Work and Aging

What is Workforce Planning?

Workforce planning is geared toward understanding the characteristics of the workforce, including such things as analyzing the demographics of the workforce, reviewing turnover statistics and retirement projections, and developing strategies to meet current and future needs. Essentially, the goal is to help organizations align their workforce requirements with their business strategies. One aspect of this process, of particular relevance to our discussion is gathering data that depicts the organization's workforce profile, including its current age structure, and how that might impact various organizational policies and practices.

Posthuma and Campion (2009) review of the age stereotyping lit suggestions

(a) more complex relationships with age stereotypes (e.g., moderators/mediators, recursive effects, nonlinear effects, and multiple dimensions of stereotypes, employee performance, and outcomes); (b) managerial practices that will create a more age-friendly work environment (c) examining whether awareness training reduces the effects of age stereotyping (d) investigating the relationship between national cultures and age stereotypes (e) use of research designs that emphasize objective methodologies that are not biased toward validating age stereotyping, as well as more use of longitudinal methods.

Relationship Between Age and Training

A meta-analysis of training studies by Kubeck, Delp, Haslett, & McDaniel (1996) showed that older workers tend to show less mastery of training material, take longer to learn the tasks being trained, and take longer to complete training programs, compared to younger workers. Beier (2008) suggested that differences in performance between younger and older learners are likely associated with the person (changes in abilities, personality, and self-regulation associated with age), and the situation (the training intervention itself), and concluded that the same training intervention will not be equally effective for everyone, and must be adapted to individuals or to homogeneous groups of individuals to be maximally effective. Kubeck et al. (1996) pointed out that the post-training differences observed between older and younger trainees may be a function of pre-training levels and thus may not necessarily mean that older trainees receive less benefit from training experiences

Flexible Work Arrangements for Older Workers

A variety of human resource management strategies have been suggested that offer older workers opportunities for flexible work scheduling, developing new knowledge and skills or utilizing their current skills and abilities differently, and work environments tailored to their needs and preferences. Flexible Scheduling Job Sharing Job Transfer and Special Assignments Part-Time Work Bridge Employment Phased Retirement

Four types of organizational audits that help inform SHRM for the aging workforce

Age Audit Knowledge Audit Human Resource Management Audit Culture Audit

Age Stereotyping

Age stereotyping in a work context refers to implicit ideas people have about the relationship between age and worker characteristics, and it can have a profound impact on decision-making in areas such as hiring, training allocation, and performance management (Hedge, Borman, & Lammlein, 2006).

Effects of Aging on Physical Capabilities

Aging is generally associated with both functional loss and declining homeostasis (McDonald, 1988). Functional loss refers to some functions of the body operating at a reduced capacity; including muscle strength, aerobic capacity, cardiac function, and sensory perception. The decline in homeostasis refers to the reduced ability of the body to maintain normal operation across environments and a slowing of the process of returning to normal after some environmental change. Older persons recover more slowly from altered sleep patterns than younger people and thus may develop more shift work intolerance. They are also more susceptible to stress; less able to ward off illness, take longer to recover from injury, and are thus more susceptible to disease and chronic health conditions (Hansson, DeKoekkoek, Neece, & Patterson, 1997). A decline in physical strength with age has been well-documented (e.g., A. A. Sterns, Sterns & Hollis, 1996; Warr, 1994). Psychomotor ability also shows declines with age (Forteza & Prieto, 1994). Older individuals take longer to react to stimuli, require more time to carry out movements, and show decreased performance at tasks requiring speeded and coordinated response. Visual acuity starts to decline between ages 40 and 50, leading to increased difficulty seeing distant objects and requiring more light to see them. Visual accommodation declines, making it more difficult to focus on close objects. With regard to hearing, older individuals first lose some sensitivity to high-pitched sounds and later to low-pitched ones; lose some ability to distinguish between concurrent sounds, often observed in increasing difficulty understanding conversations; find it more difficult to locate the sources of sounds, and experience more interference from background noise (Forteza & Prieto, 1994)..

Age and Physical Injury on the Job

Although not exactly a dimension of job performance, another dependent variable studied in relation to age is on-the-job injuries or accidents. The incidence of injuries is actually lower for older workers (e.g., Ng & Feldman, 2008; H. L. Sterns, Barrett & Alexander, 1985); however, once injured, they generally take longer to heal and get back to work.

Culture Audit

An organization's culture affects its policies and practices. As we have discussed previously, age-related stereotypes still exist within organizations, and if these norms and stereotypes are a part of the general culture of the organization, they may influence decisions regarding pay, promotions, assignments, and training opportunities. So, another strategy would be to audit an organization's culture. This might be done by distributing voluntary employee surveys, which can reveal how employees of various ages feel about older workers. A culture audit can also be undertaken to identify things such as cultural barriers to improving knowledge sharing (DeLong, 2004).

