Women's and Gender Studies Exam 2
definition of gender violence
"physical, verbal, emotional, sexual and visual brutality that is inflicted disproportionately on members of one sex"
female genital mutilation
- 3 types of FGM - With the case of Fauziya Kasinga from Togo seeking political asylum to the U.S. in 1996, granted on appeal with the support of Amnesty International in 1998, forced FGM was for the first time acknowledged as a human rights violation. - More than 2 million girls a year, about 16,000 a day, are subjected to Female Genital Mutilation.
artifacts (non-verbal communication)
- A personal object that can express identity and gender. Pink and blue baby blankets, gender-specific toys, clothing, accessories, make-up. Toy catalogues, toy stores: "for girls" section and for boys; girls have more kitchen appliances, dolls, make-up, hair accessories, boys´ section has more construction games, science equipment, action toys. Pink versus dark, bold colors for boys. Mens´ clothing is sturdier and more functional, w. pockets for carrying wallets or keys. Women´s clothing shows curves, is more revealing, less practical, high-heeled shoes not practical for running or even walking. Cultural context: the headscarf is seen by Western feminists as a sign of oppression while often actively chosen by Muslim women to allow for unmolested circulation and a refusal to be a sex object. - Other artifacts: Cars, outdoor sports, tools vs. cosmetics industry, hair products, child rearing accessories. Why is there more pressure on women to always look good, dress properly, wear make-up and jewelry? What are some ways people defy gender stereotypes through their clothing and accessories?
rape culture
- Approximately 60% of rape victims choose not to prosecute or even report rape because they fear blame; victim blaming involves holding a harmed person responsible for the harm another person has inflicted. - Rape is not motivated primarily by sexual desire; instead an act of aggression intended to humiliate and dominate another person. Used by male prisoners to establish power and hierarchy, as well as by armies as a "weapon of war." Officially declared as such in 2008 by the U.N.
sexual harassment
- Before the 1990s, sexual harassment did not exist in language. With the help of this language, people became aware of what had happened to them and this made it possible to redress sexual harassment cases. Similarly, there was no concept for date rape until very recently, even though these rapes often had lifetime repercussions.
body image and ethnicity
- Body image is culturally affected. In certain cultures, fuller figures are celebrated and self-esteem is promoted by parents and peers. - African-American culture emphasizes that beauty is more about attitude than about size. - Internationally, Western beauty ideals are becoming increasingly predominant, which is why in many Asian countries eye-lids surgery is becoming a "ritual" for 90% of girls´ graduating classes. -In modeling, even famous black models like Tyra Banks and Naomi Campbell represented a more European-American beauty, but models and singers like Buffie the Body, Esther Baxter, Ki Toy and many others are trying to change these beauty standards.
common types of cosmetic surgery + double binds of cosmetic surgery
- Both sexes have cosmetic surgery. For women, most popular are facial surgeries, fat-reduction, and breast-augmentation or lifting. For men, liposuction, eyelid surgery, and nose reshaping. Increasing use of non-invasive treatments like Botox and Dysport injections. Between 1993 and 2009, the nr. of cosmetic procedures increased by 293%. Wealth or age are no longer major factors in the profiles of people who have these surgeries. - Often unrealistic goals, people trying to look like stars, trying to "fix" how they look. Represents a general obsession with appearance to the detriment of other qualities. Risks: Scarring, nerve damage, eye-lid impairments, inflammation, chronic pain. - Fashion changes: Small breast were popular (ultra-thin model Twiggy), now bigger breasts, bigger lips (Angelina Jolie), all these trends affect requests for specific surgeries like lip implants - in 2009, 21,000 people had lip implant surgery.
Eating disorders, reasons for...
- Concern about weight starts early: By 3rd grade, 50 to 80% of girls say they want to lose weight. By age 13, 53% of girls say the are "unhappy with their bodies," by age 17, 78% say this. - Eating disorders affect 7 out of 10 Americans, 90-95% of which are girls and women. Anorexia has the highest mortality rate of all psychiatric disorders. 20% of anorexics die within 20 years of developing the disorder. - Body image is culturally affected. In certain cultures, fuller figures are celebrated and self-esteem is promoted by parents and peers. African-American culture emphasizes that beauty is more about attitude than about size. Internationally, Western beauty ideals are becoming increasingly predominant, which is why in many Asian countries eye-lids surgery is becoming a "ritual" for 90% of girls´ graduating classes. In modeling, even famous black models like Tyra Banks and Naomi Campbell represented a more European-American beauty, but models and singers like Buffie the Body, Esther Baxter, Ki Toy and many others are trying to change these beauty standards. - Girls and women are more likely to be dissatisfied with their physical appearance, especially for Caucasians, this affects general self-esteem. Many young women find it nearly impossible to resist the pressure to be thin even though they realize pictures of models are digitally altered.
