 ml/g) - Size, sex, age, and season - Adaptations - Effects on distribution
Disease and Parasites
- Disease: any condition of the body in which there is an incorrect function, could be living organism (parasite, virus), genetic abnormality - Parasite: plant or animal that lives in or on an organism that causes some incorrect function - Pathology: study of structural and functional cause of disease - Etiology: study of disease origin - Parasitology: study how parasites work and cause disease - Epizootiology: science deals with frequency, distribution, etc. of diseases - Enzootic: chronic disease at low levels - Epizootic: rare but are devastation - Welfare or decimating factors? Decimating - Causes of disease - Intrinsic flaws (hereditary or congenital diseases) - Deficiency diseases (dietary)* - Exogenous poisons - Trauma - Tumors - Living organisms* - * most closely linked to habitat quality and most manageable How common are these forms of mortality? - Some think hyper virulent disease wiped out large amounts of animals Habitat affects - Stress response Density-dependence Population regulation Control & Management - Direct (go in and kill all animals, wipe disease out) - Indirect (affect environment to kill off animals) Use as biological control agents - European rabbits in Australia - Took over continent, introduce fungal disease to control - Red imported fire ants - All over S. U.S., release fungal disease - Done in FL: predatory, decapitating fly (predation) Management implications - Salt marshes have ditches put in to decrease bug pops.
Resolving Conflicts between Hunters and Anti-Hunters
- Education with emphasis on ecologistic attitude - Encourage greater governmental recognition of different attitudes and management for different types of resource uses - Recognize both sides of issues - Diversify wildlife funding sources - Increase funding for nongame and recreational programs
Food Components
- Energy - Proteins - Carbohydrates - Fats - Minerals (nutrients: everything except energy) - Vitamins - Water
Onset and Length of Breeding Season
- Environmental factors and implications - Biological clocks - Timing: conditions, fertilization, and satiation i.e. Bobwhite quail - In fall, form covey and live in group throughout winter (birds flock for higher survival, greater foraging efficiency, thermoregulation) - In spring, covey breaks up and mates pair (one female and one male); most are monogamous but 25% promiscuous (build nest together, lay eggs over couple week period, incubate for 21 days, and hatch throughout summer) - Important to begin nesting in March/April to have hatchlings come off when food is available (best conditions) - Important that everyone is reproductively ready at same time to maximize fertilization efficiency - For some species, predator spaciation so predator can't kill all offspring - Some cues aren't photoperiod; can be manipulated and adjust the onset - Length/window of opportunity: as long as it is open, will connote to reproduce; longer the window, more nests/litters they will have, so the greater the reproductive output - Can be kept open loner by management by providing rescues over longer period of time
Illegal Taking (Poaching)
- Equal to legal harvest? NO, ILLEGALLY TAKING - Fair chase? NO - THIS IS NOT HUNTING! - Implications - Population and habitat mgmt. - SY considerations - Estimate illegal take
Vitamins
- Essential in small amounts - Coprophagy: eating of own feces (adaptation) - Longer food in digestive system = more nutrients
Habitat Management Approaches
- Featured (single) species management - Multiple species mgmt. (game species) - Biodiversity mgmt. (max. # of species) - Ecosystem mgmt. (maintain what should be present in ecoregion) - Intervention and naturalness
Department of the Interior (USDI)
- Fish & Wildlife Service (FWS) - Geological Survey (GS) - National Park Service (NPS) - Bureau of Land Management (BLM) - Bureau of Indian Affairs - Bureau of Reclamation
Habitat Resources/Components (Welfare Factors)
- Food - Cover - Water - Space - In relation to conditions (i.e. predation, weather, each other, etc.) - Think - Spatially (horizontally and vertically - Temporally (Annually and seasonally) - Every species and habitat - Effect of other conditions (climate, weather, other organisms)
Understanding Wildlife Nutrition
- Food use - Food digestibility - Food availability - Food selection (most important to wildlife management)
"Rate of increase reveals much more about a population that the speed with which it grows. It measures a population's general well-being, describing the average reaction of all members of the population to the collective action of all environmental influences. No other statistic summarizes so concisely the demographic vigor of a population."
- G. Caughley
Generalists vs. Specialists
- Generalists: Eat anything - Specialists: need specific food/cover; introduce management issues
Type of Parasites (living Organisms)
- Gizzard worms - Nasal leeches - Gastrointestinal nematodes - Lungworms - Liver flukes - Boophilus - Psoroptes spp. - Tapeworms - Meningeal worms (brain worm in deer; WTD carrier) - Nasal bots - Ascarid roundworm - Giardia spp. - Trichomoniasis - Mange
Habitat Management
- Habitat components in relation to conditions - Food, cover, water, and space
Standard Terminology
- Habitat: collection of resources and conditions that make up a place; depending on what makes up that collection determines the suitability for certain species - Quality depends on species - Habitat type (particular type of habitat) vs. vegetation association vs. cover type - Have multiple definitions - Cover is only ONE part of habitat - Habitat made up of more than vegetation though it is normally what's referred to when one references habitat - Habitat components (resources) vs. conditions - All terms could have varying meaning depending on who talking to, which could cause problems between professionals; standardize use of terms and use consistent definitions - Habitat use: how much habitat is used - Habitat selection: use of a type of habitat relative to availability - Habitat availability: abundance of habitat, could include how accessible the habitat is - Habitat quality: very subjective term - Suitable habitat vs. unsuitable habitat: poor terms - If a species lives there, must be somewhat suitable - Unused habitat and unoccupied habitat - More descriptive than prior ones - Problem with experiments could lead to incorrect conclusions - Microhabitat vs. macrohabitat vs. landscape - Cause problems when communicating about habitat scale; still applied today in literature - Goes from smallest to largest but lack defining lines between each habitat size and depends on person, species - Critical habitat: legal term describing features, resources, or conditions that are critical to a species (limiting resource) - Diversity vs. Biodiversity (biologica diversity) - Richness vs. diversity - Diversity almost always misapplied - Think of # of species/biological things in an area = species richness (relative abundance) - Diversity: made up of richness and evenness (relative abundance)
When density independent factors are controlling populations
- Harvestable surplus? - K (carrying capacity) - May be beneficial to take population below K - What if we don't know enough? - What if regulations are impractical?
What was the Roosevelt Doctrine and how did it affect wildlife conservation?
- Holistic look - entire ecosystems not just - Conservation of natural resources through wise use as a public responsibility, and their private ownership as a public trust - Science as a tool for and foundation of conservation - Conservation not just preservation
History of Harvest
- Homo erectus: ~500,000 BP - Pleistocene Overkill: ~12,000 BP - Domestication of animals: 10,000-6,000 BC - Caused decline of hunting - Charlemagne: 700's - Mongols: 1200's - Market Hunting: ~1800s - Hunting Regulations in U.S.: 1800s - Roosevelt's and Pinchot's Wise Use: 1900s - American Game Policy - Facilitation of Hunting Heritage and Wildlife Conservation (executive Order August 2007) - Today - The future?
divisions
- Hunting and game management - handles anything with hunting and game animals - Marine Fisheries Management - manage salt water fish - Freshwater - Manage fresh water fish - Law enforcement - biggest division - Habitat and species - non-game and endangered species
Types of Harvest
- Hunting* - Trapping - Fishing - Collecting - Welfare or decimating factor? - Consider human dimensions and attitudes toward different forms of consumptive use
Florida Fish & Wildlife Conservation Commission
- Independent state agency in Florida - makes fish and wildlife law - Funding from the legislature
Regular, even, uniform, overdispersed
- Individuals are more evenly spaced than expected based on chance - resources MUST homogeneously distributed - territories - Harm/poison neighbors
Native Peoples and Hunting
- Is it OK for them to hunt? - Some need for subsistence or culturally important - Recreational opportunities - If so, why not me? - Really a true value system? - Why not OK for those who may see it as tradition/subsistence?
"Accidental mortality is of greater concern if the affected wildlife population is small, so that a few accidentally killed animals constitutes a fairly large proportion of the population."
- J. A. Bailey - Only really important for small populations
"They lunged their spears...Realization came slowly to the exhausted men. In the sudden silence, the hunters looked at each other. Their hearts beaf faster with a new kind of excitement... They did it! They killed the mighty mammoth!... [They] had killed the gigantic creature no other predator could."
- J.M Auel
"Disease in a wildlife population is rarely a simple, one-cause, one-effect situation. Usually it is the product of profound changes in the environment."
- L. Karstad - Tied to habitat quality, some of which is manageable
Why were the Lacey and Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Acts important?
- Lacey act got rid of market hunting and the transportation of illegal wildlife - Mig bird hunting stamp act - ducks and migratory birds require a federal license -> money used to buy more lands for wildlife refuges
Fats (and oils)
- Large amount wildlife can't digest - 9.5 kcal/g - Meat and some seeds (corn, legumes) - Availability/digestibility
Sex Relations/Mating Habits
- Large effect on reproductive success (especially sex ratio) and population productivity - Monogamy: one male mates with one female (herps, mammals, birds use as most common mating system) - Polygamy: many mates - Polyandry: one female with multiple males (rare) - Polygyny: one male with multiple females (predominant in mammals) - Promiscuity: both sexes mate with multiple partners (sage grouse, prairie grouse) - Management implications
Ecological Traps
- Looks good for protection and other shelter functions but actually hurts wildlife - Looks like it will help with reproduction but detrimental to surivival
Classification: Habitat Types
- Many systems - Typically work on a scale system (smaller to larger) - Based on earlier work - Bailey (1994) Ecoregions (ecological Regions) - USDA Forest Service - Rickets et al. (1999) Ecoregions* - Dept. of Interior agencies
Population Density
- Many welfare and decimating factors - Larger the population, more factors - Density-dependence - Effects of all different factors depend on how many animals present - low number of individuals, reproductive rate increases - As number increases, reproductive rate decreases due to rescues and individuals - Density-indepndent reproduction - As population density increases, reproductive rate stays the same and doesn't depend on size of population - Density-dependence and habitat - As population density increased, reproductive rate decreases - Allee affect: no production until minimum number reached in population; have no productive mate because small amount of mates (one cue for some species is presence of others)
Reproductive and Courtship Behavior
- Mate attraction - Males most vocal to increase reproductive success - Intraspecific recognition - Stimulate and synchronize copulation - Trade-offs - Evolved with certain conditions - Habitats and management
Federal
- Migratory - Exotics - Interstate shipments - Endangered species and their habitat - Federal lands and thing's that affect it - International agreements
Food Selection
- Most important; use relative to availability - A limiting factor/link - % available: # if randomly selection - % use: choosing to eat or not to eat
Minerals (Nutrients)
- Needed in small amounts = micro Micro vs. macro - 0.01% of body mass - Less than: micro - More than: macro - Licks: get minerals from sources other than food - Can't get minerals from food they eat
Safety
- Non-hunters in particular often feel unsafe - Safer than most sports and rec. activities (American Sports Data 2002) - hunting: 1.3 injuries/participant - Football: 18.8 injuries/participant - Soccer: 9.3 injuries/participant - Tennis: 2.5 injuries/participant - Hunting related accidents down 30% during past 10 yrs - Hunter safety courses - The risk of being involved in a hunting accident (hunters and non-hunters) is less than that of getting struck by lightning! - Typically fall out of tree-stand hunting WTD
Normal vs. Abnormal
- Normal: predation, starvation, etc. - Particular type of mortality that a species evolved with - Can deal better with changes and adaptations - Abnormal: hunting - Kind of mortality or amount of kind of mortality that a species didn't evolve with - Can be devastating to population because have no strategy to deal with change (behaviors, reproductive rate, can't change fast enough, etc.) - Management implications - Abnormal more of management concern - Normal typically refers to habitat
Scales of Wildlife management
- One species - Several species together - All of the species in a system - Ecosystem is all the natural stuff that's supposed to be there. - Biodiversity can be very unnatural since there is a focus on maximizing
Factors Influencing Annual Reproductive Success
- Onset and length of breeding season - Litter/clutch size - Prenatal survival - Survival of newborns - Parental care - Age at sexual maturity - Sex ratios and mating habits - Population density
Dispersal: Importance and Management Implications
- Overcrowding (decrease good potential) - Rescue effects - Recolonization - Range expansion - Inbreeding (decrease dispersal) - Negative - Other
Imprinting
- Permanent learning during the critical period (not all species do this, but waterfowl, cranes, some mammals) - Critical period: hours to first few days of life (depends on species) - What they learn is never forgotten (typically learn who mom and dad are; usually enhances survival) - Implications - Large amount of potential benefits - Take advantage of this: whooping cranes (ES) will have multiple births, can only raise one, but biologists will remove one and allow sandhill to raise it (doesn't cause many problems but does cause some) - Many imprint on plane to learn migration route
Characteristics of Harvest Populations
- Population size - Population stability - Fecundity - Life span - Mortality form other causes Unknown effects - Trophy's smaller? - Due to overhunting and taking only bigger animals, but study suggested not problem - Genetics?
Levels of Sex Ratios
- Primary: fertilization; 50:50 - Secondary: birth (natality); ~50:50 - Skewed sex ratio has large impact on reproductive success - Most commonly studied - Tertiary: juveniles - Quaternary: adults (recruited)
Wildlife Diseases and People
- Rabies - No cure for rabies; once seen, death imminent - Birds and herps can't have rabies - Bats can live with rabies - Lyme Disease (bullseye with bite in middle) - If get to arthritic stage, once treated, won't get better but also won't get worse - West Nile virus (started in swimming pool in NY) - Avian influenza - Chronic wasting disease (CWD) - Don't want to spread to deer (like mad cow disease)
Productivity
- Recruitment (don't use this definition on exam) - Surplus or yield produced - # offspring surviving particular time period - dN/dt* (what we define it as; related to reproductive success; population growth rate) Biotic potential relates to reproductive success; ideal reproductive rate
States
- Resident wildlife - Research - Unless it is a federal law then the regulations come from the states
Energy
- Season - Activity - Size matters - Species - Thermal neutral zone: range of temperature where you don't have to produce heat/sweat to maintain homeostasis - Homeotherms vs. poikilotherms (both produce heat internally; focus on proportion of heat) - Birds, mammals maintain constant temperature vs. amphibians, reptiles don't maintain constant body temperature - Endotherm vs. ectotherm (size matters in term of energy needs) - Content (gross): Fats > Proteins > Carbohydrates - Utilization: Carbs > Fats > Proteins - Food vs. stored: Mammals (store energy and protein) > birds (small amount of potential storage in body, but may be stored outside body) > herps - If energy is lost, it doesn't get utilized - Gross energy goes to digestible energy and energy lost as feces - Digestible energy goes to metabolizable energy and energy lost in urine and methane - Metabolizable energy goes to net energy or energy lost in work of digestion - Species-specific determines how much is lost
Differential Vulnerability
- Sex and age have different survival rates - Mating habits - Effects on sex ratios and age strcutre - Productivity - Flook (1970): Unhunted elk - Sex ratio of newborn calves: 100:100 - Sex ratio of yearlings: 131:100 (younger females worse condition) - Sex ratio of >/ 2 year olds: 31:100 (situational; relates to breeding behavior) - Why? Fat, teeth, mating system (polygenist) - Teeth have more wear in males so can later cause starvation - Hunted Black bears - Sex ratio of population: 72:100 - Sex ratio of harvest: 145:100 - Why? - Movements: male home range size = 30.8 sq. km female home range = 5.2 sq. km - Harvest technique: 4% of harvest using bait female 40% using dogs is female - Harvest timing: denning - Management - Olson (1965): Hunter canvasbacks - Sex ratio of population: 186:100 - Sex ratio of harvest: 100:100 - Response to decoys - Landed or flew low: 41% : 70% - Landed among decoys: 19% : 32% - Why? - Behavior and abundance - Females twice as vulnerable to be harvested, and twice as many males in population - Hunters can't tell between males and females - Alford and Bolen (1977): Hunted Northern Pintails - Sex ratio of population: 175: 100 - Sex ratio of decoyed birds: 376: 100 - Why? - Males were harvested at higher rates (don't know why) and suspect that females are suffering mortality relative to males naturally at breeding grounds - Management implications - Sex and age structures can be affected - Could have huge impacts on productivity, i.e. mating habits
What Affects Cover Requirements?
- Species - Function - Season - Age - Predation pressure - Pests - Weather - Region
Diet
- Species - Sex (females need more because of reproduction) - Age - Season - Year
Types of Wildlife Mortality
- Starvation and Malnutrition (natural) - Disease and Parasites (natural) - Accidents (natural) - Predation (natural) - Exposure (Leopold didn't mention as decimating factor; natural) - Harvest - All of these can be normal or abnormal
Effects on Condition
- Survival and reproduction (N) - Limiting season (prior season) - Reserves - Too fat? - No such thing in free-range wildlife - Sliding down a brushy hillside - Summer: energy demands (lactation, growth, rut, etc.) demand building up large amounts of reserves with summer food (aids ascent uphill) - Fall: energy demands with aid of summer food help one get farther up the hill (lead load = most fat = highest on hill) - Winter: winter food (slows descent) and condition declines - Spring: if demands not met early in summer to get fat, results in excessive weight loss (run out of bodily energy reserves) and die; the higher up the hill, the higher the amount of fat found from prior seasons
"Reasonable healthy bobwhites may perish through imprisonment by drifting snow... Exposure to cold, high wings, and snow may kill reasonably healthy bobwhites... Although drifting and undue cold is an infrequent occurrence, it appears worthy of the game manager's attention, especially in the provision and strengthening of cover."
- T.G. Scott
Wildlife Management
- The art of making land produce sustained annual crops of wild game for recreational use - The art of making land produce valuable populations of wildlife - The practical ecology of all vertebrates and their plant and animal associates along sound biological lines - Stewardship of wildlife
Dispersion
- The distrivuion of organisms in space - Related to movements because depending on how you move, puts in different places in work Types - Random - Regular, even, uniform, overdispersed - Aggregated, contagious, clumped, underdispersed
Selection vs. Use vs. Availability
- These vary with different activities Availability and management - Land-use - Succession
What are field borders and how are these important to wildlife?
- They are narrow strips (2-5m) of permanent vegetation (grasses and legumes, sometimes 2-5 rows of crops left standing) - Provides: food and cover, corridors and diversity, erosion control, fire breaks
Migration
- Two (multi)-way movements, usually between seasonal HR - Not all species - North- South? - Movement between season HR's, but can be E-W Why? - Cost vs. benefits (costs outweigh benefits) - Only go as far as needed to get predictable, abundant resources - Short-stopping? - Stopping short of final destination; for species that have flexible response depending on season/location, mild/hard - Importance? - Half of birds that migrate don't return to HR - May stay in one place if all needed is offered - Importance and management implications - Provide food for young, habitat; provide rescues needed depending on season - E.g. NA Waterfowl Management Plan (magi by harvest and on flyway basis) - America carved into 4 flyways (1. Atlantic, 2. Mississippi, 3. Central, 4. Pacific) - Other management units (5. Alaska, 6. Canada, 7. Mexico) - Common migratory path shared by migratory birds - Migration Routes - Stop over sites found by looking at migration corridor - Most migratory birds stop, rest, refuel when migrating - Place Natl. Wildlife Refuge for stop-over sites
Density-Dependence
- Types - A: positive slope, density-dependent - B: upside down parabola, density-dependent - C: flat, horizontal line; density-independent
Barriers
- Unusable habitat (matrix) - Unusual habitat between dispersion areas (clumps, etc) - Thick cover - Roads (getting increasingly worse) - Water - Fences - Other
Recruitment, Retention, and Training
- Various organizations and magazines - Hunter and trapper education classes - Becoming an Outdoors-Women (BOW) - Women of Wildlife (WOW)
Leopold, Ethics & the NA Model
- We seem ultimately always thrown back on individual ethics as the basis of conservation policy. It is hard to make a man, by pressure of law or money, do a thing which does not spring naturally from his own personal sense of right and wrong. - Policies and laws are necessary but they aren't the only things needed for success
What is the North American Model for Wildlife Conservation?
- Wildlife is held in the public trust - Eliminate commerce in dead wildlife - Allocate wildlife use through law - Hunting opportunities for all - Wildlife may be killed only for legitimate reasons - Wildlife is an international resource - Science as the basis for wildlife policy
7 Sisters of Conservation
- Wildlife is held in the public trust - Eliminate commerce in dead wildlife - Allocate wildlife use through law - Hunting opportunities for all - Wildlife may be killed only for legitimate reasons - Wildlife is an international resource - Science as the basis for wildlife policy
When selecting vegetation as a source of cover, do wildlife typically select the plant species or a particular growth form?
Structure
Scientific, Philosophical, & Educational Wildlife Values
Studies (scientific & philosophical) Understand ecology, physiology, behavior, etc. & ourselves Baseline information Use information in classrooms to educate about the environment and develop an environmental ethic Conservation
Why Harvest?
Subsistence - Large amounts of protein come from hunting, rely on it to get enough meat (price, quantity, etc.) Management - Population stability - Overpopulation - Health of animals - Condition of the environment - Obtain population information Individual motivations
Why do we harvest wildlife?
Subsistence Management - Population stability - Overpopulation -Health of animals -Condition of the environment - Obtain population information Individual motivations
3 individual motivations for people that hunt
Subsistence, Management, Individual Motivations
Subtidal
Subsystem always submerged.
Tidal
Subsystem exposed at low tide at least part of the year.
Intertidal
Subsystem exposed at low tide.
Limnetic
Subsystem more than 2 m deep.
Upper perennial
Subsystem of permanent, flowing water with little or no floodplain.
Intermittent
Subsystem with nontidal water for only part of the year.
Lower perennial
Subsystem with permanent, flowing waters with well developed floodplain.
Littoral
Subsystem with water less than 2 m deep, close to shore.
Birthrate
Subtract this from death rate and you get the Malthusian Parameter.
What value is there in knowing about the reproductive/courtship behaviors of wildlife?
Survival & sex ratios Many birds & ungulates Lekking spp. - promiscuous behavior; ex: sage grouse Sampling
American Game Policy
1) Buy and protect more land for the public domain 2) Most animals are not on public land so we need to be able to provide incentives to private land owners for conservation means 3) Everyone should be brought together and have a say in what should happen in conservation; not just hunters 4) Make a profession 5) Everyone should help pay 7) Not just hunters should pay - maybe they should only pay for game, not manatees
Describe the American Game Policy. please
1) Buy and protect more land for the public domain 2) Most animals are not on public land so we need to be able to provide incentives to private land owners for conservation means 3) Everyone should be brought together and have a say in what should happen in conservation; not just hunters 4) Make a profession 5) Do research 6) Everyone should help and play an active involvement 7) Not just hunters should pay - maybe they should only pay for game, not manatees
Estuarine
System encompassing coastal waters and embayments that contain salt or brackish water.
Marine
System of open ocean.
Riverine
Systems associated with a river.
Palustrine
Systems that are shallow, often ephemeral in nature, and often lacking fish.
Group selection
Targeting a small collection of trees for harvest.
How is wildlife management paid for?
Taxes - almost all federal organizations Excise tax and License sales - 75% of the state budget Florida gets only like a 1/3 - most from the legislature
Fair Chase
Teddy's Bear - FDR didn't harvest bear because thought it didn't have a fair chance to get away from him
Wise Use Doctrine
Teddy's program.
Concrete jungle
Term referring to urban areas.
What are the flyaways?
1. Atlantic 2. Mississippi 3. Central 4. Pacific They are based on wildlife common migrations.
Types of accidents for wildlife
1. Collision 2. Drowning 3. Choking 4.Falls 5. Animal research 6. Entanglement/entrapment
6 causes of disease
1. Intrinsic flaws 2.Deficiency 3. Exogenous poisons 4. Trauma 5.Tumors 6. Living Organisms
The conservation of large carnivores in Africa centers around what 2 things?
1. The impact they have on their prey 2. the impact they have on other carnivores
Survival
1. mortality.
The conservation of large carnivores in Africa centers around what 2 things?
1. the impact they have on their prey 2. the impact they have on other carnivores
5 types of predation
1.Chance(common) 2. Habit 3. Sucker list 4. Starvation 5. Sanitary(old, weak)
steps in adaptive harvest management
1.Determine the status of the resource 2.Determine how closely the management strategy achieved the objectives 3. Research & monitoring - mandatory reporting, check stations, surveys, & large scale studies 4. Adjust management strategies according to needs 5. Adaptive Management (trial & error)
What are the food components
1.Energy 2.Proteins 3.Carbohydrates 4.Fats 5.Minerals 6.Vitamins
What are is in Aldo's population model?
1.Hunting 2.Predation 3. Starvation 4.Disease/Parasites 5. Accidents 6.Special Factors 7.Food, Cover, Water.
3 harvest management principles
1.Yield 2.Diminishing returns*Compensatory harvest mortality 3. Doomed surplus (Threshold of security,Harvestable surplus)
How does the second law of thermodynamics relate to wildlife ecology? How does knowing it help a manager? Give an example.
10% rule As you go up the food web/chain, the animals become more scarce carnivore scarcity
First exotic introduced to the U.S.
1500s
Era of abundance
1600 - 1849
First closed seasons on hunting game -
1708
Public Trust Doctrine
1842 Supreme Court Decision: - Natural resources belong to all people in the U.S. - Entrust government to manage it on our behalf
Era of over exploitation
1850 - 1899
first hunting licenses required
1864
Era of Protection
1900 - 1929
Lacey Act
1900 - got rid of market hunting; gave the federal government authority to regulate the transportation of wildlife -> stuff that's illegal to harvest, it's illegal to import/export
Lacey Act
1900- got rid of market hunting; gave the federal government authority to regulate the transportation of wildlife -> stuff that's illegal to harvest, it's illegal to import/export; Era of protection
Era of Game management
1930 - 1965
Mig bird hunting stamp act
1934 - ducks and migratory birds require a federal license -> money used to buy more lands for wildlife refuges; Era of Game Management
Mig bird hunting stamp act
1934: ducks and migratory birds require a federal license -> money used to buy more lands for wildlife refuges
Fed aid in wildlife restoration act
1937
Fed aid in wildlife restoration act
1937; Era of Game Management
federal aid in fish restoration act
1950- money for research education, etc
federal aid in fish restoration act
1950: money for research education, etc; Era of Game Management
Era of Environmental/Ecological Management -
1966-present
Describe the American Game Policy.