Part-Time Work

Another alternative work arrangement for older employees is to allow them to have choices through part-time working arrangements (Stein, 2002). Penner et al. (2002) found that many of those who had left the workforce or found other jobs after their career jobs said they would have stayed on with their career employer if they could have worked fewer hours (see also Barth et al., 1995, and Sterns and Sterns, 1995). However, Penner et al. (2002) also noted that relatively few employees have the option of working fewer hours, and where organizations offer such an alternative, it is usually on a case-by-case basis rather than a program available to the broader group of older employees (Doeringer & Terkla, 1990).

Job Design and Aging

Areas for redesign suggested by the aging literature may be as diverse as work location, job content, work pacing, autonomy for completing assigned tasks, the physical environment, tools and work aids, etc. (e.g., Hansson et al., 1997; Warr, 2001). The potential benefits for organizations include not only better utilization of older workers, but also increased productivity and satisfaction of workers, and safer jobs for all employees (Sterns & Miklos, 1995). Any job redesign that focuses on improving physical comfort would likely be beneficial to older workers (Jex, Wang, & Zarubin, 2007). Categories of Job Redesign Relevant to Older Workers Physical Redesign Sensory Redesign Information Processing Redesign Workflow and Pace Redesign Redesign for Stress Control

Training Principles for Older Workers

As noted by Schooler et al. (1998), training is rarely tailored to the learning skills or the interests of older adults. A number of training strategies have been shown to be useful when designing training for older adults, including: (a) attend to motivation and confidence (b) use clearly relevant training (c) incorporate procedural performance where possible (d) utilize active and open learning (e) attend to the sensory and physical environment (f) ensure transfer and reinforcement on the job. These principles reflect what is known about cognitive and physical changes with aging, preferences of older workers, and the importance of individual factors such as self-efficacy related to training. Research has demonstrated that while these principles have been useful with older adults, they will also enhance younger adult performance; that is, better training for older adults is better training for all workers

What is Retirement Planning?

Atchley (1981) succinctly described retirement planning as "concerned with easing the transition to retirement and with putting retirement on sound footing with respect to finances, health, and lifestyle" (p. 79). Taylor and Doverspike (2003) reviewed the research literature, and noted that retirement planning can be linked to lower anxiety and depression, better attitudes toward retirement, better postretirement adjustment, and workforce exit at an earlier age.

Factors Related to Cognitive Decline and Aging

Barnes, Yaffe, Satariano, and Tager (2003) showed a relationship between poorer cardiovascular fitness in older adults age 59-88 and declines in all cognitive abilities tested six years later. The direction of causation has not been well established, and it is possible that lifestyle variables lead to both the onset of such diseases and intellectual decline (Schaie, 1994). Masunaga and Horn (2001) found that older people with high levels of expertise on a complex job showed very little decline in deductive and fluid reasoning, short-term memory, and cognitive speed. And, Bosma, van Boxtel, Ponds, Houx, and Jolles (2003), using data from the Maastricht Aging Study, found that seniors with higher educational level showed less decline in information processing speed, and general cognitive functioning than their less educated counterparts. It is important to note that these differences were lower when the lower education group had relatively high levels of work-related mental challenge. Bosma et al. (2002) found that participation in mental, social, and physical activities mitigated the decline in cognitive ability over a three-year period. Similarly, Schaie (1983) suggested that older adults having a more "engaged" lifestyle are more likely to maintain levels of cognitive functioning. A related factor is having a history of involvement in intellectually stimulating activities and, even more broadly, a history of living in a favorable environment., including having been well educated and having had access to money (Gribbin et al., 1980). Yet another correlate of avoiding cognitive decline as an older adult is living with someone (especially a spouse) who has a high level of cognitive functioning (e.g., Gruber & Schaie, 1986).

A Person's perception of the reason for their own retirement matters

Beehr & Bowling (2002) have suggested that an individual's perception of whether his/her retirement is voluntary or involuntary has both physical and psychological ramifications. For example, perceiving retirement as involuntary has been linked to problems with physical and emotional health, depression, and general life and retirement dissatisfaction. In addition, research examining the impact of downsizing demonstrated that psychological well-being and physical health were both adversely affected by the perception of forced retirement. Conversely, when retirement was perceived as voluntary, the result was greater satisfaction with health, finances, activities, life, marriage, and retirement.

Age Audit

Before identifying a direction to proceed or a plan of action to pursue, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of what an organization looks like. An age audit involves gathering and analyzing data relative to characteristics such as age, length of service, retirement opportunities, work location, etc. (Montana, 1985). The focus of the age audit should be to (at the very least) analyze the current population by length of service, retirement opportunities and work location for each key job category. Such information can then be used to see how many older workers there are overall, what departments and positions they occupy, who may retire early, who is likely to stay, and then beyond that who the organization might want to keep, and what inducements will support such efforts.