Gender stereotyped curricula
- HISTORY: Accounts of wars focus on battles and never mention the contributions of women. In terms of the Civil Rights Movement, male leaders´ speeches and actions are emphasized while female leaders like Ella Baker are largely ignored. Renaissance, the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution are barely ever taught in terms of the changes they represented for women´s lives. Inventors: Ever heard of Mileva (Maric) Einstein? - Women who are mentioned either represent traditional roles or highlight the fact that they are exceptions to the rule. - Sexism in education intersects with racism, classism and heterosexism. White, heterosexual, able-bodied, middle-and upper-class men continue to be depicted as the norm in most textbooks.
wage gap in U.S.
- On a percentage basis, the average woman earns only 79% of what a man earns. This means that for every $5 a man makes, a woman earns less than $4. - Payment on the dollar for African American Women is 60 cents (%) and for Latina Women it is 55 cents (%) - It also varies across state lines, from a low of 10% in Washington, D.C., to a high of 35% in Louisiana. - Does not matter how educated a woman is: she's still paid less than her male counterparts. In fact, the study reveals that women are often out-earned by men with a less impressive educational background. The typical woman with a graduate degree earns $5,000 less than the typical man with a bachelor's degree. - Payment on the dollar: For women ages 18-24 is 80 cents (%) and for women over 35 is 76 cents (%)
marriage and name change
- Patriarchal naming practices: In most Western countries, heterosexual females take the husband´s name upon marriage. Now, a number of women and men adopt hyphenated names. In many Arabic countries and in Spain, women retain their families´ last names, and in Spain children have both their father´s and their mother´s first last name. However, in this tradition, grandmothers´ last names are still eliminated and only the fathers´ and grandfathers´ names are retained. Many men still would feel insulted if a woman did not want to take their last name at all, and most would never consider taking the woman´s last name.
Gender stereotypes in the workplace: Stereotypes of women
- SEX OBJECT: This stereotype defines women in terms of their sex or sexuality. Frequently leads to judgements of women based on their appearance+clothing. EX: Sarah Palin was called "babe" and "hot" while Clinton was criticized for not being sexy and/or feminine enough. - EX: Hooters manual explains their discrimination policy based on age, weight, and level of attractiveness - BUT stereotyping women as sex objects leads to sexual harassment, experienced by 50% of women who work outside of their homes. More common in the military (When the female cadets began to be admitted, 20% of them experienced sexual assault after this change.) - This stereotype is also used to define and harass gays and lesbians. They are often perceived in terms of their sexuality and their non-conformity with society's gender roles.
single-sex education
- Some educators believe that single-sex education might temporarily solve some of the problems encountered by both genders in educational institutions. Boys might get the extra support in reading and writing, while heterosexual women would be able to focus on math and sciences on campuses without male students and receive the mentoring they need. - Research shows that students of both genders focus more on studying without worrying about impressing the other sex or appearing as nerds. Graduates of women´s colleges make up a disproportionate number of members of Congress or top ranking business women. - Critics argue that if single-sex education is not public and free for all, it will do very little to reduce the gap between a privileged lucky few and the general masses of students still exposed to sexism. Educating teachers how to treat all students of all genders in all schools fairly would be more of a long-term solution.
Mentoring, mentors
- The low number of female and minority faculty often create excessive demands for service and mentoring from these faculty members. Since committees are expected to be diverse, minority faculty members are often asked to serve on too many committees. - Sexual harassment and discrimination from peers and even faculty tell female students that they are not taken seriously as members of an intellectual community. Informal networks often leave out female students while males are invited in for chats with professors willing to mentor them.