1st time the government asked fish and wildlife experts to come up with policy
Exploitation competition
2 species compete for the same resources
Interference competition
2 species interact with each other directly
Clean Air
The Act that lets us breather better.
Duckstamp
The Act that provides funds to purchase wetlands and other areas for refuges.
ratio to maximize polygyny
25:75
Hunting and Game Management
The FWC division that manages game species.
Habitat and Species Conservation
The FWC division that often takes a more indirect approach to wildlife management.
Interstate
The Lacey Act regulates _____ wildlife shipments.
Community of Interdependent Parts
The Land Ethic suggests that people are a member of a _____ _____ _____ _____.
Kcal/g for carbs
3.9-4.2
Carbohydrates
3.9-4.2 kcal/g Cellulose, starches, sugars Plants* Availability/digestibility
Aldo Leopold
The Man.
Community Baboon Sanctuary
The _____ _____ _____ in Belize does not protect the species in its name.
Urban monoculture
The _____ _____ lacks many habitat components and this is why many species cannot live in cities.
Pleistocene Overkill
The _____ _____ may be the first example of overharvest.
Stocking rate
The _____ _____ refers to the density of livestock in an area.
Composition-
The _____ of a future forest is largely determined by soil, seedbed, and harvest and regeneration methods.
Conversion
The _____ of many wetlands to other uses is a major reason for wetland loss.
Endocrine
The _____ system is used to send chemical messages through the body.
Peak
The abundance of certain species as well as diversity often has a _____ in areas with intermediate levels of disturbance and development.
Plow
The agricultural Tool.
Animal unit
The amount of forage required by a typical cow/calf pair.
Wildlife Management/Conservation
The application of ecological knowledge to wildlife and habitats that balances the needs of people with that of wildlife
Basal area
The area of wood in a tree or group of trees.
Homerange
The area providing all an animal needs.
Silviculture-
The art and science of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests and woodlands to meet the diverse needs and values of landowners and society on a sustainable basis.
What is organic farming? How does it differ from traditional farming? Are chemicals used? What are benefits for wildlife?
The chemicals (herbicide, pesticide, and fertilizer) are just naturally based but are still used; increased diversity
Opportunities for all
The conservation model includes hunting _____ _____ _____.
Threshold of Security
The density of animals after which cover is limiting and mortality may increase.
Sedimentation
The detrimental filling of aquatic and wetland habitats.
What is dispersion and how does knowing something about it help us manage?
The distribution of organisms in space - Random - Regular, even, uniform, overdispersed - Aggregated, contagious, clumped, underdispersed
Interdune
The diverse lower/middle ground of a barrier island.
People
The dominance of _____ in cites provides a distinct challenge to wildlife and wildlifers.
Foredunes
The dune type closest to the ocean.
Fish and Wildlife Coordination
The early Act providing federal funds to states for wildlife conservation.
Protein
5.7 kcal/g Amino acids* Meat and legumes Availability/digestibility
ratio to maximize monogamy
50:50
11. What is commercial forest? How much of the U.S. and Southeast is commercial?
64% commercial (v. industrial) b.Southeast- 94% commercial timberland
Chickadee
65290.
Food Security act
85' - programs for agricultural land owners; Era of Environmental/Ecological Management
Food Security act
85'- programs for agricultural land owners
kcal/g of Fats
9.5
Fats (and oils)
9.5 kcal/g Meat and some seeds Availability/digestibility
Describe the average hunter in terms of sex, age, income, etc.
94% white; 3%AA and other 98% non-Hispanic 89% male 62% 35-64; 27% 16-34; 11% >64 43% through high school 56% $25,000-100,000 70% full time employment
Cemetary
A "creepy" area that can provide good and sometimes the only wildlife habitat in urban areas.
Roosevelt
A "wise" president; set aside millions of hectares of land; brought conservation to the forefront of policy.
Swamp Buster
A Farm Bill Provision helping wetlands in agricultural areas.
Wetland Reserve Program
A Farm Bill program helping wetlands.
Wetlands Reserve Program
A Farm Bill program that benefits wetlands.
Mangrove
A Florida coastal plant community.
Land Owner Assistance Program
A Florida-specific landowner program.
Cheat Takes Over
A Leopold essay and exotic range plant.
Waterfowl Management
A Plan to manage waterfowl in North America.
Plow
A Tool that can be used to improve pastures.
Gun
A Tool that can prevent habitat degradation.
Biological Survey
A USFWS forerunner.
Salvage Cut
A _____ _____ attempts to harvest trees before they lose value; often after a disease or disturbance impacted or killed the trees.
Limited toolbox
A _____ _____ is a problem faced by wildlife managers trying to control populations in cities.
Recovery plan
A _____ _____ must be completed for all species protected as endangered.
Field Border
A _____ _____ surrounds units on a farm and can provide habitat (often herbaceous plant cover), edge, and fire breaks.
Saw Log
A _____ is a piece of tree big enough to be sawed.
Botulism
A bacterial disease of birds, especially waterfowl; muscle paralysis and inability to walk or fly, and limberneck; acute in some years and locations.
Avian cholera
A bacterial disease of birds, especially waterfowl; poor coordination, hemorrhages around the heart, and liver necrosis; heavy annual mortality in local areas.
Brucellosis
A bacterial disease of mammals, especially big game; lameness from infected joints, scrotal enlargement, aborted fetuses, small and weak calves; little adult mortality; can infect humans with flu like symptoms; domestic livestock can have it.
Lyme Disease
A bacterial disease of mammals, especially deer and rodents, transmitted by Ixodes spp. ticks; few signs or effects in wildlife; fever, joint pain, lameness, neurological problems, and possible death if untreated in humans.
Anthrax
A bacterial disease of mammals, especially herbivore; naturally occurring at low levels in the environment, with occasional outbreaks; fever, weakness, breathing difficulty, hemorrhaging and blood loss, swollen lymph nodes, and death.
Tularemia
A bacterial disease of mammals, especially rodents and lagomorphs; lethargy, swollen lymph nodes, liver and spleen necrosis, and occasional death; can be life threatening to humans.
Sylvatic Plague
A bacterial disease of mammals, especially rodents; enlarged spleen, hemorrhaging of lymph nodes, liver, spleen, and lung necrosis; can be acute or locally chronic.
Tuberculosis
A bacterial disease of mammals, especially ungulates; emaciation, depression, trouble breathing, nasal discharge, and lymph node necrosis; transmitted to and from livestock.
Leptospirosis
A bacterial disease of mammals; effects on wildlife rare; in humans it can lead to fever, weakness, kidney problems, meningitis, and possible death.
Animal Rights Ethic
A belief that can lead to wildlife community problems.
Storm protection
A benefit of barrier islands to the mainland.
Diversity
A benefit of older family farms for wildlife.
Tourism
A boom in _____ has occurred in many Florida coastal areas.
Smokey the Bear-
A bruin who was not so good for forest health and safety.
Deficiency
A cause of disease.
Living Organisms
A cause of disease.
Tumors
A cause of disease.
Succession
A change in community composition through time.
Aggregated
A clumped distribution.
Disease
A condition of the body in which there is an incorrect function resulting from the effect of heredity, infection, diet, or the environment.
Trapping
A consumptive use of wildlife that is not prevalent today because of a lack of demand.
Collecting
A consumptive use that can be part of the pet trade.
Predator Control
A controversial practice thought to boost prey populations.
Land Ethic
A conviction of individual responsibility for the health of land.
Damage
A costly value of wildlife.
Conservation Biology
A crisis discipline
Food plot
A cultivated field used to feed wildlife.
Gun
A deadly Tool.
Accidents
A decimating factor that is naturally more prevalent than most think.
Chronic wasting disease
A deer disease of concern that is like Mad cow Disease.
Stewardship
A definition of wildlife management
Drill-
A device used to plant seed below the soil surface..
Deficiency Diseases
A disease that is caused by a dietary deficiency of specific nutrients and resulting from: -Inadequate nutrients in diet/poor quality diet -Interference with intake of nutrients -Interference with storage or use of nutrients -Increased excretion of nutrients -Increased dietary requirements associated with pregnancy or lactation
Enzootic
A disease that is chronic and endemic in an animal population. The disease is constantly present in an animal population but usually only affects a small number of animals at any one time.
Epizootic
A disease that is eruptive within an animal population. An outbreak of this type of disease affects many animals within a population at the same time causing an epidemic.
Trauma
A distressful cause of disease.
Diet
A diverse one of these is usually best for animals.
Tundra
A diverse, often cold rangeland type found at high elevations and latitudes.
Law Enforcement
A division of FWC.
Adaptive Harvest Management
A ever improving and changing pattern of consumptive use and wildlife management.
Decimating
A factor that kills animals.
Soft
A feathered edge.
Forest service
A federal agency whose name does not indicate it, but manages much rangeland.
Swamp Buster
A federal provision that stopped assistance to farmers destroying wetlands.
Microhabitat
A fine scale set of resources and conditions is termed _____.
Silvopature
A forest management system that includes grazing and production of wood products.
Even aged
A forest management system that promotes trees of the same size and age.
Uneven aged
A forest management system where trees are of various ages.
Charcoal-
A forest product used for cooking and heating.
Natural Pine
A forest type on the decline in the Southeast.
Hunting
A form of consumptive wildlife use.
Abnormal
A form of mortality that a species did not evolve with.
Foraging
A function of costal habitats such as grass beds for manatees.
Water filtration
A function that relates to wetlands too.
Aspergillosis
A fungal diseases of mammals and many birds, especially game birds; respiratory problems, "mold" in respiratory tract, and some mortality.
Ruderal
A goal in urban areas is often to restore managed and _____ habitats.
Decrease
A goal of wildlife conservation
Stabilize
A goal of wildlife conservation
Rotational
A grazing system that moves livestock among pastures.
Environmentally protective
A grazing system where livestock are cautiously managed and strictly controlled to protect fragile environments.
Short duration
A grazing system where livestock are grazed intensively in an area for one week then moved.
Continuous
A grazing system where livestock remain in a single pasture or paddock.
Deferred Rotation
A grazing systems where livestock grazing is delayed in an area until important forage species have gone to seed.
Stand-
A group of trees.
ORVS
A growing recreational problem in parks.
Type
A habitat _____ includes more than just vegetation, but often only refers to the plant community.
Water
A habitat component found in coastal areas.
Water
A habitat component that is often limiting in rangelands.
Cover
A habitat component that islands may serve as.
Food
A habitat component.
Space
A habitat component.
Water
A habitat component.
Corridor
A habitat connection.
Ecological Trap
A habitat that looks good to wildlife but may ultimately be detrimental.
Patch
A habitat unit.
Fire
A hot Tool.
Season
A hunting _____ defines the period when it is legal to harvest a particular season.
Biodiversity
A lack of _____ is often what limits wildlife in cities.
Access
A lack of _____ is one reason there are fewer hunters.
Edge
A lack of _____ on modern farms often leads to fewer wildlife species and individuals.
Malnutrition
A lack of proper nutrition.
Welfare
A lack of these factors leads to problems.
Population management
A lack of this has led to failure of species introductions.
Citizen
A land ethic changes people from a conqueror to a _____.
Safe harbor
A landowner protection agreement relative to endangered species.
Great Dismal
A large swamp in the costal Carolina's.
Moderates
A large wetland _____ extremes in atmospheric conditions.
Gulf Coast
A large wetland complex of southeastern coastal states.
Journal of Wildlife Management
A leading wildlife publication
Shelter Belt
A linear strip of vegetation, often trees, used as a wind break.
Appendix
A list of species endangered by trade.
Housesparrow
A little "English" bird introduced to the U.S. and likes cities.
Cuban Treefrog
A little exotic frog in Florida.
Ranch
A livestock farm.
Fire
A management Tool of great value in southeastern forests.
Harvest
A management tool and consumptive use of wildlife.
Harvest
A management tool that some consider natural.
Multiple use
A mandate on federal lands that affects grazing.
Root plowing
A mechanical method that uses a heavy blade to severe plant roots below ground.
Roller chopping
A mechanical treatment that involves dragging a bladed drum across the ground to remove plant cover and disturb the soil.
Mow
A mechanical treatment to reduce herbaceous plant height and prevent seeding is to _____.
Pitting
A mechanical treatment where a disk or drum is dragged to create small basins in the ground that hold water.
Seed tree-
A method of harvest that retains some trees to serve as a seed source for the next forest.
Shelter wood-
A method of harvest where some trees are retained to provide protection, shade, etc... for regeneration.
Broadcast
A method of seeding where seed is thrown on the soil surface.
Ethics
A moral philosophy Standards we employ to determine our actions and evaluate whether something is good or bad
Ethics
A moral philosophy.
Upland hardwood-
A more xeric deciduous forest type of the Southeast.
Appreciation
A motivation of some hunters.
Traditional Hunter
A name for someone who gets involved with hunting through family.
Caribou
A native big game species that has been reintroduced, often unsuccessfully, in many areas.
Dike
A natural or artificial slope or wall to regulate water levels.
Levee
A natural or artificial slope or wall to regulate water levels.
Death
A natural process that reduces population growth.
Ascarid Roundworms
A nematode parasite of many mammals; common but few impacts on wild animals.
Ascarid Round Worms
A nematode parasite of many mammals; common but few impacts on wildlife.
Wildlife Viewing
A no consumptive use.
Pine straw
A non-wood forest product used for mulch.
dispersal characteristics
A one-way movement, where an animal abandons its home range in search of new one Emigration (E) Immigration (I)
Fire
A particularly useful habitat management Tool in Florida.
WMI
A partner in the Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit System.
Hierarchy
A pecking order.
What is a covert?
A place to hide
Cover
A place to hide; a lack of which is problematic.
Habitat
A place with certain resources and conditions.
Propagule-
A plant part used to initiate a new individual vegetatively.
Pheasant
A popular, exotic game bird from Asia.
Metapopulation
A population of populations.
Synurbanization
A population of wildlife adapting to urban conditions.
Growth
A population's _____ rate tells much about its condition.
Rate
A population's mortality _____ often changes as population density changes.
Race
A portion of a population that was afforded protection in more recent amendments to the federal law.
Coexistence
A potential outcome of competition.
Compostition
A potential outcome of competition.
Biotic/Ecological Succession
A predictable (?) change in the species of a community through time (plants and animals) - Seral stages - Wholesale changes, can't recognize one stage from other - Overlap from one stage to another - Very significant change - Climax (dynamic equilibrium; final phase) - Smaller scale/minor changes once final phase is reached Types - Primary: occurs on a place for the first time (i.e. sand dune, new volcanic island appears out of ocean) - Secondary: more common today; result of major disturbance (natural or anthropogenic) Pioneer species: plants that arrive first and colonize new areas after a new disturbance or once soil starts to develop; requires lots of sunlight and shade intolerant - Animals in this habitat also considered pioneer species - Other pants eventually replace early pioneer species and get mix of herbaceous and small woody plants - Competition between plants, change plant composition and microclimate and conditions which favors different suite of wildlife species - Doesn't have to end in forest How long does it take to complete? - Graber and Graber (1976) in Illinois - Secondary occurs faster than primary because materials already present in secondary - Climate, soil conditions, and type of disturbance affects how fast succession occurs - Implications - Some wildlife need shorter/longer years for successional completion Succession - Wildlife community changes as the plant side of community changes - Other species can exist in multiple successional stages - One successional stage typically provide everything wildlife needs, so need multiple successional stages in area to get all needs - Most species adapted to limited number of stages - Several stages may be needed to meet all needs and different life cycle parts; also need in close proximity - Ruffed grouse Long-term effects of succession on wildlife (Remington, WI; Bailey 1984) - Forest was cleared to create ag. areas - Cleared climax forests (less habitat) but added early successional stages - Wildlife diversified with disturbance - Less early succession through farm abandonment - 1930s: Massive wildlife destroyed habitat - Present: time as allowed mix of successional stages and most species present to some extent
Funding
A problem for all federal land management agencies, especially those for wildlife.
Waste discharge
A problem for coastal habitats near cities.
Monoculture
A problem in many modern farms for wildlife.
Exotics
A problem in places like the Galapagos Islands.
Conflicting mandates
A problem on all federal lands, especially parks.
Becoming an Outdoor Women
A program designed to expose women to outdoor skills and experiences.
Trichomoniasis
A protozoan parasite of birds, especially doves; lesions in mouth, throat, and crop, weakness, emaciation, and difficulty breathing; occasional large scale mortality.
Giardia
A protozoan parasite of mammals, especially beaver; few signs or effects on wildlife; excessive diarrhea in people.
Cow-
A rangeland management Tool that can benefit wildlife.
Shrub
A rangeland plant type, often despised by livestock producers.
Savannah
A rangeland type consisting of grasses and widely scattered trees.
Tundra
A rangeland type with many wetlands.
Species of Concern
A rare species designation not used federally.
Economics
A reason for consumptive wildlife use.
Market Hunting
A reason for massive declines of many species during the Era of Overexploitation.
Fill
A reason for wetland loss.
Recreation
A reason people enjoy coastal areas.
Team
A recovery _____ made up of experts is assembled once a species is listed.
Wood lot
A relatively small, isolated group of trees.
Cycle
A repeating pattern of abundance.
Stop over
A res site for migratory birds.
Niche
A set of resources and conditions describing where a species can exist.
Mate
A sexual partner.
Axe
A sharp Tool.
Conservation?
A social process encompassing both lay and professional activities that define and seek to attain wise use of wildlife resources and maintain the productivities of wildlife habitats
Hunting
A sometimes controversial consumptive wildlife use and management tool.
Endangered
A species in danger of extinction throughout all or a large portion of its range.
Threatened
A species likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future through all or a large portion of its range.
Vulnerable
A species likely to become threatened and in potential need of conservation action.
Introduced
A species moved in to an area where it never existed.
Invasive
A species that causes significant harm to others and the environment when introduced.
Cahow
A species that got some of the earliest protection.
Nomadic
A species that wanders, usually following food supplies, and never settles in one area.
Avoider
A species who will typically not live in urban environments and cannot use human subsidies.
Restricted
A species with a _____ geographic range is more prone to rarity and extinction.
Niche
A species with a broad _____ is less likely to become endangered.
Candidate
A species without protection but with enough information on it to be considered.
Chronic Wasting Disease
A spongiform encephalopathy of ungulates; weight loss, dehydration, incoordination, changes in temperament and other behaviors, brain lesions, and death.
Wildlife management area
A state wildlife area.
National Forest
A system of federal public forest.
Quality Deer Management
A system of managing deer for higher quality deer, habitat, and hunting experiences.
Defended
A territory is a _____ area.
Island Biogeography
A theory explaining how the distance between and size of habitat units affects species composition in the units.
Veneer
A thin sheet of usually high quality wood.
Boophilus
A tick that carries a protozoan parasite causing cattle fever or Babeosis in mammals; typically few signs or effects on wildlife; severe fever, fatigue, and possible death in livestock; largely eradicated from U.S.
Boophilus
A tick that carries a protozoan parasite causing cattle fever or babeosis in mammals; typically few signs or effects on wildlife; sever fever, fatigue, and possible death in livestock; largely eradicated from U.S.
Legacy
A tree that has seen it all.
Dentree
A tree where wildlife may rest, sleep, or nest.
A Sand County Almanac
A trip through the calendar.
Mangroves-
A tropical forest type.
Migration
A two-way movement between home ranges.
Travelling
A type of cover needed when traversing a home range.
No Till
A type of cultivation that has less soil disturbance and more residual vegetation.
ORVS
A type of disturbance leading to erosion.
National Park
A type of federal public land where for preserving natural, cultural, and historical areas for future generations.
Cow
A type of livestock and a Tool.
Increaser
A type of plant that increases with increased grazing to a point, but declines at high grazing levels.
Light
A type of pollution that can disorient sea turtles along the coast.
Adapter
A type of wildlife that does well in both cities and more wild places, and can utilize human subsidies.
Flatwoods
A unique rangeland community of Florida and the Southeast that is disturbance-dependent.
Social
A value of wildlife that leads to any societal benefit.
Integrated Pest Management
A variation of _____ _____ _____ has been proposed to help quail populations.
Microhabitat
A very small, specialized habitat, such as a clump of grass or a space between.
Khan
A villain in Star Trek that did some wildlife management.
West Nile Virus
A viral disease of birds and some mammals; depression, weight loss, neurological problems, incoordination, weakness, lack of awareness, and sometimes death.
Avian Pox
A viral disease of birds; vision and respiratory problems, and lesions on unfeathered areas and oral cavity.
Rabies
A viral disease of mammals, especially carnivores and bats; wandering, incoordination, lack of fear, aggression, convulsions, comma, and death; no cure once symptoms present; affects humans.
Distemper
A viral disease of mammals, especially carnivores; respiratory and intestinal problems, nasal and ocular discharge, diarrhea, and behavioral changes, and lack fear; often confused with rabies.
Hemorrhagic Disease
A viral disease of ruminants, especially deer; depression, fever, emaciation, respiratory distress, internal hemorrhaging, stomach and other necroses, sloughing of hooves, and possible death; epizootic; can cause severe local outbreaks and death.
Duck Virus Enteritis
A viral disease of waterfowl; bloody feces, cloaca, and nares; slow movements, reduced wariness, internal hemorrhaging, convulsions, and rapid death; can be acute but rarely found in North America.
Eqip
A voluntary conservation program for farmers and ranchers that promotes agricultural production and environmental quality as compatible national goals.
Conservation Stewardship Program
A voluntary federal conservation program that encourages producers to address resource concerns in a comprehensive manor.
Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program
A voluntary federal program for conservation-minded landowners who want to develop and improve wildlife habitat on agricultural land, nonindustrial private forestland, and Indian land.
Conservation Reserve Program
A voluntary federal program to conserve cover.
Food
A welfare factor and habitat component.
Food
A welfare factor.
Lower Mississippi
A wetland complex draining most of the central U.S.
Marshes
A wetland often found in estuaries.
Farm
A wildlife _____ can be controversial, but the meat produced is high quality.
Artificial feeding
A wildlife management tool to resolve a problem with a welfare factor that may be detrimental in the long run.
"When the game manager asks himself whether a given piece of land is suitable for a given species of game, he must realize that he is asking no simple question."
A. Leopold - Habitat requirements and management; requires lots of pieces to come together to be suitable for wildlife - Much of habitat goes unseen/hard to see (soil, climate, temperature, etc.) and understand effects/importance to wildlife
Dispersal
Abandon a home range in search of another.
Intrinsic Flaws
Abnormal conditions existing at birth and passed from parents to young through the genes (missing toes, albinism).
Legislation
According to Leopold, this is one of three possible controls of people/society that will dictate how a conservation movement advances.
Selfinterest
According to Leopold, this is one of three possible controls of people/society that will dictate how a conservation movement advances.
Wild free-roaming horse and burro
Act of sentiment; probably not good for wildlife.
Fish and Wildlife
Act that established the USFWS.
Era of Environmental/Ecological Management (1966-present)
Active management and conservation continue Increased funding Non-game, endangered species, community, ecosystem, and biodiversity conservation 2nd conservation movement begins
Manipulative
Active wildlife management
Stamps
Additional "licenses" that need to be purchased for some forms of hunting such as archery.
additive forms of mortality
Adds up to the normal deaths
Forest service-
Administers federal forests lands.
Quarternary
Adult sex ratio.
Quanternary Sex ratio. How do these affect population productivity?
Adults (Recruited)
Botulism
Affect particularily waterfowl. Causes muscle paralysis and inability to fly or walk"limberneck" due to paralysis of neck muscles, paralysis of inner eyelid.
Tuberculosis
Affects Ungulates, such as white tailed deer. Emaciation, depression, intolerance of movement, large abscesses in the lymph nodes of the neck, necrotic foci head neck .
Duck Virus Enteritis
Affects Waterfowl. Causes bloody feces, cloaca, nares. Internal hemorraging lesion on intestines. Scab covered ulceration in mouth under tongue, convulsion followed by rapid mortality.
West Nile Virus
Affects birds, horses, primates, chipmunks, and squirrels. Causes depression, weight loss, neurological signs such as abnormal posture. In coordination, impaired vision, weakness, lack of awareness
Sylvatic Plague
Affects mammals, especially rodents. Causes enlarged spleen, hemorroagic nodules in lymph system, death within 3-5 days when virulent
Activity
Affects metabolic rate and energy needs.
Bodysize
Affects metabolic rate.
Lyme disease
Affects white tailed deer, reptiles, rodents. Few signs or effects in wildlife. Painful joints, fever, behavior changes, possible death if not treated in humans
Structure
Age pyramids illustrate population _____.
Cities
Agreement dealing with trade in endangered species.
Management Units
Alaska, Canada, Mexico
Wilderness Society
Aldo and others established this NGO to promote the protection of wild places.
Forest Service
Aldo's early employer.
Science
Aldo, Roosevelt, and the Sister's all thought this important to conservation.
Trophic Level
All animals here get food the same general way.
Available
All energy in a food item may not be _____.
Interact
All forms of mortality _____ in their effects.
Limiting
The factor that most influences a population.
Women
The fastest growing segment of the hunting community.
Leopold
The father.
USDA
The federal agricultural agency.
USDI
The federal entity administering endangered species programs.
Bureau of Land Management
The federal entity that manages most public rangelands.
USDA
The federal farm agency.
Migratory
The federal government has primary management authority for _____ wildlife.
USFWS
The federal group that manages wildlife.
USDI
The federal natural resource agency.
Climax
The final successional stage.
American Game Policy
The first for the U.S.; developed by a group led by Leopold.
Game Management
The first wildlife text.
Mississippi
The flyway encompassing most of the Great Lakes Region.
Economic
The forest industry has tremendous _____ value in the Southeast.
Regeneration-
The forest management technique that includes developing a new forest; may also refer to very young trees.
Central Broad Leaved-
The forest type dominated by deciduous species and found across the central U.S. from the Great Lakes through Tennessee.
Axe
The forestry Tool.
Evil quartet
The four main factors leading to rarity.
Remove
The goal of most range management has often been to _____ non-forage plants.
Cow
The grazing Tool.
Metropolitan center
The heart of the city.
Macrohabitat
The immediate, largescale environment, as can be seen with the naked eye; flora, fauna, topography, climate in the broad sense, as an animal would experience it.
Weeks-Mcleen Migratory Bird
The law that ended spring waterfowl hunting and provided protection for migratory and insectivorous birds.
First order
The level of habitat selection dealing with the distribution of a species.
Maximum Sustainable Yield
The maximum number of animals that are available for sustainable harvest.
Carrying Capacity
The maximum number of animals that can be supported.
Chaining
The mechanical treatment that involves dragging a heavy chain between two vehiclesto reduce vegetation.
Environmental Resistance
All of the factors that influence population growth.
Gross
All the energy in something.
Density
Allee Effects may occur when a minimum _____ of individuals is needed for any reproduction to occur.
Transcontinental Railroad
Allowed people to spread West and ship vast amounts of game back East to the cities.
Forest Reserve Act
Allowed the President to set aside forests as public domain.
Logistic
Also known as sigmoid growth.
IUCN
Also known as the World Conservation Union.
Knowledge
Although interested, city-dwellers often have less _____ of wildlife and conservation than their counterparts living in more rural areas.
Seed-
Although rarely done, obtaining a preferred future forest type may require the planting of _____.
Endangered Species
Although states have their own programs, the federal government has primary management authority over _____ _____.
Incentive
An _____ program may help resolve problems and conflicts with endangered species management.
Hard
An abrupt edge.
Grazed
An agricultural problem for wetlands.
Parasite
An animal or plant that lives on or in an organism of another species and from whose body it obtains nutrients.
Critical Area
An area containing resources without which the species cannot exist.
Flooded
An area filled with water.
Core
An area of concentrated movements.
Forest-
An area with a high density of trees.
Cow
An eating Tool.
Inherent
An edge type that is a relatively permanent part of the landscape.
Border Edge Cut
An edge-softening practice.
Juxtaposition
The minimum amount of habitat mixing.
People first
The motto for parks.
Federal Register
The national volume where endangered species are recorded in the U.S.
compensatory forms of mortality
The normal deaths, doesn't take away
Barrier Island
An ephemeral sandbar.
Epizootic
An eruptive type of disease.
Moralistic
An ethical concern for animal welfare.
Nutria
An exotic "muskrat" of the Southeast.
Wildhog
An exotic big game species found in Florida that is popular to hunt and causes much damage.
Chukar
An exotic game bird released and established in some parts of North America.
Fire
An important management tool in rangelands.
Site index
An indicator of tree growth potential for an area.
Achievement
An individual hunting motivation.
Fence Row
An often shrubby, diverse strip of vegetation, usually around a field, that can be tremendous habitat for wildlife.
Backdune
An older dune on the inland side of a barrier island.
Wildlife
An organic resource that can be managed on a sustained-yield basis
Game
Animals harvested or collected
Activity
Animals have daily _____ patterns.
Northern Bobwhite Survival
Annual survival: 5-30% (20% on avg.) - Higher in South - Males > females - Lower in first year birds Seasonal differences - Spring-Summer (breeding season): 13-51% - South: fall-winter > spring-summer (survive better) - North: fall-winter < spring-summer Nest Success - 32-44% Losses - Predation - Mammals and snakes * - Ants - Weather - 5-10% of adults killed Broods - 14 days for thermoregulation and flight - Die from hypothermia - 30-40% survival - Key to survival is cover to protect from weather, predators - Predation - Weather - 15-30% survival through 30 days
Key
Another name for core area.
Covert
Another name for cover often used when referring to game birds.
Depredation
Another word for predation, often referring to nests.
Bag Limit
The number of animals that may be legally harvested.
Food Security Act
The original Farm Bill.
Social Wildlife Values
Any benefits that have a positive affect on the community as a whole More income, less stress, increased physical & mental health Overlap with others
Decimating factors
Any direct cause (as starvation or hunting) of reduction in population numbers.
Welfare factors
Any factor (as availability of food or shelter) that tends to stimulate population growth. More indirectly affects population.
Dingell Johnson
The original legislation taxing people who fish.
Subsistence
The original reason for hunting.
List
Anyone in the U.S. can propose to _____ a species as endangered.
How do the basic habitat components and conditions interact with wildlife?
Applying ecological concepts and principles - Trophic Levels and Food Webs - Implications - Species that gain food in the same way said to be in same trophic level - Food webs: all animals interconnected - Leopold's Land Pyramid: food webs and trophic level interactions - Sun converted into usable forms, goes through following levels starting with primary producers - 4th level: secondary carnivores - 3rd level: carnivores - 2nd level: herbivores - 1st level: primary producers (green plants) - At all levels: decomposers - Limited number of trophic levels - As one piece is changed, other pieces change - Second Law of Thermodynamics - 10% rule (1-15%) - Most energy (~90%) lost as hear - Isle Royale Example - One predator (gray wolves) eating moose - 1 kg Wolf (27) : 59 kg moose (89) : 765 kg browse at K - Increase carnivore, food is limiting factor, have to increase primary consumer -> increase browse/plants - Why carnivores are scare - Due to relationship between energy and intake - Range of Tolerance (individual resource) - Resources (habitat components) and conditions - Optimal in middle of bell curve - Affects where wildlife species can live - Affects successful translocation - Niche and Competition - Set of rescues (habitat components) and conditions used by a species - Combined ranges of tolerance for all resources and conditions - N-dimensional hypervolume - How many things affect the niche combined - Number of resources that make up niche; as you add conditions, have multiple dimensions - Functional role of an organism considered in the multidimensional environment in which it lives - Feeding and other niches (other conditions) - Gause's Principle: no two species can occupy the same niche at the same time; if they do, one will be excluded (competitive exclusion principle) - Generalists (species with broad niches, broad tolerance ranges for many conditions) vs. Specialists (narrow niches, narrow ranges of tolerances) - Generalists typically not endangered species but can become pests because they can live everywhere (opossums, raccoons, etc.) - Fundamental vs. Realized - Fundamental: occupy all resources and conditions - Realized: smaller range of habitat; typically limited by biotic factor (predator, disease, prey, etc.) - Oysters have no problem with salinity, but predator limited by salinity; the closer to shore, less salinity, but predator needs salinity and salinity has increased so the niche of the predator has expanded closer to shore - Habitat availability - Succession - Habitat Selection and Scale - Edge and Interspersion - Fragmentation, Connectivity, and Juxtaposition - Island Biogeography - Carrying Capacity
What are stopover sites and how do they help wildlife?
Area bought to protect based on their migration routes
What is a home range and?
Area traversed by an animal during its normal daily activities Fulfill all requirements (Food, cover, water, space, mates, etc.) No sally's or temporary movements
Rights of way
Areas, often containing utilities, that run through forests providing edge, interspersion, and possibly exotic entry.
Department of Defense (DOD)
Army Corps of Engineers Defense Agencies
Monocultures
Artificially regenerated forests are often poor habitat because they are often _____.
Stabilize
As a management tool, harvest may _____populations, particularly that of ungulates.
Health
As a management tool, hunting may control populations, improving the _____ of the animals.
Wildlife Reproduction Age Effects
As age increases, the reproductive value increases, levels out, and then slowly declines - Middle age produced most offspring, juvenile and elderly produce less individuals (if any) - Want to increase population: don't harvest middle age - Want to decrease population: harvest middle age Poikilotherms (herps and fish) - As size increases, reproductive value increases (in good habitat)
Mediterranean
As many early travelers came from the _____ region, these are the origins of many exotic species.
Aesthetic Wildlife Values
As objects of beauty, historical significance, or as part of literature, poetry, art, & music Human communication & expression Cultural importance Indigenous peoples
Nonnative
As we move closer to cities, we often see more _____ species.
Describe a scenario that includes both forms of mortality. Which is more difficult to understand? Manage for? Why?
The owl ate a bird (proximate) The bird was sick so it was able to eat the bird (Ultimate) Ultimate is harder
Values
The perceived _____ of public lands by people are many.
Humanistic
Attitude of many anti-hunters, where they have strong affections for individual animals, develop anthropomorphic associations with animals, and see wildlife as they would pets.
Naturalistic
Attitude of most hunters.
Rotation
The period between regeneration and forest harvest.
Hunting, Trapping, Fishing, and Collecting
Attitudes towards and values of wildlife - Anti-hunted, anti-trappers, etc. - Ethical problems and "The Bambi Syndrome" (1942) - Wouldn't want something to happen to pet so you wouldn't want something to happen to wildlife - Naturalist: contact with nature (hunters [18%], etc.) - Hunters associated with, but well-spread - Correlated w/ ecologistic, humanistic - Antagonistic toward negativistic - Ecologistic: biological - Correlated w/ naturalistic, scientific - Antagonistic toward negativistic - Humanistic: think of them like pets (affection; against consumptive use) - Correlated w/ moralistic - Antagonistic toward negativistic - Moralistic: animal welfare - Correlated w/ humanistic - Antagonistic toward utilitarian, dominionistic, scientific, aesthetic, negativistic - Scientific: curiosity, source of information - Correlated w/ ecologistic - Antagonistic toward none - Aesthetic: art value, literature (aesthetic and symbolic) - Correlated w/ naturalistic - Antagonistic toward negativistic - Utilitarian: something of use (harvest) - Correlated w/ dominionistic - Antagonistic toward moralistic - Dominionistic: something to control - Correlated w/ utilitarian, negativistic - Antagonistic toward moralistic - Negativistic: avoidance, dislike - Correlated w/ dominionistic, utilitarian - Antagonistic toward moralistic, humanistic, naturalistic - Primary attitude indicates if one if against or for hunting - Values can't be wrong for any of these reasons
Vegetation Association
The plant community portion of a habitat.
Inflection point
The point on a growth curve where populations facing resource limitation are growing fastest.
Resources
Availability of these affects spatial requirements and arrangement.
Realized
The portion of a niche that a species actually exists in.
Harvestable Surplus
The portion of a population that can be harvested.
Unused
The portion of the environment that still has room for animals.
A mighty fortress
The power of trees.
Management?
The practical ecology of all vertebrates and their plant and animal associates along sound biological lines; stewardship of wildlife
Long leaf slash pine wire grass
The predominant rangeland community in Florida.
Grass
The primary type of forage plant of interest in rangelands.
Demographic characteristics:
B - births (#) I - immigrants D - death (#) E - emigrants
Avian Pox
BIRDS. Vision problems, respiratory distress, emaciation, lesions on unfeathered areas of head and legs, oral cavity, and upper respiratory tract.
What is BMR? How does it relate to wildlife nutrition?
Basal Metabolic rate; Minimum amount of energy an animal needs. The rate of energy expenditure by humans and other animals at rest. - As you get bigger, metabolic rate goes up - relative to body mass, small bodies need more
BMR
Basal metabolic rate.Minimum amount of energy an animal needs. The rate of energy expenditure by humans and other animals at rest.
Roosting
Batman's cover.
Bald Eagle
Beat out the wild turkey.
Timber
Because forestry departments in tropical countries are poorly equipped to oversee concessions, forests managed for _____ may become important complements to protected areas.
Struggle for existence
Because more individuals are born than can be supported by the environment, there must be a _____ _____ _____.
Wallup Breaux
Because of them, boaters support fish and wildlife conservation.
Multiple Use Act
Because of this, foresters must consider something besides tree production.
Values
Beliefs
Conservation Tillage
Better cultivation methods.
Elk
Big game species recently reintroduced into Kentucky and other eastern states.
Escudilla
Bigfoot, the mountain, and the trapper.
What are characteristics of U.S. farms that have changed during the past half-century?
Bigger monocultures, bigger farms and fields, more row crops, more use of pesticides and herbicides, and more disturbance
Reproductive Physiology and Behavior
Biological clocks - All go through brain and endocrine system to produce certain developments - Implications - Space as a welfare factor - Crowding, disturbance, and other stressors - General adaptation syndrome (GAS) or non-specific stress response Stressor --> pituitary gland -ACTH-> Adrenal Cortex --> Corticoid Hormones --> Disease resistance, water balance, glucose metabolism; growth, development of sex organs and behaviors, other
Carson
Biologist and writer; pollution; Silent Spring.
Food Digestibility
Birds - If seed-eating bird, almost no proventriculus but developed gizzard for griding - Crop is storage but used to produce food for young in Columbiformes - Gizzard used for grinding, birds will sometimes swallow grit Proventriculus has acids/enzymes to break down hard foods; important for fish-eating birds - Cloaca/cecum: have laots of bacteria that help break down harsh foods Mammals and Herps - Many of same features of birds instead of crop and gizzard - Have a cecum in some mammals Ruminant Animal - 4 chambered stomach in ungulates; stomach helps break down hard plants - Rumen, Abomasum, Omasum, and Reticulum Microbres break own certain plant types Miscellaneous info - GI tract length and passage rates important - Artificial feeding problems
Salmonella
Birds, ruffled feathers, droopiness, severe lethargy, emaciation, siezures, convulsions, plaque in liver,body cavity.
Secondary sex ratio. How do these affect population productivity?
Birth ~50:50
What two things increase population?
Birth, Immigration
What determines the amount of energy and animals needs?
Body size, season, breeding, non-breeding.
Forbs
Broad-leaved herbaceous plants.
Seeding-
Broadcasting is a type of _____.
Darling
Brought together influential people in New York; duck stamp act; cooperative fish and wildlife system; Wildlife federation; biological survey
Darling -
Brought together influential people in New York; duck stamp act; cooperative fish and wildlife system; Wildlife federation; biological survey
Pesticide
Bug killer.
Circannual cycle
Built-in calendar.
Circadian Rhythm
Built-in clock.
Greenup
Burning can affect when plants _____.
Land use
Can affect cover availability.
Weather
Can alter cover requirements.
Chain of extinction
Can be a factor leading to extinction.
Density
Can be a misleading indicator of habitat quality.
Reproduction
Can be dramatically affect by nutrition.
Socioeconomics
Can determine how many animals are supportable/tolerable.
Fertilizer
Can help plant growth, plant can also be detrimental to wildlife and habitat.
Landuse
Can influence habitat and population growth.
Ice
Can shape northern and montane forest environments.
Generalist
Can use a wide variety of cover types.
Habitat
Cannot have wildlife without it.
Utilization
Carbohydrates>Fats>Proteins
How can food use affect habitat?
Carnivore v. herbivore - Meat is meat - not the same for plants; they are all so different; so for herbivores, not a single plants can provide everything they need - herbs need to be more selective and have a diverse amount of food to eat.
Distemper
Carnivores and omnivores. Nasal and ocular discharge. Anorexia, lack of fear, aggresivenes, convulsive movements of head and feet, aimless wandering, dehydration, and excessive thirst.
Home ranges
Carnivores>Herbivores Gregarious>Solitary
Predation
Carnivory: eat meat (if live, predation) - Cannibalism: eating of own kind Carrion: dead meat, dead animals; scavenger, not predator Welfare or decimating factor? - Decimating factor Protective refugia (escape cover, predators can't get all) - Density-dependence: effects on prey population density dependent - As population grow and exceeds amount of growth cover, predators will kill - Threshold of Security - Below: predation has small effect - Above: predation has significant effect - Possibility predators don't wipe out prey Predator Behavior (response of predator to prey) - Numerical response - A # prey changes, # predator changes to a point - Add more prey, predator population increases - Functional response - In response to numerical response - Add more prey, function of predator changes - Most often foraging rate (eat faster) Management Implications - Normal - Abnormal: cats - Predator control: expensive, controversial, not always effective
"Abnormal" Predation
Cats - 1 cat: 60 birds and 1600 small mammals in months - >19 mil. songbirds and 140,000 game birds killed/yr in Wisconsin Feral and pet cats in the U.S. each year - < 12.3 billion mammals - < 2.4 billion birds IUCN: among the world's worst non-native invasive species; caused 22 island species extinctions
What impacts do domestic cats have on wildlife? Why is it such a problem?
Cats 1 cat: 60 birds & 1600 small mammals in 18 months (Schafer 1991) >19,000,000 songbirds & 140,000 game birds killed/yr in Wisconsin Feral & pet cats in the U.S. each year (USFWS study) <20.7 billion mammals <3.7 billion birds
Redtide
Caused by microorganisms in aquatic communities.
Rainwater Basin
Central Nebraska wetlands area important to migratory birds.
Stimulate
Certain reproductive behaviors are used to _____ copulation.
Synchronize
Certain reproductive behaviors are used to _____ copulation.
Geer
Challenged the state's right to regulate wildlife.
Recruitment of hunters, fishers, etc.?
Challenges (lack of opportunity) - Urbanizing and suburbanizing populations - Liability, posting, and land access - Losing the "Land Ethic" and Tradition R. Louv: Last Child in the Woods - Nature Deficit Disorder - Blames every problem children have on loss of touch with nature due to lack of opportunity - Restore contact with nature with fishing, hunting, etc. Opportunities - Women, non-caucasians, young adults
Describe the 5 types of predation. Which are probably most common? How does this differ from what many anti-hunting groups might suggest? Why would anti-hunting groups suggest this?
Chance Habit* Sucker list* Starvation Sanitary
Rate
Change in number per unit time.
Dispersion: Temporal changes
Change through time, not static
Rotation
Changing crops or moving livestock.
Population dynamics
Changing numbers of individuals.
Crop Rotation
Changing what is planted in a field each year.
Grazing fees
Charges for livestock to eat on a piece of land.
Enzootic
Chromic disease.
What are the biological clocks and what sets them?
Circadian rhythms - What time is it? Circannual cycle - What day/season is it? Environmental cues: Photoperiod Diurnal, nocturnal, & crepuscular
Heat island effect
Cites as warmer places than more wild and native areas at the same latitude.
Conditions
Cities often have very different _____ than wilder areas.
Emergent
Class dominated by herbaceous plants that are erect and rooted.
Moss lichen
Class dominated by mosses and lichens.
Scrubshrub
Class dominated by woody vegetation less than 6 m tall.
Forested
Class dominated by woody vegetation more than 6 m tall.
Stream bed
Class that is a channel whose bottom is dewatered during periods of low water.
Reef
Class that is a ridge- or mound-like structure.
Aquatic bed
Class with hydrophytic plants growing at or below the surface.
Rocky shore
Class with solid bank.
Rock bottom
Class with solid bottom.
What are 3 types of accidents for wildlife? Are these normal or abnormal forms of mortality? For which wildlife are these a significant issue? Why?
Collisions with objects Drowning Choking Falls Entanglement and entrapment Research Decimating Either, some started normal and now may be abnormal
Integrated Pest Management
Combining biological, chemical, and cultural methods of controlling pests.
Immigration
Coming in to an area or population.
What are the 8 main values of wildlife?
Commercial Recreational Biological Scientific, philosophical, & educational Aesthetic Social Undiscovered or underutilized Negative
How do predators and predation benefit prey populations? Communities?
Communities - Stability & diversity Prey - Buffer species - Cycles & regulation
Important of Predators
Communities - Stability and diversity Prey - Buffer species - Why predators don't usually wipe out prey - Once levels of prey are so low, make them hard to find - When primary prey low in abundance, switch prey (buffer species) - Cycles and regulation - Some predators and prey, in simple systems, track each other and lead to cycles ( "Thinking like a mountain" - Removes wolves, deer come up and destroy vegetation
Injuries
Compared to most sports, hunting leads to fewer _____.
Exploitative
Competition where one species obtains resources faster or more efficiently than another species.
Reduced tillage
Conservation; less disturbance(~20%; medium)
Fishing
Consumptive use allowed on most public lands.
Tradition
Consumptive uses of wildlife are deeply ingrained in the culture and _____ of many parts of the world.
Proteins
Contain amino acids.
Bible
Contains some of the earliest written references to wildlife management.
NOAA
Contains the National Marine Fisheries Service.
Describe the relative energy value of carbo's, proteins, and fats to wildlife. What are other important aspects of each of these for wildlife nutrition?
Content (gross): Fats > Proteins > Carbohydrates Utilization: Carbohydrates > Fats > Proteins
Biological Wildlife Values
Contribution of wildlife to healthy ecosystems Stability Pollination, seed dispersal, soil tillage, nutrient transport, etc.
Insects-
Controlling _____ is typically a priority management practice as they can destroy trees and products.
Herbicide
Controls weeds.
University of Florida/Institute of Food & Agricultural Sciences
Cooperative Extension Service Department of Wildlife Ecology & Conservation
University of Florida/Institute of Food & Agricultural Sciences
Cooperative Extension Service iDepartment of Wildlife Ecology & Conservation
Critical Area
Core or key area Part(s) of the home range where limiting resources or conditions are located Concentrated movements
Recruitment
The process of entering a breeding population.
Cultivation
The process of growing plants.
Forestry-
The profession embracing the science, art, and practice of creating, managing, using, and conserving forests and associated resources for human benefit and in a sustainable manor to meet desired goals, needs, and values.
Kyoto
The protocol the U.S. did not want to sign.
What is useable space?
The quality of space as a habitat component, interspersion, & scale
Delisted
The recovery plan must be satisfied before a species can be _____.
Regeneration
The reestablishment of a forest community.
Numerical
The response that occurs when the number of a certain predator changes as the number of its prey changes.
Epizootiology
The science that deals with the frequency, distribution, character, ecology, and causes of outbreaks of animal diseases.
Scale
The scope or relative area of consideration.
Draba
The smallest spring bloom.
Hydrology
The study of movement, distribution, and quality of water.
Etiology
The study of the cause or origin of disease
Silvics-
The study of the life history and general characteristics of forest trees and stands, with particular reference to environmental factors, as a basis for the practice of silviculture.
Range management
The study of the proper "running" of rangelands.
Wildlife Ecology
The study of the relationship between wildlife and their environment
Wildlife ecology
The study of the relationship between wildlife and their environment
Pathology
The study of the structural and functional causes and effects produced by disease from the molecular to the population level.
Parasitology
The study of the structural and functional causes and effects produced by parasites from the molecular to the population level.
Animal damage control
The traditional focus of wildlife management in cities.
Overexploitation
The transcontinental railroad was part of the problem during this Era.
Recreational
The value obtained by deriving pleasure or adventure from wildlife activities.
Scientific
The value of acquiring knowledge.
Educational
The value of wildlife in allowing people to learn.
Biological
The value wildlife contribute to health ecosystems.
Odyssey
The voyage of X.
Urine
The way mammals excrete nitrogenous waste.
DBH
The width of a tree 1.4 m off the ground.
Agrochemicals
Their increased use since the 1950s in the U.S. is a leading cause of wildlife and habitat decline in farmlands.
Nutrients
Their quality and availability affect wetland productivity and quality.
Tools
There are five that can help or hurt.
Dispersal barriers
There are many _____ _____ in cites, preventing proper metapopulation function.
What is the spiritual danger of not owning a farm?
There are two spiritual dangers in not owning a farm. One is the danger of supposing that breakfast comes from the grocery, and the other that heat comes from the furnace.
Fencing
There is a lot of it in rangelands and it can disrupt wildlife movements.
Parental care
There is usually a trade between the amount of this and adult survival.
Emotions
These can taint the objectivity of a biologist and shape values and attitudes.
Seven Sisters of Conservation
These sisters were movie stars.
Spiritual Dangers
These will affect you if you think breakfast comes from the grocery and heat from the furnace.
NRCS
They administer many Farm Bill programs.
Farm Service Agency
They administer part of the Farm Bill.
What are cover crops and how do they benefit wildlife and soils?
They are crops that help prevent erosion, improve soil development and enrichment (nitrogen fixers), and provide food and cover
Do wildlife typically select the plant species or particular growth pattern?
They look for growth form.
Bureau of Land Management
They manage much federal range land.
Division of Forestry-
They manage public forests of Florida.
Economics
They motivate every "head" of wildlife and most businesses.
Duckstamp
This Act paid for many wetland purchases.
Tariff
This Act put and import tax on birds and bird parts.
Wilderness
This Act was co-promoted/founded by Aldo Leopold.
Oil Pollution
This Act was in response to the Exxon Valdez accident.
Fish and Wildlife Research
This FWC division studies the wildlife.
Hungarian Partridge
This avian species was one of the first recorded exotics released in the U.S.
Land ethic
This belief may or may not include consumptive wildlife use.
Nutrition
This can have dramatic effects on the condition of adults and subsequently reproduction.
Escape
This cover helps with evading predators.
Thermal
This cover is often needed during cold weather.
Department of Defense
This federal entity has wildlifers too; when they're not bombing people.
Soil
This has tremendous affects on habitat, especially the plants.
Negative Wildlife Values
Cost of wildlife damage or its prevention Beavers, deer, coyote, Lyme disease, etc.
Habitat
Cover is one component of _____.
Species
Cover requirements are _____-specific.
Season
Cover requirements change with each _____.
Ecological Trap
Cover that looked good but ultimately negatively affected a species.
Marsh land elegy
Cranes, crops, fires, and wetlands.
Mitigation
Creating or enhancing one area in place of one being destroyed.
Cover crop
Crop planted after the primary one is harvested to conserve the soil.
Describe the pathway by which space may act as a welfare factor and affect the condition and reproductive success of wildlife.
Crowding, disturbance, & other stressors General adaptation syndrome (GAS) or non-specific stress response
Plow
Cultivation Tool.
Sanitation-
Cutting trees to improve forest health; typically involves removing dead and dying trees.
Litter
Dead plant material that provides wildlife cover and fuel for fires.
Log-
Dead tree lying on the ground.
Coarse Woody Debris
Dead tree material on the ground.
Airports
Deadly places where wildlife and people interact in cities.
Direct
Dealing with the disease wildlife themselves
Cities
Deals with trade in rare species.
Mortality
Death.
What 2 things decrease population?
Deaths, Emigration
What are welfare and decimating factors? How do they affect environmental resistance and population growth?
Decimating factors - hunting, disease; kill animals directly Welfare factors - food, cover water; more indirect effect, the animals are more susceptible
What is Aldo's model?
Decimating factors - hunting, disease; kill animals directly Welfare factors - food, cover water; more indirect effect, the animals are more susceptible Special factors - didn't know where else to put them; ex: hog wollow
Era of Overexploitation (1850-1899)
Declines in many game species (e.g., bison) Increased human population and settlement Transcontinental railroad Market hunting Sport hunting Some conservation initiated
Aldo Leopold
Defined wildlife conservation as "man living in harmony with the land"
What are patterns of abundance and what controls them?
Density-dependent v. density-independent factors
Protective refugia
Density-dependent weather effects.