Intimate Partner Violence
- The most common form of violence against women in the U.S. At least 28% and possibly up to 50% of women experience this in their lifetime. Nearly 25% of women and 30% of men regard violence as a normal and even positive part of marriage. - Inflicted primarily by men against women. Men make up an estimated 15% of victims of IPV. 26% of female murder victims are killed by IPs, while only 3% of male murder victims are. Strongly associated with traditional masculinity.
territoriality
- Women are more likely to surrender their territory when invaded, to step out of the way, to avoid aggressive eye contact. Observe this on the sidewalk, in the metro, on campus... - Families, do both parents have their own space, study, workshop? Women often have spaces in which they do things for other people (kitchen, sewing room, etc.) Territoriality, elevator phenomenon, surrendering space or not. Definition: Is a term associated with nonverbal communication that refers to how people use space (territory) to communicate ownership or occupancy of areas and possessions. The anthropological concept branches from the observations of animal ownership behaviors.
Gender stereotypes in the workplace: Stereotypes of men
-STURDY OAK: They're a pillar of strength, never weak and aren't dependent. This can hinder men professionally because they might not ask other for help/advice because it might appear as a sign of weakness -FIGHTER: Cultural stereotypes see men as go-getters, ready to win at all costs. This can prevent men from being family oriented and caring for fear of disapproval from co-workers. -BREADWINNER: Strongest stereotype in Western society, this has been used as justification to pay men higher wages than women. Risky and unrealistic in today's uncertain economy; men shouldn't tie their identity and/or self worth to their careers.
What are the 3 main functions of nonverbal communication?
1. To supplement verbal communication 2. To regulate interaction 3. To convey the bulk of the relationship level of meaning
What are 3 types of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)?
1.) "sunna," or religious duty, removes the sheath and tip of the clitoris, practiced primarily in African countries on girls between the ages of 4-14. Usually leaves a woman unable to experience sexual excitement or orgasm. 2.) Excision or clitoridectomy: the entire clitoris and parts of the labia minora are removed. Greatly diminishes a woman´s capacity to experience any sexual pleasure and often has medical complications. Increases pain and danger in childbirth. 3.) Excision and infibulation: This practice originated in Upper Egypt with female slaves, sewing shut the labia majora to prevent sexual activity and childbirth. This is still practiced in some countries in Africa to excruciating pain and severe health hazards, such as hemorrhage, tetanus, gangrene, blood poisoning, fractured bones from being held down during the process.
The Lessons of Child´s Play
A classic study by Daniel Maltz and Ruth Borker (1982) that explores the tendencies in children´s sex-segregated play groups. Boys tend to cover big territories and follow set rules (baseball, war, football) while girls tend to play small-area communication games where they create the rules themselves (school, house, tea party). More recent research confirms that sex-segregated play groups remain the norm in the U.S. even for children as young as 2-3 years old.
affirmative action (1965) vs quotas
Affirmative Action (1965) - President Lyndon Johnson used his 1965 commencement address at Howard to announce a new policy that would address historical prejudice. Affirmative action is based on three key ideas: Groups of people have been discriminated against and remedies must thus be directed at groups as well. Preferential treatment must be given to qualified members of these groups to compensate for the legacy of this discrimination. The effectiveness of these remedies is judged only by their results and not their intent. In a study by Bowen and Bok (Harvard and Mellon Foundation), eliminating affirmative action would raise white males´ chances of admission by a mere 1,5%. Affirmative action only applies to qualified candidates of these groups, and recognizes the limited availability of candidates from these groups. VS. Quotas - Perhaps the most controversial effort to redress discrimination, but increasingly applied in European countries in order to address gender discrimination. Binding quotas stipulate that a certain percentage of seats/positions must be filled by a certain gender or ethnic group regardless of qualification. - Universities have long applied a type of quota in admissions when accepting candidates based on legacy policies which accord preferential treatment to the children of alumnae and alumni. - Some states have banned race-conscious admissions policies: California, Florida, Michigan and Washington State currently forbid racial preferences; however, 10 years after California enacted the ban, only 2% of 1st year students at UCLA were black - the smallest percentage in 30 years.
TITLE IX (9) 2005 ???
COULD NOT FIND FOR 2005 IN PPT
Micro-inequities (workplace)
Are subtle and pervasive forms of discrimination that are not in direct violation of any laws; not communicating with female employees, asking males to replace the supervisor when he´s away, mentoring and encouraging them but not the female employees, as well as other verbal comments and behaviors that devalue women.
Spotlighting
Because of convincing evidence that male generic language is not perceived as generic, all major dictionaries and newspapers now follow strict guidelines requiring inclusive language. They discourage ______________: using terms such as woman lawyer or male nurse to not show these individuals as exceptions to the norm and reinforce the standard.
the informal network (practices?)