Access
Deny this and possibly save coastal areas.
DOCG
Described wildlife conservation as "the application of ecological knowledge to wildlife and habitats that balances the needs of people and that of wildlife"
Describe the steps in adaptive harvest management
Determine the status of the resource Determine the objectives & goals Establish management strategies Determine how closely the management strategy achieved the objectives & goals Adjust management strategies
Size
Determines energy requirements.
What is differential vulnerability? How does knowing this help you manage a population? Provide an example.
Different age and sexes have different mortality pressures Effects sex ratios and age structures
Mortality
Different forms of _____ often affect wildlife in cities.
Parts
Different plant _____ can have very different nutritional qualities.
New York
Ding met here to get the ball rolling.
Soil
Dirt.
Habitat
Disease tends to have greater effects as _____ quality declines.
Control
Diseases are sometimes used as biological _____ agents in wildlife management.
Shrublands
Diverse and dry rangeland communities.
Proper Nutrition
Diverse dier (many different option) - Much more important to herbivores Carnivore vs. herbivore - Carnivore could probably live off one species, but herbivores are harder to provide for (from mgmt. POV) because quality is more important than quantity; suffer from welfare side of food - Food for herbivores may not have all vitamins/minerals needed - Energy - Other components - Parts of food not the same - Selectivity: no plant exists that will provide all needed nutrients - Protein and vitamin issues for herbivores - B12 found in no plants - Also problems w/ protein (getting enough) - Need large amounts during breeding season (i.e., 24% protein for quail in breeding season)
Florida Department of Environmental Protection Assessment & Management
Division of State Lands Division of Recreation & Parks Division of Resource
Florida Department of Environmental Protection
Division of State Lands Division of Recreation & Parks Division of Resource Assessment & Management
Obligation
Do people have a moral or ethical _____ to conserve wildlife?
Diminishing Returns
Do we need strict regulations or is the harvest self-regulating? - The Law of Diminishing Returns - Northern Bobwhite - When there's more to see, more hunters in field - When there's less to see, less hunters in field - Don't drive populations to extinction - Don't harvest as many when many aren't present - Abundance and harvest proportional - Can't keep up with population growth when population is very large
Bailey's Ecoregions
Domains (Broadest) - Ecological climate zones - S. FL: Humid Tropical - E. U.S.: Humid Temperate - W. U.S.: Dry - W. Coast: Humid Temperate - Alaska: Polar - Hawaii, Puerto Rico: Humid Tropical Divisions (More narrow) - Ecological climate zones and rainfall patterns - NC, SC, GA: majority Subtropical, northern parts mountainous hot continental - TN: Hot continental with some mountainous hot continental - AL, MS, LA: mostly subtropical with some Hot continental in N. AL - AR: mostly subtropical with some hot continental in the N and mountains in the N and W - OK: E side of state is prairie and W side of state is tropical/subtropical steppe with the N. being temperate steppe - TX: W/C state tropical/subtropical steppe and E part of state some prairie - N. FL: Subtropical - S. FL: Savanna Provinces (Most narrow) - Ecological climate zones and macrovegetation - First introduce broad scale vegetation types - FL: N is Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest and S is Everglades - GA:Mix between Southeastern Mixed Forest, Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest, and some Central Appalachian Broadleaf Forest - Meadow in the N - SC: Mix between Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest and SE Mixed Forest with small part of Central Appalachian Broadleaf Forest - Meadow in NW corner - NC: Mix between Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest and SE Mixed Forest - TN: Contains SE Mixed Forest, E Broadleaf Forest (Continental), E Broadleaf Forest (Oceanic) - AR: Contains Ozark Broadleaf Forest - Meadow, Lower MS Riverine Forest, Ouachita Mixed Forest - Meadow, SE Mixed Forest, and E Broadleaf Forest (Continental) - OK: Contains E Broadleaf Forest (Continental), Praire Parkland (temperate), Prairie Parkland (Subtropical), Great Plains Steppe and Shrub, and some Great Plains- Palouse Dry Steppe - MS: Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest, SE Mixed Forest, Lower MS Riverine Forest - LA: Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest, SE Mixed Forest, Lower MS Riverine Forest - TX: SW Plateau and Plains Dry Steppe and Shrub, Prairie Parkland (Subtropical), SE Mixed Forest, Great Plains Steppe - AL: E Broadleaf Forest (Continental), SE Mixed Forest, Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest
Feral
Domesticated animals now living wild.
Livestock
Domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities.
Thin
Done to promote the growth of remaining trees in an area, as it reduces competition.
Accident
Drowning is a natural type of _____.
Private Wildlife Conservation
Ducks Unlimited The Nature Conservancy Wilderness Society Wildlife Management Institute The Wildlife Society
Special
Dusting areas might be considered this type of factor.
Starvation
Dying from a lack of food.
What is the "Law of the Limiting Link"? How does it relate to wildlife management?
Each link is something that we need to know about that affects the species but the one that we know very little about is the one that is going to highly affect how we manage the species; what we know the least about is going to affect the success of the management
Link in Wildlife Management
Each of the links is something that we need to know about that species but the ones that we know very little about can highly affect how we manage the species; what we know the least about affects success
Psoroptes
Ear mites (parasites) affecting primarily deer; lesions of the ears, with heavy infestations leading to secondary bacterial infections; few effects except with heavy infections, which may reduce overall health.
Psoroptes
Ear mites (parasites) affecting primarily deer; lesions on ears, with heavy infestations leading to secondary bacterial infections; few effects except with heavy infestations, which may reduce overall health and condition
Flood Control
Early Act that allowed major waterways to be altered to reduce flooding.
Boone and Crockett Club
Early group of sportsmen who worked for conservation; now they measure "horns."
Seal
Early international treaty protecting some marine species.
Migratory Bird Treaty Act
Early legislation that protects migratory birds.
Imprinting
Early, permanent learning.
Feeding
Eating cover.
Carrying Capacity
Ecologically-based - K- carrying capacity (KCC): based on relationship between animals population and environment Socio-ecolonimcally based (not based on amount environment can support) - I- carrying capacity (ICC): half ecology carrying capacity (where population grows fastest)- use to harvest - Optimum carrying capacity (OCC): 0 --> K-1 - Minimum-impact carrying capacity (MCC) - Animals must be removed
If hunting and trapping were completely lost from our culture, what would be the cost?
Economically, jobs, conservation An additional: - 50,000 injuries & 50 deaths from wildlife-auto interactions (= 297,000 injuries and 250 deaths total) - $3.8 billion in auto repair costs - $1.45 billion in health care from just rabies - $128 million in aircraft damage Governments would need to spend: - Up to $9.3 billion/yr to control deer - Up to $265 million/yr to control furbearers - Loss of revenue from hunting licenses & PR$
Ricketts et. al's Ecoregions
Ecoregions - A relatively large area of land or water that contains geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities (plants and animals) - Share large majority of their species dynamics and environmental conditions - Function together effectively as a conversation unit at global and continental scales - Digs deeper and talks about processes and functions within ecosystems - FL: - GA: - SC: - NC: - TN: - OK: - TX: - AR: - MS: - AL: - LA: Major Habitat Types * - Grouped ecoregion by ecological processes, general patterns of biodiversity, and response to disturbance - Rangelands vs. Forests - Tropical Moist Broadleaf Forests: HI, Puerto Rico - Tropical Dry Broadleaf Forests: HI, Puerto Rico - Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests: SE, NE, states between - Temperate Coniferous Forests: S of SE, Upper W states - Temperate Grasslands/Savanna/Shrub: Midwest - Flooded Grasslands: S. FL - Mediterranean Scrub and Savanna: S. CA - Xeric Shrublands/Deserts: W, lower TX - Boreal Forest/Taiga: Mid-N in Canada, Alaska - Tundra: N of Boreal, Alaska (Rangeland) - Use map to break into rangelands vs. forests - No trees: rangelands - Trees present, major part: forests - SE is Globally Outstanding, FL especially - FL unique habitat types - Increased richness in SE, FL and endemism - Little pristine habitats left in SE; what's left is disturbed - Most of SE is needs critical conservation
Large Scale Approaches
Ecoregions - Hard to manage at this level due to crossing state lines - Climate change Landscape Conservation Cooperatives (USFWS) - Trying to manage wildlife and populations within that region and working at broad scales in mgmt. - Based on similar bird communities and merged those areas with Ricketts ecoregion to make new regions - All federal agencies in Dept. of Interior are trying to develop and manage general wildlife - Each has a science director - Climate change
How can soils affect wildlife and can soils be managed? If so, how?
Ecosystem structure is dependent on what kinds of soils you have
Wildlife Habitat Relationship Terms
Edge: zone of contact between two or more habitat types - Ecotone: place where new habitat is created - Species more present and greater abundance along edges at least to point and then see decline Edge effect - Increased edge led to increased production and diversity of game (at least to point) - More edge, more abundance, more species richness Law of Interspersion (Leopold 1939) - Effects on species abundance and diversity - Game species - Most species require multiple habitat types to be successful/exist (true for species w/ limited mobility) - Edge itself might have different characteristics that come together and form ecotones (unique habitat required by some species) - Greater species richness along edges occurs because greater diversity (two species, maybe three, etc.) Amounts of edge - Amount of edge differs depending on shape of habitat patch (changes by mowing, logging, etc.) - Want more edge per acre, create habitat patches with more sides - Decrease edge, make cicurlar patches Edge index - Index = Edge length/ 2(sq. root of area * pi) - QUantitative What species benefit most? Least? - Edge species: gray catbird, cottontail rabbit - Interior species: ovenbird, pileated woodpecked - Don't do well with edge b/c suffer higher predation and nest predation - Large home range or don't like matrix habitat - Like homogenous cover type Patch size Matters - Trade-offs - Smaller patches may be too small to hold interior species, so lose interior species - Larger patches can hold more interior species but have less edge Quality vs. Quantity - E.g. type, structure, width, etc. - Inherent vs. induced - Inherent: relatively sable edges permanent parts of landscape resulting from meeting of at least two habitat types - Altered and return to original form - Less abrupt, flow from one to another (soft) - Induced: meeting of successional stages (naturally or artificially - Only present by altering habitats; temporary - Typically more abrupt or hard - High contrast vs. low contrast, Abrupt vs. feathered, Hard vs. soft - High contract, abrupt, hard - Low contract, feathered, soft - Ecotone
What are 4 possible approaches to resolving conflicts between hunters and anti-hunters?
Education with emphasis on ecologistic attitude Encourage greater governmental recognition of different attitudes and management for different types of resources uses Diversify wildlife funding sources Increase funding for nongame and recreational programs
Interspersion
Effects on species abundance & diversity
West Nile Virus
Egyptian virus often found in birds.
Private
Endangered species conservation often leads to conflicts with _____ landowners.
Lacey Act
Ended market hunting.
Native
Endemic.
What are food components and how does understanding them help us as a wildlife biologist?
Energy Proteins Carbohydrates Fats Minerals (Nutrients) Vitamins Water
Utilization
Energy _____ may be different than energy content of a food stuff.
Digestible energy
Energy after energy lost in feces is subtracted
Metabolizable
Energy after you get rid of that in waste.
Net
Energy available for growth, reproduction, and survival.
Metabolic
Energy requirements can be estimated by measuring an animal's _____ rate.
Litter/clutch size
Environmental factors & implications Age Region Timing/season Nutrition
Onset & length of breeding season
Environmental factors & implications Biological clocks Timing: conditions, fertilization, & satiation
Survival of newborns*
Environmental factors & implications Nutrition & habitat Manageable Precocial v. altricial
Litter/Clutch Size
Environmental factors and implications - Age (reproductive values; very young/old have smaller litters b/c not in greatest condition and putting large amount of energy to growth and burned out from longer times of breeding) - Region (local adaptations; balance) - Timing/season (early in spring, still getting up/going rescues so don't have as much energy to put into offspring and at end of season, put energy into litters [especially multiple] so smaller) - Nutrition (healthier mom is, more offspring she has; due to habitat) - Manageable
Parental Care
Environmental factors and implications - More parental care, the greater the survival rate of the offspring - The more time spent by the parent on the offspring, the lower the survival rate of the parent - Healthier adults = more energy for offspring - Not easily managed, different species have different ways of treating/handling young
Survival of Newborns*
Environmental factors and implications - Nutrition and habitat - Most wildlife die but not seen because early in life (high mortality early in life, so have to have high reproductive rate to have some to be recruited; birds die in first couple weeks due to predation [biggest] and ectotherms during first few weeks of life, susceptible to hypothermia) - Manageable: habitat, some death helped through management (prevent death) Precocial (born bigger, strong, more mobile) v. altricial (need more help, more susceptible to predation, etc.)
*Age at Sexual Maturity
Environmental factors and management implications - Huge effect on reproductive success, manageable - Morton and Cheatum (1946) - Northern NY: over browsed, poor soil, deep snow - 4% of fawns pregnant (due to poor conditions) - Southern NY: adequate forage, better soil, less snow - 36% of fawns pregnant (better conditions) Age at sexual maturity = delaying recruitment - 100 juv F, 1st breed at age 3 (adult), 1 juv. F/age 3+F/yr - YR 0:100, YR1: 100, YR2:100, YR3: 100, YR4: 200, YR5: 300, YR6: 400, YR7: 500, YR8, 700 - 100 juv. F, 1st breed at age 2(adult), 1 juv F/age 2+ F/yr - YR0: 100, YR1: 100, YR2: 100, YR3: 200, YR4: 300 YR5: 400, YR6: 600, YR7: 900, YR8: 1300 - Twinning more apparent
Random
Equal probability of an organism occurring anywhere in space Independent of the position of other organisms - homogeneous resources - resources are randomly distributed
Random Dispersion
Equal probability of an organisms occurring anywhere in space - Independent of the position of other organisms - Fairly even distribution - Due to resources being displayed that way, or resources homogeneously spread throughout area so can be wherever they want
Random
Equal probability of animal occurring anywhere in space.
2nd conservation movement begins
Era of Environmental/Ecological Management (1966-present)
When did the first conservation movement begin?
Era of Protection: 1900- 1929
Abundance
Era when wildlife were thought to be inexhaustible.
Soil
Erosion can be a problem for this abiotic factor.
Standards
Ethics
Starling
European bird introduced in New York that now has spread across the U.S. causing crop and other damage.
Disturbance
Even if habitat is available, _____ levels may be too high in cities for many species to tolerate.
0 AD:
Evidence of wild turkey domestication in Mexico and Southwest
75% of the state budget comes from...
Excise tax and License sales Florida gets only like a 1/3 - most from the legislature
Pittman Robertson
Excise tax on guns and ammo.
What are the types and outcomes of competition?
Exclusion Coexistence at lower densities character displacement niche seperation
Zebra mussels
Exotic mollusk causing issues in waterways and the Great Lakes.
Cheat takes over
Exotic plants invade grasslands.
Damage
Exotics cause much _____.
Ecological
Exotics cause tremendous _____ damage.
Costs
Exotics come with tremendous ecological and monetary _____.
Second law of thermodynamics
Explains why carnivores are scarce by comparing a wolf & a moose.
Divert
This is often done to water, affecting wetlands.
Massachusetts
This state had a $0.01 wolf bounty.
Ecotourism
This use may be one of the top income generators for places like Florida and Kenya.
Eradication
Threatened with _____ from disease or predation is a criterion when considering a species for protection.
Lyme
Ticks and deer play a role in this disease.
Clean Farming
Tidiness that ruined farms for wildlife.
Pole-
Timber/trees of an age and size that could be used for lumber; although not considered mature.
Skydance
Timberdoodle.
Tertiary sex ratio
Time after hatching to sexual mature adults. Juveniles, your next breeders.
Hydroperiod
Timing and length of stay of water in an area.
Plant-
To "improve" pastures, landowners often _____ particular exotic species of forage.
Vote
To effect wildlife conservation everywhere, educating urbanites is important because they _____.
Drain
To empty a wetland.
Immigate
To enter a population.
Shade intolerant
To establish _____ _____ species, a forest management system that removes almost all vegetation is needed.
Seed
To establish a particular type of grass in a pasture, agriculturalists often _____ them.
Flood
To fill a wetland.
Seedbeds
To prepare proper _____ for some forage species, mechanical rangeland treatments are often need to remove debris.
Ecosystem
To restore many wildlife in cities, _____ functions must also be restored.
Self-restraint
To save wild beauty, people must practice this virtue.
Hunting
To the surprise of many, this is allowed on most federal lands and is a management tool.
People
Today, _____ have the greatest impacts on forests.
Conservation ethic
Extending ethical criteria to economic relationships for better land use.
Mange
External parasites (various mites) of many mammals; hair loss, dry skin, and skin damage from scratching and biting; mortality rare but may weaken heavily infested animals
Mange
External parasites (various mites) of various mammals; hair loss, dry skin, and skin damage from scratching and biting; mortality very rare but may weaken heavily infested animals.
Exposure
Extreme cold or heat, blowing snow, or intense rain or hail - Direct (DI) and indirect (DD) effects of weather - DD vs. DI factor - Periphery of range - DI have most effect on edge of species distribution because transitioning into less favorable conditions on edge Food, cover, and water - Proximate vs. ultimate Welfare or decimating factor? - Killed with hail stone to head: decimating - Wasn't considered originally by Leopold Density-dependent? - Protective Refugia Management implications
"Imagine that you are six inches tall, weigh six ounces, and would you rather walk than fly. Your view of the world would change. A knee-high shrub would become a small tree, a dense stand of bluestem would become an impassable jungle, and a one-mile jog would telescope into a half-marathon."
F. Guthery - Imagine view/conditions for animals to understand environment
Decimating
Factors that kill individuals, directly affecting populations.
Condition animals
Failing to properly do this has led to the failure of many introductions.
Release enough
Failure to _____ _____ animals has led to many failed reintroductions.
Evaluate species
Failure to do this has led to introduction failures.
Food Security
Farm Bill Act.
Fence
Farmers use a lot of this; it can disrupt wildlife movements but provides habitat if managed properly.
Consumptive uses
Farming Wildlife Hunting Harvest fees
Should farmlands be ecological sacrifice? Why?
Farms are never going to be that good for wildlife so why don't we just completely sacrifice the area to get the most out of it so we only to do it on less land
Stored
Fat reserves = _____ energy.
Content
Fat>Protein>Carbohydrates
Pinchot
Father of Forest Management in U.S.; first USFS Director; sustainable forestry.
Olmsted
Father of landscape architecture; famous for designing many urban parks such as Central Park with a natural landscape.
Leopold
Father of wildlife management; first wildlife professor; helped establish the Wilderness Society; helped establish the first Wilderness Areas.
What are 4 things that habitat management can do to wildlife population dynamics?
Featured (single) species management Multiple species management Biodiversity management Ecosystem management
What affects wildlife reproduction?
Fecundity Fertility Natality Recruitment*
Lacey
Federal Act regulating exotic species imports.
Fish and Wildlife Service
Federal agency charged with overseeing endangered wildlife in the U.S.
USFWS
Federal agency that manages wildlife.
USDI
Federal entity dealing with exotics.
USDA
Federal entity managing federal forests.
Army Corps of Engineers
Federal group managing navigable waterways, coasts, and other areas.
National Park Service
Federal group overseeing public parks, rivers, and preserves.
BLM
Federal group that manages the second most amount of public forest.
DOI
Federal natural resource organization.
USDI
Federal natural resources agency.
Fish and Wildlife Service
Federal wildlife agency.
National Wildlife refuges
Federal wildlife land system.
Wildlife first
Federal wildlife lands motto.
Wildlife Reproduction
Females only? - Only deal with females: - For most species, they are polygamous, and one male will breed with multiple female - Females are the one having the offspring (driving force) - Males generally less susceptible to environmental conditions in terms of impact on their reproductive potential - Fecundity (production of gametes [eggs and sperm]), - Fertility (number of VIABLE gametes) - Natality (number of births/hatchings) - Recruitment* (production/addition of sexually mature individuals into the population) - As you go down, lower and lower number than prior - Generally try to maximize number of recruits - Disperse into population (another way to recruit) - Rate b = ind./ind.*time - Management implications
Describe some practices to better manage streams, ponds, and wetlands in farmlands.
Fencing Alternative water sources Erosion and sedimentation
Primary sex ratios
Fertilization relative to number of males and females at the time(50:50)
Site improvement
Fertilization, drainage, and irrigation may be considered this.
Rare
Few.
Accretion
Filling with sediment.
Mather
First Director of the National Park Service; brought public awareness to parks; double size of parks in Service.
Yellowstone
First National Park.
Pelican Island
First national wildlife refuge.
Game management
First wildlife text.
Levels of Selection and Scale - Ruffed Grouse
First-order - Scale over entire NA (Top of U.S. and S. Canada) - Very broad scale, ecological regions Climate change effects - This is the scale at which we see effects of climate change - Climate will affect ecoregions (shift N due to increased temperature) - Expect distribution of wildlife to shift Second-order - Why is home range in specific location? - Use: area species uses of available space - Availability: landscape available for use Third-order - Compare what's used in home range to what's available in home range (use and availability within home range) - e.g. clear-cut - Doesn't use all parts homogeneously - Wildlife looking for certain parts of home range Fourth-order - E.g. this particular stump (nest against stumps and trees)
Department of the Interior (USDI)
Fish & Wildlife Service (FWS) Geological Survey (GS) National Park Service (NPS) Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Bureau of Indian Affairs Bureau of Reclamation
Florida Economics of Wildlife -> Spent
Fishers ($4,626,975,000) > Wildlife watchers ($3,041,333,000) > Hunters ($720,190,00)
Alder fork
Fishing tales.
What is the economic importance of hunting, fishing, and wildlife recreation to Florida and the U.S.?
Florida - wildlife watchers ($3,041,333,000) > Fishers ($4,626,975,000) > Hunters ($720,190,000) US - Wildlife watchers ($54,900,000,000) > Fishers ($41,800,000,000) > Hunters ($33,700,000,000)
Department of Environmental Protection
Florida agency running parks.
Statepark
Florida level park.
FDACS
Florida state entity overseeing forest management.
FWC
Florida's agency dealing with rare species.
Atlantic
Florida's flyway.
FWC
Florida's state wildlife agency.
FWC
Florida's wildlife agency.
Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission
Florida's wildlife agency.
Central
Flyway containing much of the prairies.
Poikilotherms
Follow ambient temperatures.
What are the components of habitat and why is each important?
Food Cover Water Space
Use
Food _____ can affect habitat.
Welfare
Food is a _____ factor.
Crop
Food storage organ.
Levels of Selection and Scale
Food, water, cover, and space in relation to conditions - A hierarchical process involving a series of innate and learned behavioral decisions made by an animal about what habitat or habitat components it would use at different scales of the environment (technical definition of selection) Microhabitat, macrohabitat, and landscape - One component could be micro, one landscape - Finest to broadest from L to R - Vague terms (different ideas) Johnson 1980 (More broad -> more finite) - First-Order - Physical or geographic range (landscape level habitat) - Second-order - Home range within geographic range of landscape (landscape or macrohabitat) - Third-order - Habitat within home range (macrohabitat) relative to what's available in home range - Fourth-order - Procurement of a third-order habitat component or condition from those available within home range (microhabitat)
Benefits
For any behavior to exist in a species, the _____ must outweigh the costs.
Competition
Forage _____ between wildlife and livestock can lead to less of one or the other on the range.
Hay field
Forage production area.
Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services
Forest Service (Division of Forestry)
Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Forest Service (USFS) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Animal & Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Wildlife Services
Openings-
Forest _____ can provide valuable wildlife habitat, edge, and interspersion.
Ownership-
Forest _____ often dictates how it is managed.
Commercial
Forest land capable of producing 1.4 cubic meters of wood/ha/yr.
Old growth
Forest that has reached the climax stage.
Northern Hardwood
Forest type of much of the Northeast.
Northern coniferous
Forest type of northern Canada.
Tropical
Forest type of south Florida.
Pacific Coast-
Forest type of the upper west coast of the U.S.
PreEmptive competition
Form of exploitative ○ Greater efficiency leads to getting ALL of the resources ○ Nonrenewable resources
Vertical Accretion
Formation of new soil on a marsh surface.
Darling
Fought for the Duck Stamp Act; early Chief of Bureau of Biological Survey; one of the first to recognize the need for trained professionals; help establish Coop Unit System; called for many of the first wildlife conferences and meetings.
Sources of water
Free water, Food, metabolism water.
How do wildlife get water, how much water do wildlife need, and sources?
Free water, food, metabolism Digestion, metabolism, excretion, & cooling, Cover
Soft mass-
Fruits and berries.
Fuel
Fuel is a forest product, but becomes a concern when too high.
Aspergillosis
Fungal infection. Affects many mammals, including quail, grouse, pheasants, and waterfowl. Causes respiratory distress/gasping. Emaciation. Plaque resembling bread mold in bronchi, lungs. Variable mortality.
"The form of the growth curve sketched by a population increasing from low numbers is determined by the relationship between the population and the dynamics of its resources."
G. Caughley & A.R.E Sinclair - Trying to understand what makes populations change
General Adaptation Syndrome
GAS.
Sikes Act
GI Joe must work with biologists to manage wildlife.
Law
Game wardens work with this.
What are the various sources of funding for wildlife conservation? What are the top 2 sources of funding for most state wildlife agencies?
General tax revenues Income taxes & fees Excise taxes (e.g., P-R $)** Sales taxes Tax check-offs License sales Special use stamps (e.g., archery stamp)** Private sector
How does being a generalist or specialist relate to cover management?
Generalist - can use anything specialist - needs something specific and if it disappears, so does the animal
Stochastic Events
Genetic Environmental Natural Demographic (only affects the smallest populations)
What types of stochastic events are there?
Genetic Stochasticity Environmental Stochasticity Natural Stochasticity Demographic stochasticity(only affects the smallest of populations, involves the BBDBDD v.DDDBBB)
Prenatal survival
Gestation & incubation Fertility v. natality Environmental factors & implications Nutrition & habitat Sex ratios (e.g., deer) Manageable
Prenatal Survival
Gestation and incubation (how well do you survive; most mammals don't incubate) - Fertility vs. natality Environmental factors and implications - Nutrition and habitat (condition of parents, especially mom) - If mom is in good shape, less likely to leave nest (habitat related) - Sex ratios (e.g. deer) - Manageable
Ectotherm
Get heat from the environment.
Plants
Good source of carbohydrates.
Set aside
Government programs, such as parts of the Farm Bill, that divert cropland from production for conservation purposes or to adjust commodity production and prices.
Grasslands-
Grass-dominated rangeland systems.
Structure-
Grazing can alter plant community composition and _____.
Meat
Great source of protein.
Gizzard
Grinds.
Metapopulations
Groups of local populations - Subpopulations or demes: more localized, discrete populations - Size, quality, connectivity, and distance (I & E important) - Affects small and big picture - Island Biogeography and Conservation Biology - Matrix: unusable space between local populations
What is metapopulation and how does it relate to wildlife population dynamics and habitat fragmentation?
Groups of local populations Subpopulations or demes There are small populations within the overall population
What is a lure crop?
Grow crops that provide good habitat which gets them away from your primary crops
Carrying Capacity (K)
Habitat Resources and Conditions - Welfare Factors - Decimating Factors: conditions What about: - Soil: affect plants that could be food or cover - Weather: affect climate ALL FACTORS CHANGE THROUGH TIME AND SPACE! Variation - Spatially - Temporally
Use
Habitat _____ can be deceiving when trying to understand what is best for wildlife.
Passenger Pigeon
Habitat destruction and unregulated hunting wiped them out.
Intermediate Treatments
Happen between regeneration and harvest of forests.
Cellulose
Hard to digest plant component.
Single Tree Selection
Harvest system where individual trees are targeted.
What is the doomed surplus?
Harvestable surplus
Life Spans
Harvested populations typically have shorter average _____ _____.
Clear cut
Harvesting all the trees over a relatively large area all at once.
Market Hunting
Harvesting animals for sale.
Secretary of Interior
Has final authority to protect a species in the U.S.
Habitat
Has four components: food, cover, water, and space.
Predation: Case of Quail
Have we failed as managers fi we must control predators to have quail to hunt? - Literature review - Weak or lack of data - Habitat management = predator management - IPM: Integrated Pest Management (increase quail = increase habitat, if need more = target primary pests) - Sympatric (overlapping), parapatric (adjacent but not overlapping), allopatric (space used doesn't touch or overlap) - Proximate vs. ultimate factors - Irruptions
Small
Having a _____ local population makes a species more prone to rarity.
Marine Fisheries Service
Help deal with marine fish that might need protection.
Trophic levels
Help us to understand how many resources are available ○ rarely make it higher then the 3rd level.
Coastal Zone Management
Helpful legislation.
Ceca
Helps breakdown.
Warm Season Grass
Herbaceous plants used in pastures and hay fields that like it hot.
Topkill
Herbicides are sometimes used in range management to _____ sprouters and stimulate palatable growth.
Anthrax
Herbivorous animals mainly ruminants such as white-tailed deer. Causes weakness, fever, blood loss from body openings, septicemic disease, engorgement of the spleen. Lymph nodes swollen and bloody, rapid mortality.
Intrinsic flaw
Hereditary cause of disease.
Refuge
Hiding cover
Genetic vulnerability
High _____ _____ make species prone to rarity and extinction.
Rocky Mountain-
High elevation forest type of the western U.S.
On top
High on the White Mountain.
Alpine tundra
High range.
Fats
Highest in energy content.
Trial and Error
Historical method of determining harvest regulations.
Forage
Historically, management in rangelands has focused almost exclusively on _____ production.
Pest
Historically, wildlife were often considered _____ species in cities.
Passive
Hitching a ride to move.
Cavity
Hole in tree.
Pacific
Hollywood's flyway.
What are the different types of movements?
Home Range Critical areas Territories - Hierarchies Dispersal Migration Nomadism
Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
Home of the Instructor.
Johnsons Level: Second order
Home range within geographic range (landscape/macrohabitat)
Density independent
Horizontal line.
List and rank the importance of some environmental cues used by wildlife. What aspects of wildlife biology and behavior do these affect?
Hormones control it all - environmental cues - sensed by animals - set clocks - Endocrine system translates cues Disrupters - can break the chain
USGS
Houses all of the interior's researchers.
food digestibility
How do they get stuff from the food?
Connectivity
How interlocked habitats are.
Carrying Capacity
How many animals the environment can support.
Half
How many wetlands remain?
Interspersion
How mixed habitats are.
Availability
How much is out there.
Cutting cycle
How often an area is visited for harvest.
Scale dependent
How organisms are arranged is space is often _____ _____.
Palatability
How well it is liked.
Safety
Hunter _____ has improved dramatically in recent decades making it better than most popular sporting activities.
Education
Hunter _____ programs have led to a safer experience.
US Economic impact
Hunters > License sales > P-R Funds generated > Conservation donations > Paid taxes > Retail Spending
Fund
Hunters _____ most wildlife conservation, even that of nongame.
Funding
Hunters provide most of the _____ for wildlife conservation.
Leases
Hunting _____ are a means of deriving wildlife related income by a landowner.
What are the main divisions of the FLFWCC? How is the Commission organized above these divisions?
Hunting and game management - handles anything with hunting and game animals Marine Fisheries Management - manage salt water fish Freshwater - Manage fresh water fish Law enforcement - biggest division Habitat and species - non-game and endangered species
Red legs kicking
Hunting black ducks.
Decimating
Hunting is a _____ factor.
Types of harvest
Hunting* Trapping Fishing Collecting
Consumptive Use
Hunting, collecting, fishing, and trapping wildlife.
Socio-economically-based K
I-carrying capacity (ICC) - where you want K to be for hunting Optimum carrying capacity (OCC) - anything other than K Minimum-impact carrying capacity (MCC)
Welfare
If a lack of a habitat component limits a population, the component is a considered a _____ factor.
Importance
If a species is of _____ to humans it is often more prone to rarity.
Overexploit
If we _____ a species it will be more prone to rarity.
Noah
If you believe in the Bible, he started our problems.
What is poaching? How can affect wildlife management?
Illegal taking
Proximate
Immediate or actual cause of death.
How does metapopulation relate to population dynamics?
Immigration and emigration are involved, they affect how well that metapopulation will grow. Habitat fragments will tell how big the patches are and how far away
Vegetation: Structure vs. Species
Important as cover, but when election, select for what plant is proving (growth form) - Same species may grow differently in different habitats
Noneconomic
In Belize, howler monkey conservation is enthusiastically support for _____ reasons.
Private
In addition to public lands like this, _____ parks offer much to people.
Patches
In cities, _____ of habitat are often too small and isolated for wildlife to use.
White-tailed deer
In florida, there is naturally bad food for deer; females have poor nutrient - Female embryos die more often when females in poor conditions - Intrinsic population regulation mechanisms --> produce more males to not add to problem of increasing population
Cooperation
In his policy, Leopold suggest that more _____ is needed among sportsmen, landowners, and the public.
Train
In his policy, Leopold suggest that we must _____ more people to improve conservation.
Funds
In his policy, Leopold suggests that more _____ are needed from general taxation to support conservation.
Taxes
In many states, _____ fund a large portion of wildlife conservation.
Protection
In the Era, people looked to preservation.
Society
In the U.S., our _____ often has problems with wildlife ranching and farming.
Commercial Wildlife Values
Income (part of economic value) Selling or trading wildlife or their parts Conducting business based on access to wildlife Meat, fur, etc. Guides, sporting goods stores, motels, etc. Leases & fee hunting
How do births, deaths, immigration, & emigration affect wildlife populations?
Increase, decrease, maintain
Goal of wildlife management
Increase, decrease, maintain, or stabilize
Biomagnification
Increased concentration of chemicals as you move up the food chain.
Habitat
Indirectly affects populations
Aggregated, contagious, clumped, underdispersed
Individuals are closer together than expected by chance - follow resources - social - protection
Clumped Dispersion
Individuals are closer together than expected by chance - Due to resources not homogeneously laid out so following resources, other animals mar flock together due to attraction to each other
Uniform Dispersion
Individuals more evenly spaced than expected based on chance - Due to territoriality (if resource homogeneously spread, will divide up and protect personal resources), dominance being expressed - If no resources present, no uniform space present because animals not there - Plants have a version of this (allelopathy) to create even spacing among plants
Landscape
Industrial forest is often managed at this scale.
Sex Ratios: Influences and Mating Habits
Influences - Morality/decimating factors: harvest, weather, disease, etc. mating habits - Monogamous - Polygynous - Polyandrous
r
Instantaneous rate of increase, intrinsic rate of increase, Malthusian parameter, or per capita rate of increase b - d Units: ind/(ind*time) Based on 0
What is IPM and how can it benefit wildlife?
Integrated pest management biological control cultural aspects
Food web
Interconnected chains of species.
Red Data Books
International list of endangered species.
Tapeworms
Intestinal parasites of many mammals; few signs or effects; heavy infestations may lead to lethargy and emaciation.
What are 6 causes of disease?
Intrinsic flaws (Hereditary or congenital diseases) Deficiency diseases* Exogenous poisons Trauma Tumors Living organisms*
Predators
Introduced _____ are often a problem for island wildlife.
Brown treesnake
Invaded many Pacific islands and causing significant damage , especially to birds.
Insects
Invertebrate wildlife foods often associated with wetlands.
Refugia
Islands often serve as protective _____ for many wildlife.
Welfare
Issues related to food may or may not be this type of factor.
4 things habitat can do
It can increase, decrease, maintain, & stabilize populations
Succession
It changes cover through time.
Water
It should be clean, but lack of it is more important.
Habitat
It's loss often leads to rarity.
Cons of providing supplemental food
Its better for animals to get food from their habitat, disease spreads, killing easier, changes behavior, they don't migrate.
What are pros and cons of providing supplemental/artificial food for wildlife?
Its better for animals to get food from their habitat, disease spreads, killing easier, changes behavior, they don't migrate.
Wolf
Its reintroduction into Yellowstone NP has been controversial.
Opportunistic
Jaguars used an _____ foraging strategy.
How has the definition of wildlife changed through time?
Just worried about game animals > Birds and mammals > undomesticated living things > Fish included?
Tertiary sex ratio. How do these affect population productivity?
Juveniles
Ecologically
K is _____ based.
Minerals
K, Na, etc...
Ecologically-based K
K-carrying capacity (KCC)
Cats
Kill billions of wildlife each year.
" it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place. If you want to get somewhere else you must run at least twice as fast!"
L. Carroll, Queen in Alice In Wonderland - Habitat is always changing - Will get worse if nothing is done/managed - Takes large amounts of work just to maintain to meet status quo
Lacustrine
Lake system.
Leopold -
Land Ethic Land is a community (and includes us) Land is to be loved & respected The existence of an ecological conscience
Describe Leopold's land ethic and whether it is needed for conservation success.
Land is a community (and includes us) Land is to be loved & respected The existence of an ecological conscience See, feel, understand, love, or otherwise have faith in
Fertilize-
Landowners may wish to _____ to increase plant growth and available nutrients.
Wetlands
Lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water.
Burmese python
Large exotic snake roaming the Everglades.
Landscape
Large scale habitat.
Okefenoke
Large wetland in south Georgia, much of which recently burned.
Everglades
Large wetland of south Florida.
what affects home range size?
Larger > smaller Gregarious > solitary Carnivores > herbivores Males > females Age? Season? Resources? Conditions? Population density?
Bots
Larvae of flies found in mammals, especially deer (nasal area) and Scurids; only a nuisance to wildlife; aesthetically unpleasing to hunters.
Bots
Larvae of flies found in mammals, especially deer (nasal area) and sciurid's; only a nuisance to wildlife; aesthetically unpleasing to hunters.
Endangered Species Act
Law protecting endangered species in U.S.
Agriculture
Leading cause of wetland loss and degradation.
Browse-
Leaves, shoots, roots, and other parts of woody vegetation.
Emigration
Leaving a population or area.
Describe the land ethic and the animal rights ethic. How does each relate to hunting? What are pros and cons of each for wildlife and the environment?
Leopold (1949): "A thing is right if it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends to do otherwise."
What is a conservationist?
Leopold - someone who is aware that there actions are leaving marks and effects the natural world
American Game Policy
Leopold and others were asked by the government to develop this.
Train
Leopold et al.'s Policy suggested the need to _____ new professionals.
Harvest
Leopold may have considered this decimating factor part of environmental resistance, while others may not.
Evolve
Leopold thought that ethics, like biological entities, could _____.
Saw-
Leopold's Tool, the axe, might be just as well known as the _____.
Population and Management Implications
Leopold's Tools - "Game [wildlife] can be restored by the creative use of the same tools which have heretofore destroyed it -- axe (forestry), plow (ag = planting), cow (ag = livestock production), fire, and gun (hunting)" The wildlife toolbox - More tools = better, more efficient conservation - Harvest is one of these tools - Also more tools = greater public satisfaction
Population Management
Lethal methods: reduce N, but can stabilize N - Hunting, trapping ,fishing, collecting (recreational) - Harvest mgmt. - Yield - Diminishing returns - Compensation - History, trial & error, adaptive harvest mgmt. - Culling, sharp-shooting, trap/collect and euthanize, addle and oil, poisoning, etc. - Addle & oil: mess with eggs to slow reproductive success; put nontoxic mineral oil and put on eggs to suffocate embryo; addling is shaking egg and kills egg - Increase other mortality factors (conditions) - Diseases, predators, etc. Non-lethal methods - Restocking - Captive breeding programs - Trap and transfer (translocation) - Sterilization and contraception - Closed population: behind fence or isolated area with barrier to you coming and going - In closed populations, sterilization and contraception CAN work - Doesn't work in free-range populations because I and E - Repellents: keeps you from going in area; temporarily effective; doesn't really affect N - Habitat manipulation (change K, so change N; indirect) - Survival and reproduction - Use
Federal
Level of government with regulatory authority over exotics.
Predation
Levels of _____ can dictate the amount and type of cover needed by a species.
Multiple use
Like National Forests, most areas containing wildlife in cities have _____ _____.
Carnivore
Likes steak.
Deeryard
Limiting deer cover in northern latitudes.
Range of Tolerance
Limits of resources or conditions under which a species can exist.
Row Crops
Linear set of plants produced on a farm.
Parasites
Little critters that are a cause of disease.
Disease and Parasites
Little decimators.
Disturbance-
Livestock may impact wildlife by affecting vegetation but also through direct _____.
Predators and Humans
Livestock, pets, game species, etc. Opinions split or indifference - Fear, economics, pets, and lack of understanding of value
Preservation
Lock it up and throw away the key
People
Lots of _____ want to live on coasts.
Rumen
Lots of bacteria live here.
Reproduction
Low _____ is a factor leading to rarity.
Basal
Lowest metabolic rate.
Fidelity
Loyalty to an area.
Homeotherm
Maintains body temperature.
Sex ratio
Male/Female.
Secondary demographics
Male/female ratio Age structure
Primary
Male/female ratio at the time of fertilization.
Rabies
Mammalian viral disease with no cure once symptoms present.
Food Storage
Mammals>Birds>Herps
Courtship Behavior
Management implications - Survival and sex ratios - Many birds and ungulates - Lekking spp. - Management implications - Sage grouse - Lek - Males show up first each breeding season - More dominant you are, the closer you are to the middle (each set up territories) - Females hang around outside and all look for best guy, take away and reproduce and then go back and do it again; every predator/hunter knows location - Sampling - Use these to do research/understand courtship
Habitat
Management of this is an indirect method of managing wildlife
Flyway
Management units for migratory birds in North America.
Indirect
Manipulate the environment, make the habitat better,used prescribed burning
Habitat management is the manipulation of?
Manipulation of resources & conditions Quantity, quality, & distribution
Fisheries
Many _____ are supported by shallow coastal communities.
Game
Many _____ species have been released to improve hunting opportunities.
Timing
Many cues determine the _____ of breeding.
Polygyny
Many female partners.
Affiliation
Many hunters indicate that this is their primary motivation for hunting.
Polyandry
Many male partners.
Breeding
Many marine wildlife use islands for this.
Natural
Many people would not consider harvest as a _____ form of mortality.
Purposefully
Many species have been _____ moved.
Shortstopping
Many species of migratory waterfowl do this if conditions are right.
Beaches
Many species such as sea turtles may nest here.
Hunt
Many species were introduced to _____.
Era of Protection (1900-1929)
Many wildlife populations very low Increase in protection and regulation by government Except predators & harmful wildlife 1st conservation movement begins Roosevelt's Wise Use Doctrine 1st attempts to look at entire systems
Commerce
Maritime _____ is big business in coastal areas.
National Parks Service
Mather was its first.
What is carrying capacity?
Max. # the environment can support
Biotic Potential
Maximum growth rate for a species.
Important Fats
Meat, legumes. Amino acids and enzymes
Disruption
Mechanical treatments are often needed to obtain the soil _____ necessary for the establishment of many grass and forb species.
Edge-
Meeting of two forest types.
Predator Control
Methods - Nonlethal methods (extremely acceptable -> not acceptable) - Guard dogs, repellent chemicals, birth control, pay ranchers for losses, pay ranchers not to raise livestock - Lethal methods (extremely acceptable -> not acceptable) - Shooting from ground, fast-acting poisons, aerial gunning, denning, steel leg hold traps (banned in FL and many states), slow-acting poisons - Cost - Effectiveness - Those that are more effective and cheap, cost other species and inhumane Attitudes - Coyotes Does it work? - Seems to work sometimes, but doesn't seem to work out all other times in terms of reducing predators - Coyotes - Wolves - Bears - Quail, mallard ducklings, moose, sea turtles... Effects on communities - Thinking like a mountain!
Johnsons: Fourth order
Microhabitat
Age
Middle _____ animals usually have the best reproductive rates.
federal government have management and regulatory authority
Migratory Exotics Interstate shipments Endangered species and their habitat Federal lands and thing's that affect it International agreements
Nutrients
Minerals.
What is MVP?
Minimum Viable Populations: the minimum population size you need for that population to exist.
Minimum Viable Populations (MVP)
Minimum number of animals needed for long-term population survival despite any events - National Forest Mgmt. Act of 1976: maintain minimum of 4 vertebrates viable - Species- and site-specific - 50/500 rule - Short-term: w/ at least 50, persist 50 years - Long-term: w/ at least 500, persist 500 years Shaffer (1981) - Need for performance criteria - 99% chance of surviving for 1000 years despite stochastic events - Genetic stochasticity (random; genetic drift) - Environmental stochasticity (good vs. bad years) - Natural catastrophes - Demographic stochasticity: affect smallest populations - BBDBBD v. DDBBBB (birth rate 2x death rate) - Important of individuals - FL Panther: inbreeding; introduced mountain lions for genes
What is a MVP? How is one determined?
Minimum viable populations 50/500 rule - when there is 50, they can last 50 years, when there's 500 they can last 500 years
Sex Ratios and Mating Habits
Monogamous - Environmental factors and management implications - 50:50, max # nests/100 birds = 50 (ideal sex ratio b/c anything but this allows there to be more of one sex than the other, which decreases the amount of those that get bred) - 75:25. max # nests/100 birds = 25 - 25:75, max # nests/100 birds = 25 Polygynous - Environmental factors and management implications - 50:50, max # nests/100 birds = 50 - 75:25, max # nests/100 birds = 25 - 25:75, max # nests/100 birds = 25 - 75 (skew toward females b/c need few male to breed large amounts of females) Polyandrous - Environmental factors and implications - 50:50, max # nests/100 birds = 50 - 75:25, max # nests/100 birds = 25 - 25:75, max # nests/100 birds = 25
What are the different mating habits/systems? How do mating habits affect productivity?
Monogamy Polygamy Polyandry Polygyny Promiscuity
Predation
More than suckers are decimated.
Harvests-
Most North American forests have had multiple _____.
Intestine
Most absorption takes place here.
Dispersion Facts
Most common type? - Clumped due to rescues not being homogeneously spread at least across large areas Scale dependent: if broad scale, clumped because large scale - As you decrease eh amount of area, you are more likely to see homogenous resources in a small area (or any of three) - Importance: how we damsel them are determined by how they are distributed in space - If we know animals are following clumped resources, can place resources in clumps to attract animals. which then attract hunters, bird watchers, etc.
License
Most funding for wildlife conservation comes from _____ sales.
Critical
Most limiting habitat; often a legal term.
Should It Continue?
Most of society says yes - $ for conservation - Valuable - Management tool - May be needed to develop a land/conservation ethic Land Ethic Cs. Animal Rights/Welfare Ethic - Leopold (1949): " A thing is right if it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. it is wronger when it tends to do otherwise". - Other natural resources - Management implications of the Animal Rights/Welfare Ethic - Who cares if the community/ecosystem is destroyed? - Feral cats and overabundant deer - Humanistic and moralistic values - What will we eat? (agriculture) - Who will pay for conservation? If hunting and trapping were lost as wildlife management tools in the U.S. (IAFWA) - An additional 50,000 injuries and 50 deaths from wildlife-auto interactions (=297,000 injuries and 250 deaths total) - $3.8 billion in auto repair costs - $1.45 billion in health care from just rabies - $128 million in aircraft damage - Governments would need to spend - Up to $9.3 billion/year to control deer - Up to $265 million/year to control furbearers
Vegetation
Most often this is what constitutes cover.
Era of Abundance (1600-1849)
Most wildlife very abundant, thought inexhaustible People starting to have negative affects Predators and harmful wildlife persecuted Some local efforts to boost populations
Carbohydrates
Mostly obtained from plants.
Morals
Motivations based on ideas of right and wrong.
Translocated
Moved wildlife.
What affects wildlife movements?
Movement rates within vary by species & temporally
What factors affect cover selection?
Movements, shelter, & visibility
Waste
Much energy and nutrients are lost in _____.
Pine Plantation-
Much of the Southeast has been converted to _____ _____, a poor habitat type.
Planning
Much wildlife conservation today in cities focuses on urban _____.
Sierra Club
Muir's group
Polygamy
Multiple mates.
Demographic Characteristics and Equations
N = B (# of births) + I (# immigration) - D (# deaths) - E (# emigration) N(t+1) = Nt + Bt + It - Dt - Et Delta N (change in N with respect to time) - Models used to predict - Effects of: harvest, restocking, habitat, weather, other organisms - Want to affect/change N
The Natural Conservancy
NGO that buys and conserves thousands of hectares.
Ducks Unlimited
NGO that has secured and managed thousands of hectares of wetlands.
Resting
Napping cover.
Tolerance
Narrow habitat _____ will make a species more prone to rarity.
NEPA
National Environmental Policy Act
What act affected the MVP?
National Forest Management Act of `796
Department of Commerce
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) National Ocean Service
Stopover sites
National wildlife refuges. Ex: Mississippi flyway Canada geese
Indigenous
Native.
Beavers
Natural wetland builders.
Audubon
Naturalist and artist; increased awareness of wildlife and nature.
Grinnel
Naturalist and author; founded the Audubon Society.
Muir
Naturalist and author; preservationist; founded the Sierra Club; helped establish the National Park Service.
Appreciative
Naturalistic
Pro hunting values
Naturalistic
Water
Needed for metabolic processes.
Vitamins
Needed in small amounts.
Energy
Needed joules.
Amino acids
Needed to build muscle.
What are some management practices that will benefit large carnivores in Africa?
Needs to focused on management of livestock.Allow sport hunters to remove problem animals. Open sanctuaries. In more developed regions;synchronizing calving, the use of portable electric fences, increased vigilance by shepherd during breeding season, the use of livestock guard dogs, frightening devices(sirens, strobe lights), taste averse conditioning.
What are some managment practices that will benefit large carnivores in Africa?
Needs to focused on management of livestock.Allow sport hunters to remove problem animals. Open sanctuaries. In more developed regions;synchronizing calving, the use of portable electric fences, increased vigilance by shepherd during breeding season, the use of livestock guard dogs, frightening devices(sirens, strobe lights), taste averse conditioning.
Exposure
Negative effect of weather.
Costs
Negative values of wildlife refer to the _____ of wildlife damage or its prevention.
Lungworms
Nematode worms of mammals, especially deer and wild pigs; common but typically few signs in wild animals; heavily infected animals show weakness, weight loss, and respiratory distress; may lead to secondary infections and overall health decline in heavily infected animals.
Lungworms
Nematode worms of mammals, especially deer and wild pigs; common but typically few signs in wild animals; heavily infected animals show weakness, weight loss, and respiratory distress; may lead to secondary infections and overall health decline in heavily infected populations.
Meningeal worms
Nematodes of mammals, especially ungulates (deer); incoordination, paralysis, cranial inflammation, and death; no effects on white-tailed deer but deadly to other cervids.
Meningeal Worms
Nematodes of mammals, especially ungulates; incoordination, paralysis, cranial inflammation, and death; no effects on white-tailed deer but deadly to other Cervids.
Regulated Hunting
No species has ever gone extinct as a result of _____ _____.
Vegetation
Non-animal part of a wetland.
Odd areas
Non-tillable lands, like roadsides or fence corners, are often "wasted" space
Interest
Nontraditional _____ in wildlife such as butterflies have left many wildlifers unprepared to work with them.
Model of Wildlife Conservation
North American _____ _____ _____ _____.
Space
Not considered a welfare factor by Leopold.
Age
Not considered in simple population models.
Ecofallow
Not growing a crop in a field for a period of time specifically for environmental benefits.
Poaching
Not hunting, but often called a form of hunting.
Why do we need to learn ecological principles?
Not knowing basics leads to inefficient management
Land ethic
Not living with wildlife, people in cities have a hard time developing a _____ _____, as Leopold would have wanted.
Exotic
Not native.
Nonindigenous
Not native.
Natality
Number of births or hatchings.
Clutchsize
Number of eggs produced by a bird.
Fecundity
Number of gametes produced.
Fertility
Number of viable gametes.
Condition
Nutrition affects body _____.
What are the relationships between nutrition and wildlife populations?
Nutrition affects condition, mortality, & reproduction
Hardmast
Nuts and seeds.
Smokey gold
Of tamaracks and grouse.
Desert
Often called shrublands.
Cover
Often confused with habitat.
Marsh
Often considered America's first environmentalist; congressman; fought for the creation of several parks; wrote Man and Nature.
Dominance
Often determines who gets the best resources.
Season
Often food use changes by _____.
Powerplants
Often located in coastal areas.