Can be found in Gendered Organizational Powerpoint
Why is it difficult to leave relationship that has IPV?
Difficult to leave relationship because that is when they are most likely to be murdered. Often need a network of care and means of support to go into. Abuse occurs in all classes and seldom stops without intervention or other radical measures.
the rape script
Due to the _________ _______, a substantial number of people regard forced sex as acceptable - that is, forced intercourse with a friend or acquaintance that involves no physical harm other than the rape itself. Research suggests that there is link between endorsing views of traditional masculinity and power, and perpetrating rape.
Effortless perfection
Female college students feel pressure to be successful both as women (laid-back, attractive, fun to be with) and as students (earning the best grades), to be popular, fit, beautiful, and smart, all without any visible effort.
Pressure to Conform to Femininity:
Female peer groups tend to encourage and reward compliance with feminine stereotypes. Wearing popular brands of clothing and corresponding to a certain weight and beauty ideal becomes a very serious competition.
Summary of Wood, Chapters 6: Gendered Non-Verbal Communication (Texts to know)
Functions of nonverbal communication: 3 Main Functions 1.) Supplement Verbal Communication 2.) Regulate Interaction 3.) Establishing the relationship level of meaning (responsiveness --> liking---> power) Forms of nonverbal communication - proxemics -haptics -kinesics -paralanguage Remember physical appearance differences between men and women... Also, beauty and surgery differences... And lastly, interpreting nonverbal communication differences...
Harvard president Summers´ 2005 remarks
Is it in Diversity Training and Raising Awareness in PPT?
Pressures to Conform to Masculinity:
Male peer groups often engage in drinking and sexual activity to demonstrate their masculinity. 2004 Colorado football team exploited women as part of the university´s recruitment strategy. Peer pressure pushes males to do and say things they would never consider doing as individuals.
culture of romance
Many female students get propelled into a __________ of _______: Ambitions are downsized as students face barriers to their academic achievement, lack of support and mentoring from faculty, plus peer pressure which emphasizes attracting men as more important than academic success.
Girls´ Games
Many girls also play competitive games, yet, girls also play games that few boys play. Typically play in pairs or small groups, games without set rules so they have to talk among themselves to create the rules as they go along, like ´playing house.´ Girls´ games foster cooperative play and involve an open-ended process. Communication is used to 1) create and maintain relationships, 2) establish egalitarian relations with others (don´t outdo, criticize or put down others), 3) show sensitivity to others and include them in the conversation.
Glass ceiling (/ door / elevator / sticky floor / boundary heightening / the maternal wall) same thing???
Many women hit the _________ ___________, which is an invisible barrier to their advancement. Subtle discrimination often limits their opportunities. Often this is based on the previously listed stereotypes or on a misunderstanding of their capacities.
liking
Non-verbal cues include vocal warmth, standing close, touching, holding eye contact. Also more common for feminine communicative patterns.
What is usually the cycle with IPV?
Often follows a cycle: 1) Tension builds. 2) An explosion into physical violence. 3) The abuser appears contrite and shows remorse. 4) The honeymoon phase. The victim becomes convinced the abuse was an aberration and will not recur.
Summary of Chapter 8: Gendered Education in Schools (Text to know)
PPT
haptics (touch)
Parents tend to touch daughters more than sons, so most girls see touching as an affiliative behavior while boys see it more related to control and power. Women see touch related to nurturing, hug and caress more for comfort and affection, while men use touch to direct others, assert power, and express sexual interest. Touching behaviors express social norms, gay and lesbian couples feel less free than heterosexual couples to touch in public contexts.
Boys´ Games
Played in bigger groups of up to nine children. Competitive, have clear goals, cover territory, limited need to talk. Communication is used to 1) assert ideas, opinions, identity, 2) achieve something, solve problems or develop strategies, 3) to attract and maintain others´ attention. Invulnerability is key, so others should not find out too much about your weaknesses.
Summary of Wood, Chapters 5: Gendered Verbal Communication (Texts to know)
Relationships between communication and gender: - examples: freshmen, businessmen - Evidence shows that male generic language is not perceived as generic - Now we discourage spotlighting Language defines men and women differently: - women usually defined by appearances/relationships - men by accomplishments,... - especially sexually Patriarchal naming practices: Language shapes awareness: sexual harassment as a term did not exist before the 90's language evaluates gender: babydoll or kitten for women - Men and women are in different gendered speech communities and this means that they have different speech habits, patterns, etc.