Edge
Often measured as a linear distance.
Biodiversity
Often only refers to species richness.
Ephemeral
Often referring to changeable or transitory ponds and wetlands.
Reef
Often surrounds an island but may be alone.
Food
Often the most important factor affecting populations, particularly birds.
Yield
Often used synonymously with population growth rate.
Productivity
Often used to refer to the reproductive output or a population rate of change.
How do people get involved in hunting, fishing, etc.?
On their own Family * - As children - Remain active - "Traditional hunters" Friends - As young adults - More likely to quit
Predation
One animal eating another.
Cover
One aspect of habitat. A place that enhances survival and/or reproduction, and protects. Leopold calls it a shelter for wildlife.
Monogamy
One male and one female.
Fire
One of Leopold's Tools that can influence population size.
Gun
One of Leopold's Tools.
American Game Policy
One of the first national wildlife policies.
Nontimber value
Only recently has our society begun to recognize these forest values.
Sucker
Only the naive are on the list.
What are 8 factors that influence wildlife reproduction? How does each of these affect reproduction? How can knowing this be used to manage wildlife?
Onset & length of breeding season Litter/clutch size Prenatal survival Survival of newborns Parental care Age at sexual maturity Sex ratios & mating habits Population density
8 factors that influence wildlife reproduction
Onset and length of breeding season, litter/clutch size, prenatal survival, survival of newborns, parental care, age at sexual maturity, population structure, sex ratios/ mating habits.
Nomadism
Opportunistic movement in response to habitat resources and conditions - HR? Don't really have one, continuously wander in search of rescues or appropriate conditions (habitat, but most often food) - Polar bear, Australian bustard, African wild dog - Not migration because don't know where going - Not dispersal because don't settle down in one place
Nomadism
Opportunistic movements in response to habitat resources and conditions Never seem to have a home-range Wander in search for some resource or condition - usually food
What foraging strategies do Jaguars use? How do jaguars select prey? How does forest structure influence jaguar and prey spatial and temporal relationships?
Opportunistic; prey relative to its abundance; based on their abundance and risks. They will pick an armadillo over tapir; spite consuming armadillo and paca in proportions comparable to their abundance, and sharing a common activity pattern with these prey, jaguars exhibited low spatial overlap with both armadillo and paca. Jaguar were photographed most frequently on man-made paths, whereas armadillos and pacas primarily used small mammal trails and forested
Harvestable Surplus (Leopold 1933)
Originally only the "doomed" surplus - Assuming a surplus - Overharvest (lead to extinction, missed opportunities) - Extinction - Regulated hunting never led to extinction! - Underharvest (ecosystem degradation) - Environmental degradation (think like a mountain!) - Loss of recreational opportunities (value!) - Principles - Yield (Inversity) - Diminishing returns - Compensatory harvest mortality - Doomed surplus - Threshold of security - Harvestable surplus: refer to population characteristic that allows a population to be harvested; individuals that can be harvested from population without causing long-term problems in that population; referred to "doomed" surplus - So which one happens? Depends - History, Trial & Error, and Human Dimensions - Harvest management technically not scientifically based - History typically helps determine harvest management - Which group has most political influence can dictate harvest management
Too early
Orion is not late.
Factors
Other _____ affecting a species continued existence is also a criterion when considering protection.
Organisms
Other _____ may affect a population's growth.
Ecological Management
Our Era.
Rural
Outside of the city and suburbs.
Achievement
Outsmarting the "beast" Shooting & pursuit Limiting-out or trophy
Harvest
Over_____ is often a problem for marine wildlife.
Thinking like a mountain
Overabundance and destruction.
Herbivores
Overabundant _____ can have dramatic effects on forest regeneration and future composition.
Importance & management implications
Overcrowding Rescue effects Recolonization Range expansion Inbreeding Negative Other
Uniform
Overdispersed distribution.
DEP
Oversees Florida State Parks
Father of Wildlife Management
Padre.
Gizzard Worms
Parasitic nematodes of various birds; few signs, heavy burden can lead to reduced growth and emaciation, and damage to gizzard lining; rarely fatal.
Gizzard worms
Parasitic nematodes of various birds; few signs, heavy burden can lead to reduced growth and emaciation, and damage to gizzard lining; rarely fatal.
Transfrontier
Parks crossing national borders.
Territory
Part of all of a home range that is defended against others of the same or different species - Not all species - Defended by individuals, groups - Always vs. seasonal Why have one? - Costs vs. Benefits: Have many resources to an individual, but could end up in death if territorial behaviors increase - Size and resources - MVP: get more land to have more space - Importance: have more space, land, and resources Hierarchies - Pecking Orders - Linear dominance hierarchy vs. leveled dominance - One individual is below the other vs. multiple individuals below alpha male (effects who gets best resources [territories] in this case)
Human dimensions
Part of the wildlife conservation triad
What is a territory? How do these relate to home ranges? Who has them? Why?
Part or all of a home range that is defended against others of the same or different species Not all species Defended by individuals, pairs, or groups Always vs. seasonal
Peat
Partially decayed vegetative matter that fills some wetlands.
Rabies
Particulariily carnviores and omnivores. Two forms; dumb and furious. Dumb is aimless wondering, lethargy, in coordination. Furious; vicious attacks and self-mutilations both result in convulsions, coma, death.
Route
Path.
Tularmeria
Pathogen: Francisella tularensis.Targets mammals, especially rodents and lagomoprhs. Lethargic or spasmodic behavior, swollen lymph nodes, necrotic foci on liver and spleen, occasional death, and can be life threatening to people
Avian Cholera
Pathogen: Pasteurella multicida.Targets birds especially waterfowl. It causes poor coordination, hemorrhages on pericardium(membrane around heart) and causes necrotic foci
Brucellosis
Pathogen:Brucella. Targets mammals especially bison, elk. Causes lameness, scrotal enlargement, uterine thickening and edema in pregnant females, aborted fetuses, weakened calves, little adult mortality.
Bounty
Payment for the killing or capture of something such as a predator.
Opportunity
People living in cities often lack the _____ to enjoy wildlife.
Traditional hunting
People who get involved in hunting through the family. *These people are slowing declining.
Imprinting
Permanent learning during a critical period, enhances survival
What is imprinting? How can it be used to manage wildlife?
Permanent learning during the critical period First couple of days Learn: - recognize own species, and parents - important for animals who live in groups Helps with survival Management It's with you forever
Traditional and Johnson's levels of selection/scale: First Order
Physical/Geographical range (landscape level habitat) ● Fourth Order: Microhabitat
Structure
Plant _____ is usually more important the species when wildlife select cover.
Rangelands
Plant communities dominated by grasses, forbs, and/or shrubs.
Invader
Plant species, usually a shrub or exotic, that increase in abundance as grazing intensity increases.
Decreaser
Plant that declines as grazing intensity increases.
Lure crop
Plants produced to draw wildlife away from agricultural fields.
Legumes
Plants that are high in protein.
Hydrophytes
Plants that like water.
Recreational Wildlife Values
Pleasure, adventure, & advanced physical & mental condition from wildlife activities Hunting, photography, bird watching, etc.
Exogenous Poisons
Poisons introduced or produced outside the organism or system (not synthesized within the organism or system). These poisons produce injury to tissues, damage to liver and kidneys, and upset of metabolic activities.
Flambeau
Politics and paddling the changing river.
What is coprophagy? How does it relate to nutrition?
Poop eating
Malnutrition
Poor diet.
Size
Population _____ is primarily affected by 4 things.
Logistic Population Growth
Population grow with resource limitation in relation to conditions (contains K) - Nt = K/(1+[{K-N0}/N0]e^(-rt)) - dN/dt - rN (1-[N/K]) - Assumes no I & E or I = E - Assumes no structure - Inflection point (1/2 K) - Accelerating phase vs. decelerating phase - K = carrying capacity (one of ultimate goals to control species size); max number the environment can support - Assumes constant K - Can change with time and space - K = N, population at carrying capacity - K > N, population increase toward carrying capacity - K < N, population decrease toward K - K = infinity, population experiences exponential growth - Density- dependence: growth depends on N - Basis for harvestable yield
Logistic Growth
Population growth rate when the population decreases as the number of individuals increases. Density-Dependent. K selected. What harvest management is based on.
Exponential Growth
Population growth where resources are not limiting. Ideal growth. No competition for resources. R selected.
logistic population growth?
Population growth with resource limitation Nt = K/(1 + [{K - N0}/N0]e-rt) dN/dt = rN(1 - [N/K])
Exponential Population Growth
Population growth without resource limitation - Nt (amount after some time t) = N(0)e^(rt) - dN/dt (growth rate) = delta N/delta T = rN (get straight line) - Assumes no I & E or I = E - Assumes no structure - r - intrinsic rate of increase (per capita rate of increase) - per capita rate of increase: added or removed individuals in a population per individual in that current population - instantaneous rate of increase, etc. - b - d - Units: ind/(ind*time) - Based on 0 - r = 0, birth rate = death rate - r > 0, population increases (b>d) - r < 0, population decreases (b<d) - J-shaped curve
Exponential population growth?
Population growth without resource limitation Nt = N0ert dN/dt = N/t = rN Assumes no I & E or I = E Assumes no structure
What are 4 characteristics of harvested populations?
Population size Population stability Fecundity Life span Mortality from other causes
K=N
Population stays the same
What is a PVA?
Population viability analysis
What is PVA?
Population viability analysis. A species-specific method of risk assessment, process that determines the probability that a population will go extinct within a given number of years.
K>N
Population wants to grow
Functional Response
Predator behavior changes. Number of prey increases,predators increase faster.
Functional response
Predator behavior changes. Number of prey increases,predators increase faster.
Site Preparation
Preparing an area before artificial regeneration.
Types of Accidents
Pretty common, more so with windmill structures (raptors and bats), power lines as well - Collisions with objects - Drowning - Chocking - Falls - Entanglement - Entrapment - Research (IACUC: Institutional Animal and Use Committee) - Research organization/institution has to have and approve research project - Have veterinarian and biologist (from institution), citizen from public - Welfare or decimating factor? - Decimating factor, but thinking as they kill things - Some accidents injure/weaken, so may be ultimate - Normal? Natural form of mortality? - Situational, but some normal (drowning, etc.) may become abnormal, but most can be ether - Most can be natural, some are not natural
Accidents
Prevalence - >3.5 million birds/yr killed by striking windows - WTC had many bird deaths, decreased after 9/11 - Wildlife-vehicle collisions Management implications - National Safety Council (2000): 520,000 animal-related accidents resulting in 100 deaths and 4,000 injuries - Deer/auto collision costs about $2,000 - $8,000 per claim for repairs and injuries - Romin and Bissonete (1996): >78,689 deer/auto collisions/yr with $124,092,553/yr in damages - Wildlife populations? Values? Prevalence - >3.5 million birds/yr killed by striking windows - Wildlife-vehicle collisions
Quail Predation
Primary cause of death - Adults: Avian predators: 40-65% of mortality - During nesting and migration - Cooper's and sharp-shinned hawks in SE Mammalian predators - Nesting and winter (north) Snakes - Nesting Fire ants - Chicks
Concealment
Primary function of cover.
Liable
Private lands are often closed to hunting because owners fear they are _____.
Hunting Preserves
Privately owned areas for hunting, often behind a fence.
Disease
Producers often fear that wildlife will expose their animals to _____; this is ironic as domesticated animals started many of these problems.
Coppice-
Production of new stems from stumps or roots.
The Wildlife Society
Professional association of wildlifers
Soil
Proper management of this is key to plant management.
Era of Game Management (1930-1965)
Protection not good enough, needed active management and conservation "Wise Use" taking hold Increased funding Enforcement becomes more effective
ESA
Protects rare things.
Shelter
Provided by cover.
National Forest Management Act
Provided for public input on how National Forests are managed.
Wetland Loan
Provided funds to purchase wetlands.
Irrigation
Providing water.
Proximate vs. Ultimate Factors
Proximate (immediate cause) - Implications
Green Tree Resevoir
Purposefully flooded live timber.
Moist Soil management
Purposefully removing water from an area to expose the substrate for wildlife and habitat.
Reintroduction
Putting a species back in to its former range.
Habitat
Quality _____ can exist in cities, much to people's surprise.
Usable Space
Quality of space as a habitat component, interspersion, and scale - N. Bobwhite Example (This +WTD = most studied species in world) - Habitat requirements to be successful - Needed in same/similar proportions - Escape and thermal cover = shrubs - Nesting cover = grasslands w/ bunch grasses (ideal) - Foraging cover = weeds - Provide ease of movement also
Managing for the Hunter, Fisher, or Trapper
Quality vs. Quantity - e.g. QDM - Deer, habitat, and experience - Provide more trophies or have more deer
Manipulation of Resources and Conditions
Quantity, quality, and distribution - Provide best resources for wildlife succession Adjusting seral stages - Setting back succession - Fire - Grazing and browsing - Mechanical treatments: logging, mowing, bulldozing - Herbicides - Advancing succession - Leave it alone! - Planting and fertilization - Constructing cover: next boxes, brush piles, snags, etc. Population control as habitat management - Affect/change plants in area as well Human dimensions - Single species v. ecosystem approaches - Large scale - The case of howler monkeys and communities in Belize - Primary habitat is riverine forests - Forest heavily used for agriculture (often cleared) - If you don't cut down forest, develop ecotourism industry to make more money than agriculture was making Adaptive Habitat Mgmt. Programs - Try some things, see what happens to habitats, adapt
Sugar
Quick energy.
Chance
Random predation.
Condition-
Range scientists are often concerned with the _____ of livestock and plant communities.
What is a range of tolerance? Describe an example of how knowing about one helps in management.
Range they can utilize - optimal size/number/etc Where the animal can live/breed/expand range
Woodlands
Rangeland systems dominated by shrubs and low growing woody vegetation.
Adaptations
Recognizing these is important to understanding the management of cover.
Information
Recovery planning involves obtaining all relevant _____ about a species.
Gaps
Recovery planning involves the determination of _____ in our knowledge about a species.
Orvs
Recreation issue in many forests.
Productivity
Recruitment Surplus or yield produced # offspring surviving dN/dt*
Erosion
Reduced with proper soil stabilization and management.
Range of tolerance
Refers to the range of conditions that an organism can withstand.
Nontraditional values
Regarding wildlife, city-dwellers often have _____ _____.
Taylor Grazing Act
Regulated grazing on federal lands.
Minimum viable population
Reintroducing individuals may by a tool to establish a _____ _____ _____.
Fragmentation and Connectivity (Edge)
Related to amount of edge Importance of connectivity and patch size - Connectivity: how well patches are connected - Increase fragmentation, decrease connectivity - Way to make patches more usable and availability better - Help edge species but hurt interior species - Importance of corridors Interspersions and juxtaposition of habitats - Interspersions: mixing of habitat patches - Juxtapositions: minimum mixing necessary for a species to exist in that landscape Scale - Patches vs. Landscape - May be fragmented at one but not the other Hard vs. Soft - Matrix: unusable habitats - How different adjoining habitats are; effects how animals move across matrix - Hard: produce high contrast among habitats - Soft: produce low contrast among habitats
Bambi Syndrome
Related to what many people consider the first anti-hunting movie, it may falsely lead to hunting opposition.
Loafing
Relaxing cover.
Value
Reproductive _____ is an individual's contribution to the population.
Nesting
Reproductive cover.
Multiple use-
Required on federal forest lands.
Competition
Requires resource limitation - An interaction between organisms where both are negatively affected (at least in short term) - Natural selection leads to decreases in species and between species; enhance population growth and success within a species and between species - Interspecific vs. intraspecific - Between species - Within species (males and females competing) - Natural selection will try to reduce niches, less negative effect - Exploitative Vs. Interference - Exploitative: more indirect resource gain - Pre-emptive: finite; certain amount of rescues; use up finite resources so competitor can't get them - RCW and tree cavities - Interference: gets more resource than competitor (direct); one species physically exclude the other - Can work within and between species; can have both - Large carnivores in Africa paper; importance of competition between predator species - Outcomes - Exclusion (short-term): one species gets outcompeted, doesn't exist in that location anymore - Coexistence at lower densities (short-term) - Stable (two competing species exist) vs. unstable (coexist for while, but one species excluded to extinction) - More overlap, more likely species is to be excluded - If enough of the niche doesn't overlap, still exist but won't be as many as if predator wasn't there - Sharing carrying capacity - Character displacement and niche separation (long- term) - Change niche so not competing as much to reduce competition (less overlap, less exclusion) - Change traits to reduce competition - Darwin's finches (original species evolved into others [based on feeding differences])
Courtship Behavior
Research and management can often take advantage of this.
State government have management and regulatory authority
Resident wildlife Research
What is crop rotation and how can it benefit wildlife and habitat?
Rotating what you plant or if you plant at all in certain areas; doesn't deplete the nutrients as fast because the different crops use the nutrients in different ways
Ruminant digestive systems
Rumen, Abomasum, Omasum, Reticulum
Omasum
Ruminants have one.
Hemorrhagic disease
Ruminants such as white-tailed deer, depression, fever, respiratry distress, lameness, emaciation, edema, conjunctiva, congestion in heart, rumen, and intestines. Ulceration on dental pad, tongue, palate, rumen, omasum. Growth interruptions and sloughing of hoof walls. Death.
How safe is hunting for hunters? Non-hunters?
Safer than most sports & recreational activities! Hunting: 1.3 injuries/participant Football: 18.8 injuries/participant Soccer: 9.3 injuries/participant Tennis: 2.5 injuries/participant
Why is hunter and trapper education so important?
Safety
Unconsolidated bottom
Sandy bottom class.
Unconsolidated shore
Sandy shore class.
Public Trust Doctrine
Says natural resources belong to everyone in the U.S.
Sapling-
Second tree age/size class.
Provide an example illustrating the difference between wildlife habitat use and selection. Which is more important to understand? Why?
Selection
Define niche. What is the difference between fundamental and realized niches?
Set of resources (habitat components) & conditions used by a species fundamental - what it could bebut something is stopping them realized - what it actually is
Secondary
Sex ratio at birth.
Who wanted to quantify the MVP, with stochastic event survival?
Shaffer
Playa Lakes Region
Shallow, ephemeral ponds and wetlands of north Texas and areas north.
Prune-
Shape trees by cutting branches.
What types of cover are there and what are their functions?
Shelter & concealment Winter Refuge Loafing/resting Nesting Breeding Roasting Thermal Escape Bedding/roosting Feeding Traveling
Types and Functions of Cover
Shelter and Concealment (Leopold's "special factors") - Winter - Refuge - Loafing, resting - nesting - Breeding - Roasting: get heat ectothermically - Thermal: stay warm - Escape - Bedding/roosting: sleep - Feeding: eating - Traveling: travel safely
Types of cover
Shelter concealment. Refuge, snow, water, side of cliff
Cover
Shelter for wildlife that consists of vegetation and topographic features that provide places to hide, feed, sleep, play, and raise young.
What stages do hunters typically go through?
Shooter stage Limiting-out stage Trophy stage Method stage Sportsman stage
Niche
Should exotics be introduced into areas where native species occupy the same _____?
Carson
Silent Spring; biologist; dealt with pollution and it's effects
Carson -
Silent Spring; biologist; dealt with pollution and it's effects
Prairie birthday
Silphium and graves.
Subsidence
Sinking of the earth's surface.
How can we manage water and wildlife?
Size, sex, age, & season Adaptations Effects on distribution
January thaw
Skunk tracking.
Bedding
Slumber cover.
How have populations of farmland- and forest-associated wildlife species changed in the eastern U.S. since European settlement?
Small family farms - > large monocultures Farms got bigger, more row crops, more edge, less diversity
Grit
Small stones.
Minimum viable population
Smallest number of individuals that can survive long term.
why learn ecological principles?
So we know how the basic habitat components interact with wildlife
Humane
Society mandates that harvest methods be as _____ as possible.
AOU
Society of bird enthusiasts.
Endocrine Disruption
Some chemicals may cause this in wildlife, which can be physiologically detrimental.
Gas
Some energy is lost as methane _____.
Accidental
Some exotic species were _____ arrivals/stowaways.
Irrupt
Some populations may _____ when a limiting factor is temporarily removed.
Predators
Some species do very well in urban areas because _____ are often absent.
Is only half a loaf
Some would argue that without a personal consumption ethic, Leopold's land ethic _____ _____ _____ _____ _____.
Nonhunter
Someone who does not hunt but is not against hunting.
Antihunter
Someone who is against hunting.
The choral copse
Songs and photoperiod.
Song of the Gavilan
Sounds of the river.
Funding for Wildlife Conservation
Source affects "Politics" & how it is spent General tax revenues Income taxes & fees Excise taxes (e.g., P-R $) Sales taxes Tax check-offs License sales Special use stamps (e.g., archery stamp) Private sector
Oakpine
Southeastern forest type.
Dispersion
Spatial arrangement of organisms.
Estuaries
Spawning areas for many marine species.
What affects cover requirements for a species?
Species Function Season Age Predation pressure Pests Weather Region
Good oak
Spiritual dangers, trees, and history.
What are wildlife ethics?
Standards we employ to determine our actions and evaluate whether something is good or bad Conservation is an ethic of resource use, allocation, and protection. Its primary focus is upon maintaining the health of the natural world
Snags
Standing dead tree.
What are the types of mortality?
Starvation & Malnutrition Disease & Parasites Accidents Predation Exposure Harvest
Types of mortality
Starvation, Malnutrition, Disease/parasites, Accidents, Exposure, Harvest.
Resident
States are the primary management authority for _____ wildlife.
Public Trust Document
States that all citizens own wildlife in the U.S.
Types of Disease
Toxicoses (poisons) - Organophosphate an carbamate pesticides - Organochlorine pesticides and PCB compounds - Aflatoxicosis - Lead poisoning - Oil toxicosis
Magna Charta
Transferred ownership of wildlife to the people.
Genes
Translocation's can help populations by adding _____, as with the Florida panther.
Chronic Wasting disease
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy. Affects Deer, elf, moose. Progressive weight loss, changes in temperament. Nervousness, hyperactivity, teeth grinding, repitive walking patterns, excessive thirst and urination, drooping of head and ears. excessive salivation.
Disease
Tree _____ prevention is an important part of forest management that has pros and cons for wildlife.
Axe in hand
Trees and the definition of a conservationist.
Liver Flukes
Trematode parasites of mammals, especially deer and wild pigs; liver cysts and mild anemia; little affect except at high levels, which reduces health, and in sheep, where it can be deadly.
Liver flukes
Trematode parasites of mammals, especially deer and wild pigs; liver cysts and mild anemia; little affect except at high levels, which reduces health, and in sheep, where it can be deadly; often obtained from cattle.
How do we apply what we know about ecological concepts & principles?
Trophic Levels & Food Webs Range of Tolerance Niche & Competition Succession Habitat Selection & Scale Edge & Interspersion Fragmentation, Connectivity, & Juxtaposition Island Biogeography Carrying Capacity
Land pyramid
Trophic levels and food webs.
Coprophagy
Trying food for a second time.
Migration
Two (multi)-way movements, usually between seasonal home-ranges Access to PREDICTABLE abundant resources
A B Cleavage
Two groups of conservationists; one thinks the function of land is commodity production and the other sees it in a much broader way.
Migration
Two(multi-way) movement, usually between seasonal home ranges. Not all species. Benefits: access to predictable resources.
Toxicoses
Type of disease.
Corridors and Metapopulations
Type of fragmentation and matrix Source/sink - Source: grows well and has emigrants that will leave and go to other populations - Habitat provides what species needs; high quality habitat patch - Sink population: not persisting, probably declining; no individuals that can leave and go to other populations - Poor habitats, species go here to die - Scale: habitats vs. populations
Active
Type of movement where animals propel themselves rather than hitching a ride.
Sanitary
Type of predation where the weak, injured, and old are preyed upon.
Movement and Space Use
Types - Home Range - Critical areas - Territories - Hierarchies - Dispersal - Migration - Nomadism Space = welfare factor? - Yes, but could also be decimating (mainly welfare)
Normal
Types of mortality that a species evolved with.
Photoperiod
Typically the most important environmental cue.
Adjust
Typically, to manage habitat we have to _____successional phases.
Who owns wildlife in the U.S.? Many European countries?
U.S. - the people Euro - private people or the government
Aphis
USDA folks who deal with problem wildlife.
Aphis
USDA folks who work with problem wildlife.
Ultimate
Underlying, possibly evolutionary causes of death/mortality.
Human dimension
Understanding the _____ _____ is critical to dealing with exotic species issues.
Undiscovered or Underutilized Wildlife Values
Unknown & underutilized Medicine, foods, etc. Antlers Gall bladders
Triage
Unofficial approach to decide which species get attention.
Unique
Urban and suburban areas present many _____ challenges to wildlifers.
Sprawl
Urbanization.
Why are the numbers of hunters possibly declining?
Urbanizing & suburbanizing populations Liability, posting, & land access Losing the "Land Ethic" & Tradition
How can we diseases and parasites as a management tool? Describe and example
Use as biological control agents - European rabbits in Australia - Red imported fire ants
Johnsons level:third order
Use of habitat components within home range(Macrohabitat)
Selection
Use relative to availability.
Habitat Selection
Use, Availability, Selection - Selection is use relative to availability - (-) selecting against - (0) neither selecting for or against - (+) selecting for (preferring habitat) - Selection better than use because use can be deceiving - Selection is still hard to study (money + time) Density as a misleading indicator of habitat quality (Van Horne 1983) - Use - Reasons why use can be misleading and not tell whole story: - Only habitat available but not good for species - Possible ecological trap - Has to do with how wildlife was sampled (seasons) -
Selection
Use/availability.
Baiting
Using artificial food used to hunt, is this fair chase
Density Dependence
Usually leads to changes in reproductive rate.
"I hunt no more to kill animals that I garden to kill cabbages."
V. Giest - Death is worst part - Consumptive use is usually all other reasons besides death - Pursuit, etc.
Commercial
Value obtained through deriving income from wildlife.
Undiscovered
Values we do not yet recognize.
Widlife Morality Effects
Vary by - Sex - Age - Season - Behavior - Region - Northern Bobwhite example
Herbivore
Vegetation
Structure
Vegetation _____ is one characteristic separating forest from rangeland.
Plants
Vegetative part of a wetland.
Feces
Waste with energy.
Pollution
Water _____ after oil spills has killed many wildlife.
Free
Water obtained by drinking.
Female
We are often only interested in _____ portion of the population when we study wildlife reproduction.
3800 BC:
Weirs built in America's
Sandhills
Western Nebraska wetlands.
Hyrdric
Wet soil.
Peace Athabasca Delta
Wetland area in northwest Canada associated with some large rivers.
Prairie Potholes
Wetland complex of north-central North America impacted by agriculture and the breeding area for much of the continents waterfowl.
Bottomland Hardwoods-
Wetland forest type of the Southeast.
Hudson Bay
Wetland/lowland complex of north-central Canada associated with a large body of water.
Disease control on wildlife negative
Wetlands not fully functional
Recharge
Wetlands often act to _____ aquifers.
Nonconsumptive use
Whale watching would be considered a _____ _____ of wildlife.
food use
What do they eat? carnivores vs. herbivores feeding rates predation and foraging behavior quality vs. quantity
Wildlife Habitat Ecology and Management
What goes on within ecoregion/major habitats? - Finer levels * - Remember broader ecosystem and resources that determine ecosystem - Processes and dynamics - Components and conditions
Basics of Population Ecology
What is a population? - Group of same species living in a particular place at a particular time Why not deal with individuals? - Hard to manage individuals, but do manage endangered species individually
Available
What is out there for wildlife to use as habitat.
Useable Space
What is really available for wildlife to use as habitat; a method of considering habitat availability.
Fair chase
What society believes is a necessity for hunting to continue.
Ecological Sacrifice
What some people think should happen to agricultural lands because they are so bad as wildlife habitat anyway.
Food Use
What the animals are eating - Carnivores vs. herbivores - Carnivores have quantity problem whereas herbivores need more diverse diet - Feeding rates - Predation and foraging behavior - Bobwhite and supplemental feeding example - Large carnivores in Africa example Quality vs. Quantity - Species.type (herbivore vs. carnivore) - Season (e.g. Spring or after fire green-up) - Plants: new growth (spring) better than old growth - Part of organism - E.g. seed vs. stem (different parts differ in nutrition) Habitat effects (especially herbivores) - K can decrease - Grazer: eat what's on ground - Browser: eat parts of woody vegetation - Destroy anything by eating it
Emigrate
When animals leave a population.
Age at sexual maturity
When breeding begins.
Density Dependence
When changes depend on how many animals there are.
Exposure
When extreme weather decimates a population.
Fragmentation
When habitat units get broken up.
Additive
When harvest places additional mortality on a population than would otherwise occur, it is considered _____.
Palatability
When managing forage, it is not onlyquantity but_____ thatis considered in rangescience.
Diminishing Returns
When more hunting effort leads to a lower harvest rate.
Differential Vulnerability
When one segment of the population has a different mortality rate than another.
Yield
When populations are limited by some resource (density-dependence/logistic growth; from Caughley and Sinclair 1994) - A population is harvested at its growth rate - A population must be stimulated to produce a yield - Harvesting trades off yield against population size - Sustained yield, harvest rate, and population size - Harvestable surplus - Sustained yield (SY) - willing to keep same populations size and don't care if it population grows, harvest at growth amount and population will stay at current size because not adding individuals to populations - Rikard Yield Curve: tells above information - As long as you don't harvest above max, population could be potentially sustainable harvest - Stay to the left side of the curve, but riskier - If to the right, sustainably harvest X amount of individuals but could harvest more than sustainable - Anywhere below dotted line - Maximum sustained yield (MSY): ICC - Anywhere above dotted line - Optimal sustained yield (OSY): OCC and MCC - Inversity: as population size increases, yield decreases - When populations are not limited by resources (exponential growth)? - As long as you don't harvest above populations yield, population won't decline
Functional
When predators change a behavior in response to changing prey numbers.
Habit
When predators form a search image of prey, it leads to this type of predation.
Buffer species
When predators switch to when primary foods are scarce.
Breeding season
When reproductive activities occur.
Nonspecific Stress Response
When space is a welfare factor.
The American Huntress (2007 Survey)
Where do they live? - 33% Midwest - 24% NE - 22% SE - 12% NW - 8% SW How old are they? - 13% <20 - 41% 20s - 30s - 40% 40s - 50s - 6% > 60 Work situation? - 53% FT, outside home - 11% PT, outside home - 12% Stay-at-home mom - 16% student - 8% other Hunting experience? - 32% < 5 yrs - 21% 6-10 yrs - 21% 10 - 20 yrs - 26% > 20 yrs How do they classify themselves? - 37% diehard, completely obsessed hunter - 46% committed, really enjoy, but not #1 activity - 17% casual, like it, only go if someone else goes How they got in to hunting? - 42% as a kid - 39% introduced by boyfriend or husband - 2% introduced by another woman - 8% myself - 9% other Primary reason for hunting? - 43% excitement and adventure - 31% relaxation and connection w/ nature (appreciation) - 14% opportunity to spend time w/ loved ones who hunt (affiliation) - 12% meat Most like to hunt: - 44% deer - 10% turkey - 46% other How hard is it to find people to hunt with? - 66% easy, 26% somewhat difficult, 8% very difficult Marital status? 61% married, 38% not married Children? 58% yes, 42% no Take children hunting? 46% yes, 54% no Do daughters hunt? 28% yes, 72% no
Pasture
Where livestock eat.
Rural urban interface
Where the suburbs meet the zone with little development.
Edge
Where two habitats meet.
Natural changes
While people cause many of the problems, coastal areas also go through _____ _____.
Who owns wildlife?
Who owns wildlife - Private and collective; Different in other countries; Affects how you treat it; US - can't easily benefit for it so we're less likely to manage it
Non-consumptive uses
Whooping Cranes Whale Watching Ecotourism Bird Watchers Wildlife Viewing in the United States
What are some non-consumptive uses of wildlife? What is their value?
Whooping Cranes Whale watching Ecotourism bird watching People spend money to do them and people get jobs to help do them
Harvested vs. Unharvested Populations
Why are some species not harvested? - Songbirds vs. northern bobwhite Why are some species harvested at different rates? - WTD and elephants Why does harvest not seem to affect some species? - Northern bobwhite: usually ~80% annual mortality - Some species have a characteristics that prevents species from being driven to extinction and others do not
Individual Motivation
Why do people hunt, trap, fish, collect? - Achievement - Outsmarting the "beast" - Shooting and pursuit - Limiting-out (as many per day/season as law allows) or trophy - Often gives hunting bad name - Affiliative - Appreciative - Naturalistic - Predatory instinct? - Somewhat innate, but each person has own motivations - Stages of development (Norton) - Shooter stage (opportunity to see game and harvest) - Limiting-out stage (get the most fish, deer, etc.) - Trophy stage (get biggest fish, deer, etc.) - Method stage (more about pursuit, i.e. archery) - Sportsman stage (enjoy being one with nature, naturalistic) - Some people go through all, skip some, and others are stunted (stop in middle and don't make it to successive stages) - All are forms of achievement EXCEPT sportsman stage, which is more about affiliation and appreciation - As you progress through these stages, skill, wildlife knowledge, and satisfaction tend to increase
Individual Motivation
Why someone hunts.
Wildlife Habitat: Basics
Why? - Example: Warm-season grasses - It's all great cover! - Structure vs. Composition - Think about what species is providing/not providing - Wouldn't matter which one is used because based on structure - Have to have good understanding of basics Dirt - Importance of soils - Can be habitat resource/component - Affects vegetation of habitat - Deer in SE relative to soil - Bigger deer/antlers not found in FL due to poor soil/habitat (sandy, well-drained soil) - Acidic soils so plants can't get nutrients from soil - Climate affects soil which then affects plants - All vegetation in FL is low in quality; not getting nutrients needed in proper amounts (low protein)
Wilderness
Wild places going.
Harvest
Wildlife _____ is often not allowed in urban areas for safety reasons.
Leaving
Wildlife _____ public lands is a management problem and concern of neighbors.
Wildlife farming
Wildlife agriculture.
Zone
Wildlife and management interact among each _____ urban-rural gradient.
Wary
Wildlife are often not as _____ of people in cities, leading to problems.
SWG
Wildlife grant program administered by FWC.
Limiting Link
Wildlife management is only as successful as what we know about _______________
Lick
Wildlife often get minerals from a _____.
Nongame
Wildlife that are not harvested
Noneconomic
Wildlife values that are difficult to quantify.
US Economics of Wildlife
Wildlife watchers ($54,900,000,000) > Fishers ($41,800,000,000) > Hunters ($33,700,000,000)
Florida Economics of Wildlife -> Gained
Wildlife watchers > Fishers > Hunters
Vehicle
Wildlife-_____ interactions are major sources of mortality for some endangered species.
Electric
Wind projects are a type of this kind of energy development.
Why are the deer sliding down the bushy hillside?
Winter the stored up food, energy reserves are used. Spring is when they die.
Roosevelt
Wise Use
Disconnect
With most people now growing up in cities and suburbs, there is a growing _____ between people and wildlife.
Succession
Without disturbance some rangelands will become closed canopy forest due to _____.
Wildlife Management
Without harvest it is often difficult or impossible to conduct proper _____ _____.
Fire-
Without it, many Florida forests would be unhealthy.
Which segment of society is growing fastest in terms of hunter participation? Why?
Woman; started as a kid or introduced by husband or boyfriend; Reason is because of excitement and adventure, relaxation and connection with nature, and opportunity to spend time with loved ones
Pulp
Wood product used to make paper.
Bur oak
Woody invader of the prairie.
Thoreau
Wrote about conservation of open space and ethics; Walden pond.
Can farms and wildlife coexist?
Yes
Will it continue?
Yes, with responsible consumptive users - A person who knows and repsects the resources sued, follows the laws, and behaves in a way that will satisfy what society expects of him or her as a consumptive user - 7% (6-8%) of people hunt - 8% (6-10%) of people anti-hunters - Typically not against fishing but against hunting - More organized and "yell louder" about hunting beliefs - 85% of people neither (non-hunters) - 75-80% approve of legal hunter (increasing?) - Fair chase, humaneness (when done right) - Costs without it (mentioned with values and controlling wildlife - What about fishing, trapping, and collecting? - Bambi syndrome: only care about warm and fuzzy animals - Is this legitimate value to have if not against death of all animals? - Trapping one way to deal with animal management (supply and demand) - Collecting of parts will continue at low levels due to demand
Will and should hunting continue (your opinion as well as that of society)? Why?
Yes, with responsible consumptive users -A person who knows and respects the resources used, follows the laws, and behaves in a way that will satisfy what society expects of him or her as a consumptive user -$ for conservation -Valuable -Management tool -May be needed to develop a land/conservation ethic
Describe the 3 harvest management principles discussed in class. Which occurs in the real world? Why?
Yield - Inversity Diminishing returns Compensatory harvest mortality - Doomed surplus - Threshold of security - Harvestable surplus
Osy
Yield determined by socio-economic factors.
What is an ecological trap and describe an example related to cover?
You think it's gonna be a good place to live but it's actually bad
Seedling
Youngest/smallest age/size class of tree.
Freshwater
_____ Fisheries Management is a division of FWC.
Marine
_____ Fisheries Management is a division of FWC.
Have we failed
_____ _____ _____ as managers, if we must introduce exotic species to hunt?
Density Dependence
_____ _____ affects mortality rates.
Scare tactics
_____ _____ are often used to manage wildlife at airports.
Odd Areas
_____ _____ are places not used or considered much on a farm that can be valuable wildlife habitat.
Seral Stages
_____ _____ are transitional phases in succession.
Saw Palmetto
_____ _____ control is an important range management practice in Florida to increase forage yield.
Doomed Surplus
_____ _____ is a term sometimes used to refer to animals that may die anyway from other causes if not harvested.
Artificial photoperiod
_____ _____ is one cue that may affect wildlife in cities, changing their behavior.
Competitive Exclusion
_____ _____ is one outcome of competition.
Habitat Management
_____ _____ may be the best approach to predator control for quail.
Oceanic islands
_____ _____ often serve as breeding colonies for wildlife.
Organic Farming
_____ _____ seems to produce healthier foods, but may still use chemicals and not provide great wildlife habitat.
Collared Peccaries
_____ _____ were a selected prey of jaguars.
Birth control
_____ _____, although not proven effective, is often discussed as a means of controlling overabundant wildlife in cities.
Specialized
_____ adaptations make a species more prone to rarity and extinction.
Islands
_____ are often easily invaded.
Crops
_____ are often grown in wetlands and degrade them.
Herbicides
_____ are often used as a tending treatment.
Disturbed
_____ areas are more likely to be invaded by exotics.
Food
_____ availability may be a cure used to time reproduction.
Distance
_____ between demes can affect colonization rates.
Wind
_____ can be an important factor shaping forest communities, particularly in the Southeast.
Coastal
_____ communities have seen a development boom since FEMA allowed flood insurance.
Intraspecific
_____ competition exists within species.
Road
_____ density is always a concern for wildlife in developing areas, particularly for many rare species.
Rainfall-
_____ effects forest growth and where forests occur.
Contour
_____ farming is beneficial in hilly areas to conserve soil.
Strategic
_____ grazing involves using livestock as a management tool to create certain habitat conditions.
Exponential
_____ growth involves populations growing without limitation.
Linear
_____ habitat features such as roadsides are valuable wildlife habitat.
Development
_____ has destroyed many coastal habitats.
Trophy
_____ hunting is a reason some people hunt that may not be viewed favorably.
Habitat
_____ improvement for all species is often a benefit of wildlife uses such as that which occurs on hunting preserves.
Fire
_____ is a natural part of and management Tool for many wetlands.
Macrohabitat
_____ is a vague term referring to a moderate-to-large scale.
Urbanization
_____ is more geographically ubiquitous than other human activities.
Money
_____ makes everything happen and most lies with people in cities.
Suburbia
_____ may provide ideal conditions for many species.
Crop
_____ monocultures are often easy targets for exotic species invasion.
Management
_____ of endangered species is often the same as that on non-endangered species except we often use more artificial and temporary measures.
Survival
_____ of newborns has large affects on wildlife populations and annual reproductive success.
Ownership
_____ of rangelands affects how they are managed.
Ownership
_____ of wildlife differs among countries.
Exogenous
_____ poisons are a cause of disease.
Emergency
_____ powers are afforded one person in the U.S. to immediately protect a species.
Gas
_____ production can often degrade coastal areas.
Calling
_____ rate is often used to survey bird species.
Oil
_____ rigs are often seen in the Gulf of Mexico and provide habitat.
Introduced
_____ species are a factor leading to rarity and extinction.
Toxic
_____ substances may negatively affect species.
Prenatal
_____ survival is offspring survival during pregnancy.
Aquatic
_____ systems in rangelands have been abused for decades; ironically this is detrimental to livestock production.
Water-
_____ use and conservation is a big issue, especially in western forests.
Pesticide-
_____ use has increased since WWII and may be detrimental to wildlife.
Negative
_____ values of wildlife may make all wildlife conservation more difficult.
Aesthetic
_____ values relate to the symbolic appeal of wildlife or its attractiveness.
International
_____ wildlife agreements are the jurisdiction of the federal government.
Dangerous
_____ wildlife interacting with people on federal lands is an issue in many areas.
Overabundant
_____ wildlife is problem on many federal lands, especially those without hunting.
Collisions
_____ with anthropogenic structures are a growing cause of wildlife mortality.
Roads-
_____, particularly on public forests, have become a national issue.
Define population.
a group of individuals of the same species in the same area at the same time
Conservation Reserve Program (CRP)
a land conservation program administered by the Farm Service Agency (FSA). In exchange for a yearly rental payment, farmers enrolled in the program agree to remove environmentally sensitive land from agricultural production and plant species that will improve environmental health and quality.
Dispersal
a one way movement, where an animal abandons its home range in search of a new one. Often called migration but not by wildlife people.
What is the Allee Effect? Draw and label a graph that illustrates this.
a phenomenon in biology characterized by a correlation between population size or density and the mean individual fitness (often measured as per capita population growth rate) of a population or species. - Repro rate low, then peaks with a certain pop density then as the pop density increases, the repro rate decrease - when a small population grows faster when the organisms are at high population density than it would if the population was at low density.
Wildlife Habitat Incentive Program (WHIP)
a voluntary program for conservation-minded landowners who wanted to develop and improve wildlife habitat on agricultural land, nonindustrial private forest land, and Indian land.
Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP)
a voluntary program that offered landowners the opportunity to protect, restore, and enhance wetlands on their property.
Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP)
a voluntary program that provides financial and technical assistance to agricultural producers through contracts up to a maximum term of ten years in length. These contracts provide financial assistance to help plan and implement conservation practices that address natural resource concerns and for opportunities to improve soil, water, plant, animal, air and related resources on agricultural land and non-industrial private forestland. In addition, a purpose of EQIP is to help producers meet Federal, State, Tribal and local environmental regulations.
7. What are the 2 pieces of legislation that provided guidance and a mission for National Wildlife Refuges?
a. 1966 National Wildlife Refuge System Act b. 1997 National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act i. Organic Act 1. Wildlife first! c. Mission i. To fulfill our statutory duty to achieve refuge purpose(s) and further the System mission. ii. b. Conserve, restore where appropriate, and enhance all species of fish, wildlife, and plants that are endangered or threatened with becoming endangered. iii. Perpetuate migratory bird, interjurisdictional fish, and marine mammal populations. iv. Conserve a diversity of fish, wildlife, and plants. v. Conserve and restore, where appropriate, representative ecosystems of the United States, including the ecological processes characteristic of those ecosystems. vi. To foster understanding and instill appreciation of fish, wildlife, and plants, and their conservation, by providing the public with safe, high-quality, and compatible wildlife-dependent public use. Such use includes hunting, fishing, wildlife observation and photography, and environmental education and interpretation.
2. How do forest structure and composition affect wildlife?
a. >40 cm/yr rainfall b. Vegetation structure i. Layers & closure c. Dominant vegetation: trees* i. Florida confusing d. Over-story tree density
3. What is an animal unit?
a. Animal Unit (AU): grazing pressure/forage required i. Compare impacts & "K" among species & rangelands ii. Often expressed monthly (AUMs) iii. AU - way of expressing grazing intensity; iv. AUE - how much of a cow they eat
17. What are some techniques for managing nuisance wildlife in cities?
a. Animal damage control b. Direct: harvest, birth control, scare tactics, etc. c. Indirect: habitat
6. What are characteristics of U.S. farms that have changed during the past half-century?
a. Bigger monocultures, bigger farms and fields, more row crops, more use of pesticides and herbicides, and more disturbance
6. What are 5 common problems associated with National Parks? Refuges?
a. Conflicting mandates b. Overabundant wildlife & people (ecotourism) c. Dangerous wildlife d. Wildlife leaving parks e. Succession & natural events f. Hunting & fishing g. ORV's
22. Describe current Farm Bill programs that benefit wildlife in farmlands and forests and who administers each.
a. Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) b. Voluntary Public Access & Habitat Incentive Program (VPA-HIP) c. Agricultural Management Assistance Program (AMAP) d. Agricultural Conservation Easement Program 1. Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP) e. Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) i. Wildlife Habitat Incentive Program (WHIP) f. Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP)
11. Describe/design the "perfect" farm for wildlife that is still able to produce agricultural commodities.
a. Consider: i. Crop rotation ii. Cover crop iii. Contour and strip farming iv. Field borders/ border-edge cuts v. Food plots
15. What are 2 primary grazing management systems, how do they work, and what affect do they have on wildlife?
a. Continuous b. Rotational i. Deferred-rotation v. short-duration ii. Area grazed iii. Duration of grazing iv. Rotational is better for wildlife, just as productive or more so
13. Describe contour and strip farming and their benefits to wildlife and the farmer.
a. Contour - plant crops along contours not just perpendicular b. Strip farming- multiple crops grown in strips c. Benefits i. Erosion control, edge and diversity (rotate)
8. Describe 5 mechanical rangeland treatment techniques and their benefits to wildlife.
a. Control or remove vegetation b. Disrupt compacted soils c. Remove debris & litter d. Seedbed preparation i. Disking ii. Blading & dozing iii. Shredding & brush hogging iv. Roll chopping & mowing v. Plowing & root plowing vi. Chaining, cabling, & railing vii. Harrowing & furrowing viii. Pitting & imprinting e. Wildlife impacts
7. What are differences among conventional-tillage, reduced-tillage, and no-tillage practices and how do these affect wildlife?
a. Conventional tillage - mixes all the soil up, lots of disturbance, removes everything and less residual habitat (<5%) b. Reduced tillage - Conservation; less disturbance c. No-tillage -
24. How might we manage forests to enhance the value of remaining old growth tracts?
a. Core areas & corridors b. Soften fragmentation c. Let it burn-recognize that if the fires start naturally there are benefits and that we should let them burn
4. Why can some species thrive in urban settings while others cannot?
a. Different species react differently to Habitat destruction, change, fragmentation, & isolation
15. What is the traditional focus of wildlife management in cities?
a. Direct i. Remove ii. Add 1. Dispersal barriers b. Indirect i. Habitat 1. Food, cover, water, & space a. Connectivity b. Patch size ii. Competitors, predators, disease, parasites, accidents, etc. iii. People/human dimensions* 1. Non-traditional wildlife values, lack of land ethic, & lack of knowledge
13. What are the primary difficulties and issues with managing wildlife in urban and suburban areas?
a. Disconnection, lack of knowledge, & non-traditional interests in wildlife i. Lack of land ethic ii. Not in the "wild" - few opportunities iii. Butterflies & songbirds > game species
11. What are some unique aspects of urban environments?
a. Ecological dominance of people b. Great diversity of habitats (suburbia) c. Many exotic species d. Species richness generally lower (urban) e. Different forms of mortality dominate f. Wildlife often lack wariness g. Individual wildlife-people relationships increase (suburbia) h. People are generally less knowledgeable about wildlife
14. Describe strategic and environmental protective grazing.
a. Environmental protective grazing b. Strategic grazing i. Leopold's tool
19. How are forest stands regenerated following harvest? How does each affect wildlife?
a. Even - aged i. The trees are in sections based on their age (i.e. all young together and al older together) ii. Fragmentation b. Uneven-aged i. All the different aged trees are mixed together c. Natural (advance) i. Even-aged harvest management 1. Clearcuts 2. Shelterwood cuts 3. Seed tree cuts 4. Coppice ii. Uneven-aged harvest management 1. Single-tree selection cut 2. Group-selection cut 3. Coppice d. Artificial i. Site preparation 1. Mechanical 2. Chemical 3. Prescribed fire ii. Site Improvement 1. Fertilizer 2. Drainage & irrigation iii. Direct seeding iv. Propagule v. Monocultures & disturbance
21. What are some special habitat features in forests, how do they affect wildlife, and how do conventional forest management practices affect them?
a. Evergreen cover i. Thermal & escape cover b. Live den trees, wolf/legacy trees, snags, logs, & course woody debris c. Mast, browse, & forage plants i. Selective cutting ii. Coppice d. Forest edges & "brushy" areas e. Rights-of-way f. Openings g. Water & riparian areas
26. Should farmlands be ecological sacrifice? Why?
a. Farms are never going to be that good for wildlife so why don't we just completely sacrifice the area to get the most out of it so we only to do it on less land
13. Which FL state and federal agencies manage most of the public forestlands?
a. Federal i. National Forest System 1. USDA Forest Service 2. Multiple-use ii. USDI-BLM 1. Multiple-use iii. Others: parks, refuges, etc. b. State Forest System i. Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services (FDACS) 1. Forest Service (Division of Forestry) ii. Others: parks, etc.