How do people usually regulate interaction?
Repeat words, like point to the right while saying "right," contradict words (cry while saying "I´m okay"), or complement words, like emphasizing a "I never want to see you again" by a frown and a threatening glare. Sometimes replace verbal communication, like with a shrug, a look, a smile. Also, accentuating certain parts of speech can completely change the meaning.
TITLE IX (9) of Education Act Amendments in 1972
Required all schools who received federal funds to treat students of all genders equally. -Which prohibits discrimination in educational programs which receive federal aid (the Women's educational Equity Acts of 1974 and 78. Equal Opportunity Laws focus on present practices and do not redress historical patterns of discrimination.)
sexual assault vs. street harassment vs. rape
Sexual assault: Sexual activity without informed consent; includes rape or other sexual activities with "friends" or strangers, forces sex in marriage, incest, sexual activities with children. street harassment: is a common form of gender intimidation. In the first 11 months of 2009, 587 reported incidents on the NY City subway; citizens formed New Yorkers For Safe Transit. Problematic in many cultures, regardless of what women wear. See https://www.ihollaback.org/. - Before the 1990s, sexual harassment did not exist in language. With the help of this language, people became aware of what had happened to them and this made it possible to redress sexual harassment cases. Similarly, there was no concept for date rape until very recently, even though these rapes often had lifetime repercussions.
What is also recognized as a form of IPV?
Stalking is increasingly recognized as a form of IPV, including its high-tech versions of digital stalking.
responsiveness
Showing interest in others and what they say and do, through eye contact, inflection, attentive body posture. Feminine pattern of socialization to be affiliative and supportive of others. Females tend to smile more, maintain eye contact and incline head to show attentiveness.
A number of laws were passed in the 1950s-60s to prohibit discrimination, What are the 2 primary ones?
TITLE VII (7) Civil Rights Act 1964 and TITLE IX (9) of Education Act Amendments in 1972
index of dissimilarity
The most common way to measure sex segregation is to calculate an index of sex segregation, also called an index of dissimilarity, which ranges from 0-100. Its value is interpreted as the percentage of workers of one sex that would have to change occupations so that men and women have the same distribution in each occupation. An index of 0 implies perfect integration while an index of 100 suggests that the sexes are completely segregated from each other.
gendered children's games
There are The Lessons of Child's Play, Boys' Games, and Girl's Games discussed by Wood in PPT
kinesics (facial and body motion)
Typical for women are tilting heads, smiling, and condensing bodies to take up less space. Women smile more, in experiments with women who have tried to not smile for an entire day they were accused of being angry, upset, or aggressive. Maintain more eye contact, but not aggressively. Men´s face and body movements express that they are reserved and in control, may use movements and eyes to challenge others and assert themselves (staring contest, fighting with team-mates).
proxemics
Use of space and closeness of interaction. Influenced by culture, In Hispanic cultures show more closeness between genders and within one gender. In many countries families live in small apartments or just one room, private rooms are unheard of. Use of space translates into power. No space, no power; in some countries women are not allowed to own property, hence no power. Who´s sitting at the head of the table. Families, do both parents have their own space, study, workshop? Women often have spaces in which they do things for other people (kitchen, sewing room, etc.) Territoriality, elevator phenomenon, surrendering space or not.
TITLE VII (7) Civil Rights Act 1964
Which prohibits discrimination in employment.
Hook-up culture
Young people have more and more casual sexual contacts at younger ages, sometimes as early as middle school. On college campuses, several factors have affected this culture: Fewer males than females, so female students lower their standards for sexual interaction. Many students are unwilling to commit to relationships in order to prepare for and launch their careers. Media increasingly teach women to view themselves as sexual objects for men. Many see these sexual encounters not as sources of sexual pleasure for themselves, but rather as efforts to fit in and be popular.
glass wall
______ _________ is a metaphor for sex segregation on the job, where women are places in "pink collar" positions that have no career ladders.
invisible hand discrimination (faculty)
is the application of policies that aren't necessarily discriminatory with a discriminatory effect. Whether a professor´s assertiveness is judged positively or negatively depends largely on their gender. With female faculty, publications are often seen as being a consequence of luck whereas male faculty are more often judged "brilliant."
minimum wage VS. living wage
living wage: The living wage shown is the hourly rate that an individual must earn to support their family, if they are the sole provider and are working full-time (2080 hours per year).