20. Describe some practices to better manage streams, ponds, and wetlands in farmlands.
a. Fencing b. Alternative water sources c. Erosion and sedimentation
4. How does forest ownership (private v. public) affect wildlife management?
a. Forest ownership in U.S. (Yonce 1983) i. Public: 55.3 million ha 1. Federal: 42.8 million ha 2. State: 9.6 million ha 3. Local: 2.9 million ha ii. Private: 142.2 million ha 1. Forest industry: 27.5 million ha 2. Other: 114.7 million ha b. Forest ownership in Southeast (Dickson 2001) i. Public: ~8.5 million ha ii. Private: ~72.5 million ha 1. Forest industry: ~16.6 million ha 2. Other: ~55.9 million ha iii. Ownership affects management & use
12. Public or private, which controls most of the forest land in the U.S. and Southeast?
a. Forest ownership in U.S. (Yonce 1983) i. Public: 55.3 million ha 1. Federal: 42.8 million ha 2. State: 9.6 million ha 3. Local: 2.9 million ha ii. Private: 142.2 million ha 1. Forest industry: 27.5 million ha 2. Other: 114.7 million ha b. Forest ownership in Southeast (Dickson 2001) i. Public: ~8.5 million ha ii. Private: ~72.5 million ha 1. Forest industry: ~16.6 million ha iii. Other: ~55.9 million ha
16. Describe the impacts of grazing and fire on the 4 primary rangeland types.
a. Grazing & fire: impacts on wildlife i. Disturbance ii. Food iii. Cover iv. Water v. Space b. Grazing & fire: impacts on ecosystems i. Grasslands: Moderate - high resiliency ii. Tundra: low resiliency iii. Shrublands: low - moderate resiliency iv. Woodlands: moderate - high resiliency
16. What is a lure crop?
a. Grow crops that provide good habitat which gets them away from your primary crops
3. What are the unique challenges to managing wildlife in urban and suburban areas?
a. Habitat destruction, change, fragmentation, & isolation i. The urban monoculture b. "Perfect" habitat & conditions in suburbia c. So many people i. Disturbance ii. Disconnection iii. Lack of knowledge iv. Non-traditional interests in wildlife d. Lack of species and structural diversity (vegetation) e. Connectivity (movement barriers)
2. Where is the habitat within cities?
a. Habitats created by people b. Purposefully: Parks (much land in various habitats), preserves, cemeteries, museums, campuses, zoos, backyards, community gardens, roof tops c. Inadvertently: Abandoned areas, alleys, rights of ways, water and waste treatments facilities, airports, golf courses, & bridges i. Rivers & streams
18. Describe the 2 primary forest harvest management techniques, the methods within each, and the benefit of each to wildlife.
a. Harvest practices (mainly about trees) i. None (preservation) ii. Even-aged iii. Uneven-aged (selective) iv. Other considerations 1. Rotation time - associate with even agd management 2. Cutting cycle 3. Species a. Shade tolerant v. intolerant species b. Product 4. Site index b. Even-aged harvest management i. Clearcuts ii. Shelterwood cuts iii. Seed tree cuts c. Uneven-aged (selective) harvest management i. Single-tree selection cut ii. Group-selection cut
5. What impacts do roads have on wildlife? Habitat?
a. Lasting impact on the environment b. New form of mortality
23. Old growth forest and fire are big issues in forest management. Why?
a. May take thousands of years to get back to old growth, climate condition -> some species need them to live in b. Unique and irreplaceable
6. Will we ever solve urban & suburban wildlife problems?
a. Maybe
5. What are some rangeland management techniques?
a. Mechanical b. Herbicide i. Control or remove unwanted vegetation ii. Top-kill sprouters to stimulate palatable growth c. Seeding i. Revegetation (drilling and broadcasting and seedbed prep) d. Fertilize i. ncrease or extend palatability ii. Increase growth iii. Increase available nutrients iv. Alter plant distribution & composition e. Fire i. Change green-up, abundance, distribution, composition, & palatability of plants ii. Change insect communities iii. Alter litter iv. Soils & nutrients f. Grazing i. Alter the timing, composition, productivity, & palatability of plants
9. What is an urban-rural gradient?
a. Metropolitan area -> Suburbia ->Rural-Urban Interface -> Rural
9. Discuss the importance of fire to rangeland communities.
a. Most fires at the beginning of the wet season
3. What are National Forests, what issues do they have, and who manages them?
a. National Forests i. USDA Forest Service (USFS) b. USDI Bureau of Land Management (BLM) lands i. Multiple use, including production 1. Timber, non-timber, minerals, grazing, etc... c. State Forests i. FLDACS Forest Service (Division of Forestry) 1. Multiple use, including production
8. What federal entities manage National Wildlife Refuges? National Seashores? Rangeland systems?
a. National Wildlife Refuges i. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service b. National Seashores i. c. Rangeland systems i. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) lands ii. National Grasslands iii. USDA Forest Service
16. What are current issues as well as future trends and challenges in urban wildlife management?
a. Never-ending Urbanization/sprawl b. Future Management: Proactive i. Early involvement 1. Municipal & development planning a. Educate planners b. Incorporate wildlife & natural resource values in planning ii. Mitigate effects of development iii. Cluster & green developments
18. Of what value are odd areas and linear habitats? How are they created and maintained?
a. Odd areas - b. Linear habitats - roadways, fencerows, hedgerows, shelterbelt i. Food, cover, edge, and corridors ii. Interspersion and connectivity iii. Wind and erosion iv. Width, location, and orientation
1. How does wildlife management in parks and refuges differ?
a. Parks i. An area that is designated primarily for the purpose of human recreation ii. Usually people come before wildlife b. Refuges i. Wildlife come first -some don't even let people to go in
9. What is crop rotation and how can it benefit wildlife and habitat?
a. Rotating what you plant or if you plant at all in certain areas; doesn't deplete the nutrients as fast because the different crops use the nutrients in different ways
14. What are several commonly produced forest products?
a. Saw logs, veneer, pulpwood, fuelwood, charcoal, Christmas trees, maple syrup, medicinal plants, other non-wood products, & others
5. How have populations of farmland- and forest-associated wildlife species changed in the eastern U.S. since European settlement?
a. Small family farms - > large monocultures b. Farms got bigger, more row crops, more edge, less diversity
15. How are border-edge cuts created and how do they affect wildlife and the landowners?
a. Soft-edges/ecotones - provides a better habitat; food cover and diversity
1. Can "good" wildlife really live in cities?
a. Sure
12. What is organic farming? How does it differ from traditional farming? Are chemicals used? What are benefits for wildlife?
a. The chemicals (herbicide, pesticide, and fertilizer) are just naturally based but are still used; increased diversity
7. What differentiates rangelands from forests?
a. The dominate vegetation of forests are trees
10. What are cover crops and how do they benefit wildlife and soils?
a. They are crops that help prevent erosion, improve soil development and enrichment (nitrogen fixers), and provide food and cover
14. What are field borders and how are these important to wildlife?
a. They are narrow strips (2-5m) of permanent vegetation (grasses and legumes, sometimes 2-5 rows of crops left standing) b. Provides: food and cover, corridors and diversity, erosion control, fire breaks
2. What are unique problems and opportunities for managing wildlife in parks?
a. Tolerance levels of wildlife for humans? b. Which animal species have highest Aesthetic values for people? c. Proper facilities for people and provide a proper habitat to attract wildlife for viewing
17. What is silviculture? What are the 3 main components?
a. Tree agriculture i. Harvest ii. Regeneration iii. Tending/Intermediate Treatments
1. What are the major forest types, how do they differ, and how do they relate to wildlife populations?
a. Tropical moist broadleaf b. Tropical dry broadleaf c. Temperate broadleaf & mixed d. Temperate coniferous e. Boreal/taiga
22. Which federal agencies manage most public rangelands?
a. USDI Bureau of Land Management (BLM) b. USDA Forest Service i. National Grasslands c. States & other
8. What are urban avoiders, adapters, and exploiters?
a. Urban avoiders - intolerant of urban areas b. Adapters - tolerant of urban areas c. Exploiters - tolerant of urban areas; takes more advantage of the area, more social
13. What are 5 considerations when thinking about a grazing management program?
a. Vegetation type b. Stocking rate c. Duration d. Frequency e. Rest f. Timing g. Kind of animal
7. What does range condition refer to? What is the relationship among range condition, wildlife habitat, animal units, and plants such as increasers, decreasers, and invaders?
a. What is the quality and quantity of the forage for the livestock? b. Native grasslands - as you change the number of grazing animal, it will change the vegetation in a predictable way i. Decreasers - tasty and nutritious, dominate, livestock like them so if you increase grazers they decrease ii. Increasers - not as tasty and not as dominant as decreasers; increase with increase in grazers because there is less competition iii. Invaders - woody, shrubs, bad forage
15. Describe 5 forest and wildlife management issues?
a. Wood products b. Disease & insects c. Roads d. Recreation i. Off-road vehicles (ORV's) e. Grazing livestock f. Silvopasture & agroforestry g. Overabundant herbivores h. Fire i. Fuel loads j. Water k. Ownership
6. What are the major issues related to forests & wildlife?
a. Wood products b. Disease & insects c. Roads d. Recreation i. Off-road vehicles (ORV's) e. Grazing livestock i. Silvopasture & agroforestry f. Overabundant herbivores g. Fire i. Fuel loads h. Water i. Ownership
4. Can farms and wildlife coexist?
a. Yes
10. What is synurbanization?
a. an adjustment of a wildlife population to a urban environment
11. How does grazing influence wildlife?
a. as you change the number of grazing animal, it will change the vegetation in a predictable way b. Over use - over grazing within a year, short term c. Overgrazing - long term; may not recover if done too long
habitat availability
abundance, accessibility, etc
Era of Environmental/Ecological Management
active management and conservation; 2nd conservation movement i. 85' Food Security act - programs for agricultural land owners
Leptospirosis
affects mammals such as raccoon. Asymptomatic. Chronically infected individuals may have kidney damage detectable microscopically.
Ectotherm
animal that is dependent on external sources for body heat.
Endotherm
animal that is dependent on internal heat generation. Warm-blooded.
What is a Landscape Conservation Cooperative? How does it affect wildlife?
applied conservation science partnerships with two main functions. The first is to provide the science and technical expertise needed to support conservation planning at landscape scales - beyond the reach or resources of any one organization The second function of LCCs is to promote collaboration among their members in defining shared conservation goals.
Policy
are what someone says they want to be done; guiding principles; they can change when a leader change
Home Range
areas transversed by animals during normal activities. Not space used temporally
Audubon
artist, naturalist, increased awareness
Audubon -
artist, naturalist, increased awareness
Numerical Response
as number of prey increases, so does predator density until it becomes constant; other factors eventually begin to impact predators.
Numerical response
as number of prey increases, so does predator density until it becomes constant; other factors eventually begin to impact predators.
Ecological trap
attracts wildlife b/c it looks good but its not.
How do Jaguars select prey?
based on their abundance and risks. They will pick an armadillo over tapir.
Affiliative
being out there
Edge
biologically diverse patches of land where edge species (gray catbird, cottontail) benefit the most.
b
birth rate
What determines the amount of energy and animals needs?
body size, season, breeding, non-breeding
Poikilotherms
body temperature changes with environment.
Prey
buffer species, benefits cycles and regulation
Describe the Theory of Island Biogeography and provide an example of its application to management of spotted owls.
builds on the first principles of population ecology and genetics to explain how distance and area combine to regulate the balance between immigration and extinction in island populations
food availability
can I even get to the food?
K
carrying capacity, the max number the environment can support.
Aggregated dispersion
clumped, contagious, individuals are closer together
habitat
collection of resources with various types of competition It changes over time and space
Diagram Type II patterns of survival and suggest species or groups of species that follow each pattern.
constant decline with age and survival; hard to define who does this
Ultimate
contributed to its death, underlying things, often related to welfare factors.
Biological clocks
control wildlife activity patterns, includes circadian rhythms(time), circannual cycles(day/season), photo period(daylight).
Critical area
core or key area place with the most limiting place or conditions
What are flyways?
councils that help set up management and harvest of the migratory birds within that area Atlantic, Mississippi, Central, Pacific
Grinnell
created Audubon society; hunters should pay for laws
Grinnell -
created Audubon society; hunters should pay for laws
Direct
dealing with the disease wildlife themselves
d
death rate
Era of over exploitation
decline in many game species; more people, more hunting; some conservation - 1850: 1st protection of non-game - 1864: 1st state hunting license - 1872: Yellowstone Park Act - world's first national park - 1878 - bag limit - Audodon and Sierra club established
Age at sexual maturity
delaying recruitment
At what successional stage does wildlife do best?
depends on the species, most species are only adapted for a few stages
Food digestibility
different adaptations in digestive systems.
Why do wildlife need water?
digestion, metabolism, excretion, cooling, and cover
Scale-dependant
dispersion looks different at different scales broader scales are almost always clumped
Trophy stage
don't need the most, just the best; achievement
Starches and sugars
easy to digest
Coprophagy
eating feces.
Edge
ecotone if unique edge of specific habitat
Voluntary Public Access & Habitat Incentive Program (VPA-HIP)
encourages private landowners to voluntarily make their land available to the public for wildlife-dependent recreation
Digestible energy
energy after energy lost in feces is subtracted
Metabolize energy
energy amount after energy lost in urine in methane is subtracted
Metaboloze energy
energy amount after energy lost in urine in methane is subtracted
fundamental niche
environments in which an organism can thrive in the absence of inter-species interactions
Random dispersion
equal probability of an organism occurring anywhere in space.
Vitamins
essential in small amounts. Lack of A in quail can cause reproductive failure.
Law
established by a body; more permanent
Uniform dispersion
even spaced individuals based on chance.
Home range and fidelity
ex: coyotes change their home range a lot and are promiscuous
Olmsted
father of landscape architecture; designed central park and zoos in urban areas
Olmsted -
father of landscape architecture; designed central park and zoos in urban areas
Polyandry
female mates with a lot of males
Pinchot
first director of the forest service; father of forestry and management; how to use resources
Pinchot -
first director of the forest service; father of forestry and management; how to use resources
Mather
first director of the national park service
Mather -
first director of the national park service
Roosevelt
first one to bring to the forefront, national forests
Roosevelt -
first one to bring to the forefront, national forests
Energy reserves
food cash where animals stores food
Habitat management is the manipulation of
food, cover,water, and space (quantity, quality, & distribution)
Muir
founder of Sierra club, writer,
Muir -
founder of Sierra club, writer,
soft fragmentation
gradual change between two ecosystems
Population
groups of individuals together.
Metapopulation
groups of local population, population of populations. Smaller populations that collectively make up a species.
Secondary succession
had life before but some major disturbance caused a loss and restarts the succession - most common today - tends to happen a little faster
Cellulose
hard to digest
Direct wildlife management
harvest individuals to dec, restock
Fats
have the most gross energy but not useable
Shooter stage
having the chance to be out; opportunity; achievement
ectotherms
heat from outside the body
Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP)
helps agricultural producers maintain and improve their existing conservation systems and adopt additional conservation activities to address priority resources concerns.
Agricultural Management Assistance Program (AMAP)
helps agricultural producers use conservation to manage risk and address natural resource issues through natural resources conservation. NRCS administers the AMA conservation provisions, while the Agricultural Marketing Service and the Risk Management Agency implement other provisions under AMA
habitat use
how animals utilizes the resources and conditions
Fecundity
how many births/hatchlings
Fidelity
how much home range changes from year to year
Anti hunter values
humanistic and moralistic
21. What affects do agricultural chemicals have on wildlife, directly and indirectly?
i.Direct and indirect 1.Biomagnification 2.Habitat 3.Endocrine disruption ii.Soils and weather 1.Persistence 2.Spread
8. What are 5 major forest types of North America? Southeast?
i.~50% of land is forest (~87 million ha) ii.Composition 1.37% upland hardwoods 2.15% bottomland hardwoods 3.14% oak-pine 4.18% natural pine 5.16% pine plantation
proximate forms of mortality
immediate cause
How does age affect herps and fish?
increases reproductions, size is what matters not age.
diversity
indicator of not only richness but also the evenness (the relative abundance)
Type III pattern of survival
innermost line. huge losses at young age. Ex:Fish
r
instrinsic rate of increase of births-deaths.
Soft fragmentation
is more biologically diverse then hard fragmentation thus it is more beneficial to wildlife being that it will provide a more lush habitat.
Food Availability
isthe quantity, accessibility, and digestibility.
Describe primary succession.
it has never had any biological life before
Sportsman stage
just about being out there; affiliation and appriciation
Chronic stress on an animal
leads to reproductive decline because of effects on cortoid hormones; which affect the development of sex organs, growth, disease resistance, water balance, glucose, metabolism. (Stressor-Pituitary gland -adrenal cortex - cortoid hormones)
What affects births, deaths, immigration, & emigration?
life
Why are deer sliding down a brushy hillside?
limiting season You have to get them high enough on the hill so they don't fall off
Generalist
live anywhere, can be a pest(coyote)
No-tillage
low disturbance, ~90% Often drilled
Bird digestive systems
made of: crop(stores food), 2 stomachs, Proventriculus(breaks down food w/enzymes), Gizzard(grinds food, seeds)
Homeotherms
maintain body temperature internally for the most part. Generally use or need more energy than Poikilotherms.
Habit
makes a habit of killing a certain prey or habitat; can recognize shapes/movements/set of conditions
Polygyny
male mates with many females
Promiscuity
males and females multiple mates.
primary sex ratios. How do these affect population productivity?
males:females Fertilization 50:50
Food storage
mammals>birds>herps
What are food plots and how might they be used in farm and forest land management?
manage habitat to provide food without plots >3% of area depending on native food Composition based on species and needs Attracts predators and pests Disease issues
17. What are food plots and how might they be used in farm and forest land management?
manage habitat to provide food without plots b.>3% of area depending on native food c.Composition based on species and needs d.Attracts predators and pests e.Disease issues
Indirect
manipulate the environment, make the habitat better, used prescribed burning.
Indirect wildlife management
manipulate the habitat
Era of Protection.
many populations low, increased protection and regulation; Roosevelt; entire system outlook - 1900- Lacey Act: got rid of market hunting; gave the federal government authority to regulate the transportation of wildlife -> stuff that's illegal to harvest, it's illegal to import/export - 1911 - Seal treaty: one of the first national laws acknowledging that wildlife didn't recognize boarders - regulate taking of sea otters and seals - MBTA: diff than the other law -> US and Canada work together to manage migratory birds
Why is density a misleading indicator of habitat quality for wildlife?
maybe it was the only thing available, even if they find alot of animals it could be an ecological trap. (Pine martins and fishers)
Dr.Geist kill cabbages
means its not about the kill its about the process
What is Dr. Geist referring to when he says "I hunt no more to kill animals than I garden to kill cabbages"?
means its not about the kill its about the process
What provides the most protein?
meat
Type II pattern of survival
middle line. r-selected, unstable environment, have potential for population to explode.
Conventional tillage
mixes all the soil up, lots of disturbance, removes everything and less residual habitat (<5%; high)
Provide examples of the sex ratio needed to maximize productivity for monogamous and polygynous species.
monogamous - 50:50 polgynous - skew towards females polyandrous - 50:50
antihunter attitude
moralistic, humanistic
Diagram Type III patterns of survival and suggest species or groups of species that follow each pattern.
most common, lots of death when young and then levels out, insects fish, most animals; unstable environment, dumps lots of kids into the environment because resources are questionable
Era of abundance
most wildlife were abundant, few negative effects, some local efforts to boost populations - 1708: 1st closed seasons on game birds - 1739: 1st wardens in MA - 1842: U.S. Supreme Court decision - oysters - Affirms the "Public Trust Doctrine" - 1849: Dept. of the Interior (USDI or DOI) established
Strip farming
multiple crops grown in strips Benefits - Erosion control, edge and diversity (rotate)
inherent
natural edge (BETTER FOR WILDLIFE = MOREBIODIVERSITY) *Induced is a manmade edge
Murie
naturalist and writer; worked with large mammal; wilderness protection
Murie -
naturalist and writer; worked with large mammal; wilderness protection
poikilotherms
need less energy; temperature fluctuates with the environment
homeotherms
need more energy; maintain a constant body temperature
Specialist
need specific cover(black footed ferret)
Limiting-out stage
need to demonstrate skill, the most; achievement
Describe/design the "perfect" farm for wildlife that is still able to produce agricultural commodities.
no large monocultures Consider: - Crop rotation - Cover crop - Contour and strip farming - Field borders/ border-edge cuts - Food plots
Natality
number of births/hatchlings
Reproductive fecundity
number of gametes produced
N=
number of individuals
Recruitment
number of offspring that live long enough to reproduce. What managers are most interested in.
Recruitment
number of organisms that live long enough to replace yourself in the population; get one offspring to replace yourself - birth or immigration
Primary succession
occurs in an environment in which new substrate, devoid of vegetation and usually lacking soil, is deposited in order to normalize the habitat
Secondary succession
occurs on substrate that previouslysupported vegetation before a disturbance destroyed the plantlife; most common, wildlife does best.
What is short-stopping?
only go as far as they have to
Onset and length of breeding season
onset:biological clocks. Timing affects conditions, fertilization, and satiation.
Nomadism
opportunistic movements in response to habitat resources and conditions.
Type I pattern of survival
outermost line. K selected species. Collection of traits. High survival of young but dont produce alot. Ex:elephants, people
What is an indicator of reproductive success in birds?
ovary size
Territory
part or all of the home range that is defended against others of the same or different species.
Contour
plant crops along contours not just perpendicular
What varies digestibility?
plant defenses, and hard animal parts.
What lead to less offspring(50%) in white-tailed deer?
poor nutrition
K<N
population declines. ex:not enough resources.
dn/dt
populations growth rate. Based on r (but not r)
Depredation
predation on livestock.Ex: panthers eating livestock.
Conservation and management are...
pretty much the same thing - The application of ecological knowledge to wildlife and habitats that balances the needs of people with that of wildlife
Sucker list
prey on the niave prey
Sanitary
prey on the old/sick/week
What foraging strategies do Jaguars use?
prey relative to its abundance
Habitat selection
process involving a series of innate & learned behavioral decisions made by an animal about what habitats it would use at different scales of the landscape; MOST IMPORTANT
Fertility
production of eggs
Era of Game management.
protection wasn't enough, we needed active management; increase funding and enforcement - 1930 - Amer game policy: 1st time the government asked fish and wildlife experts to come up with policy - 1934: Mig bird hunting stamp act- ducks and migratory birds require a federal license -> money used to buy more lands for wildlife refuges 1937: Fed aid in wildlife restoration act - 1950: federal aid in fish restoration act - money for research education, etc
Soft-edges/ecotones
provides a better habitat; food cover and diversity
Agricultural Conservation Easement Program
provides financial and technical assistance to help conserve agricultural lands and wetlands and their related benefits
Method stage
pursuit; achievement
Malnutrition
quality, not getting the nutrients you need, ultimate
Starvation
quantity, not enough of it, proximate
Intrinsic rate of increase
r
Thermal Neutral Zone
range of temperatures for homeotherms in which it does not have to expend energy to stay warm or stay cool. Example: shivering costs energy
Thermal neutral zone
range of temperatures for homeotherms in which it does not have to expend energy to stay warm or stay cool. Example: shivering costs energy.
Secondary sex rations
ratio at instance of birth, usually 50:50
food selection
ration of food use to food availability Help us understand which food is the most important
Minerals
referred to as a nutrient, do not need alot but important
Protective Refugia Principle
refers to a threshold of security The more the prey, the less protective refugia available ■ Predation is often density dependent in this case
Describe the Protective Refugia Principle. How does this relate to the effects of predation, exposure, and harvest on wildlife?
refers to a threshold of security; the more the prey, the less protective refugia available Predation is often density dependent in this case
Connectivity
related to the amount of edge and corridors
habitat fragmentation
related to the amount of edge and the difference between them
Linear habitats
roadways, fencerows, hedgerows, shelterbelt -Food, cover, edge, and corridors -Interspersion and connectivity -Wind and erosion -Width, location, and orientation
What is depredation and how does it differ from predation?
same an predation; usually referred to predation on livestock and nests
What 2 things can drive population size?
sex and age.
Quaternary sex ratio
sexual mature adults. Biggest influence on reproductive success.
6. What are the 4 major types of rangelands? Briefly describe each.
short, mid, tall, palouse, coastal, etc. ii.Flatwoods and other "savanna"- iii.Everglades b.Tundra i.Arctic (north) ii.Alpine (high) c.Shrublands i.Cold deserts ii.Hot deserts d.Woodlands(interspersed) i.Pinyon juniper ii.Oak iii.Evergreen iv.California v.Savanna-
Critical Habitat
specific areas within the geographic area occupied by a federally listed species on which are found physical and biological features essential to the conservation of the species, and that may require special management
How does forest structure influence jaguar and prey spatial and temporal relationships?
spite consuming armadillo and paca in proportions comparable to their abundance, and sharing a common activity pattern with these prey, jaguars exhibited low spatial overlap with both armadillo and paca. Jaguar were photographed most frequently on man-made paths, whereas armadillos and pacas primarily used small mammal trails and forested
Define hard fragmentation.
stark difference between the two ecosystems; affects how animals will move between them
Short-stopping
stopping where they need to, they only go as far as they have to.
How does habitat affect wildlife disease issues? Provide an example.
stress response Bug link between habitat density and response to disease Intrinsic regulatory mechanism
Diagram Type I patterns of survival and suggest species or groups of species that follow each pattern.
survival is high for most life and then they all die; elephants; stable environments, at or near carrying capacity; have few kids so there is less competition
Carbohydrates
tend to provide the most usable energy.
realized niche
the actual space that an organism inhabits and the resources it can access as a result of limiting pressures from other species
Natality
the amount of babies that survive
Dispersion
the distribution of organisms in space. Can be bad if invasive.
Gross energy
the energy lost in the digestion process
Food selection
the most important for management. It is the ratio of food use to food availability. You have to determine which food is most important.
Habitat use
the observed distribution of animals among habitats
Chance
the predator accidentally stumbles upon prey
Starvation
the prey are starving so they leave their cover
What is wildlife ecology?
the study the study of the relationship between wildlife and their environment
Proximate
the thing that actually killed it
Covert
thicket where an animal can hide
Theory of Island Biogeography
this theory attempted to predict the number of species that would exist on a newly created island.
Normal
those that a species evolved with, types or rates.
Normal types of mortality
types and rates of mortality that the animals evolved with
Abnormal
types or rates that they didn't evolve. They do not have an adaptation
Abnormal types of mortality
types/rates they didn't evolve with
Ultimate form of mortality
underlying cause
Barriers to movements
unusable, habitat, thick covers, roads, water, fences.
1-N/K
unused portion of carrying capacity
Baiting
using artificial food used to hunt, is this fair chase?
Hunters attitude
utilitarian, naturalistic
Predators
very important to ecosystems, communities are more stable.Often when removed 1 or 2 prey species take over.
Fertility
viable gametes number
Is cover welfare or decimating?
welfare
Harvestable surplus
what Leopold referred to as the doomed surplus; they are going to die anyway so hunting didn't add additional deaths. Today it is any individual we can take.
Food use
what did the animal eat? Can be deceiving.
Net energy
what the animal gets after energy lost during digestion is subtracted.
habitat selection
what they choose
Allee effect
when a small population grows faster when the organisms are at high population density than it would if the population was at low density.
Shooter stage
where most people start when hunting, motivation is the oppurtuniry
Why is Leopold's land ethic only half a loaf?
while our production has decreased our consumption hasn't, but it's actually increased.
Parental care
with more parental care the higher the survival of the offspring and the lower the survival rate of the parents
Thoreau
writer; ethics and conservation
Thoreau -
writer; ethics and conservation
Errington
writer; first coop unit; researcher; first expert on predator/prey relationships
Errington -
writer; first coop unit; researcher; first expert on predator/prey relationships
Marsh
wrote "man and nature"; first environmentalist in US; fight against deforestation; influence
Marsh -
wrote "man and nature"; first environmentalist in US; fight against deforestation; influence
Leodold
wrote the first wildlife textbook; father of wildlife management; first wildlife textbook; wildlife game policy; wilderness society
Leopold -
wrote the first wildlife textbook; father of wildlife management; first wildlife textbook; wildlife game policy; wilderness society
Starvation
you are not getting enough of everything
Malnutrition
you are not getting the diversity of things you need. Ultimate, weakening factor, underlying.
50/500 rule
you need at least 50 individuals for a population to exist short term. You need 500 to last 500 years. (not a good enough rule)
Leopolds Tools
● Ax: Forestry ● Plow :Agriculture ● Cow:Livestock ● Fire:Natural/Prescribed Burn ● Gun:Harvest
4 management strategies/regulations
● Set up seasons to prevent overharvest, year round ● Set bag limits ● Permits ● Sex/age to be taken