Bridge Jobs

Bridge jobs are jobs that can be pursued after career employment is over, to "bridge" the gap between a late career job and retirement. Cahill, Giandrea, and Quinn (2006) found that a majority of older workers leaving fulltime career employment moved first to bridge jobs rather than directly out of the work force. They also found that moving to bridge jobs was more common among younger respondents, respondents without defined-benefit plans, and respondents at both the lower and upper ends of the wage scale. Generally, bridge jobs involve changes in occupation and industry, often with some losses in occupational status and pay (Christensen, 1990; Ruhm, 1990). Many bridge jobs are unskilled or at entry-level, generally filled by younger workers, with unattractive job content, poor working conditions, and poor job security (Doeringer & Terkla, 1990). (Shultz, 2003). There are higher-quality bridge jobs that may be found in informal arrangements by some firms to keep valued workers beyond the normal retirement age. Because these jobs preserve the match between worker competencies and job demands, they tend to also provide the flexibility, economic benefits, and status that make bridge employment an attractive option (Shultz, 2003). Finally, Wang, Zhan, Liu, & Shultz (2008) found that retirees with better financial status, and who had experienced more job satisfaction and less job stress in their career jobs tended to seek bridge employment within the career field over bridge employment in a different career field.

Drawbacks of Correlational and Repeated Measures ANOVA strategies to Examining Personality Change Over the LIfespan

Correlational analysis ignores possible shifts in mean levels across time. ANOVA results that find no differences could reflect either no change for everyone in the sample or different patterns of change for individuals in the sample, with these changes essentially canceling each other out and thus resulting in small mean differences (but considerable change for individuals). Recent advances in statistical theory and computing (as mentioned earlier) have enabled researchers to address some of these issues.

Things that Influence Retirement Decisions

Currently, research suggests that the two most consistent predictors of retirement are health (e.g., Jex et al., 2007), and wealth (e.g., pension eligibility and financial circumstances; Quinn & Burkhauser, 1990; Talaga & Beehr, 1995). They affect both retirement decisions and timing, and are particularly important because they likely mitigate the influence of other variables that might otherwise shape retirement transitions (Barnes-Farrell, 2003). Attitudes toward work also shape expected retirement age; dissatisfaction with one's job is related to a lower anticipated retirement age among both White and Black retirees regardless of gender (e.g., Richardson & Kilty, 1992). In addition, research findings suggest that individuals who have planned for their retirement are better prepared for it; are more likely to report earlier planned retirement ages; and are more likely to actually retire (Taylor & Doverspike, 2003). Moen, Sweet, and Swisher (2005) also suggested that retirement planning is influenced by forces both at home and at work, with spouses and coworkers serving as important frames of reference. For example, Blau (1998), and Henretta, O'Rand, and Chan (1993) have shown that couples tend to synchronize their retirement exits.

DeLong (2004) Approach to Human Resource Management for Knowledge Retention

DeLong (2004) suggested that organizations need to be more systematic in their design of human resource management programs and tools if organizations are to retain organizational knowledge. These programs should include: (a) systems for evaluating skill/knowledge (a skills inventory that also includes where an organization is most at risk for lost knowledge); (b) career development/succession planning processes (system to retain employees—or at least slow turnover—and build long-term workforce capabilities); (c) the development of a retention culture (to ensure the organization's values, norms, and practices to better support the retention of employees and their valuable knowledge); (d) phased retirement programs (as one method to extend the tenure of their most valuable veteran employees); and (e) knowledge sharing practices (including interviews/videotaping, training, storytelling, mentoring, and communities of practice).

Information Processing Redesign

Declines in information processing ability make it more difficult for older persons to rely on internal representations of information (Warr, 1994). To accommodate this, jobs can be redesigned with decision-making aids (e.g., flowcharts, written procedures, lists, menus for action); or even task or equipment modifications that reduce the extent of age-related performance differences.

Things that Retirement Planning Should Focus on in the design phase

Dennis (1988b) advocated that retirement planning programs emphasize role change; psychological and social impacts of leaving the workforce; and differential needs associated with health, socioeconomic status, and gender and minority status. She also advocated offering retirement planning programs earlier, as suggested by many participants. Taylor and Doverspike (2003) suggested that retirement planning programs focus on (a) building self-efficacy to meet the challenges and changes in retirement, (b) reducing the ambiguity and uncertainty of the retirement process, (c) the importance of physical well-being on subsequent adjustment, (d) financial planning for retirement, and (e) ensuring that retirees understand the importance of supportive social relationships Retirement planning cannot be completely left to the organization, however. Self-management of retirement will become more important for the same reasons that self-management of career is becoming important (Sterns & Gray, 1999).

Recruiting Older Workers

Dychtwald, Erickson, and Morison (2004) suggested a number of ways organizations might target recruiting efforts and market their company to older workers. These included: (a) conducting information seminars focusing on issues tailored to the older community, such as retirement, financial planning, and health and fitness (b) holding or attending open houses and career fairs targeting older adults (c) being creative with job postings, including posting notices at universities, research centers, and government retraining agencies to tap into an already motivated segment of the older population (d) creating a recruitment message that emphasizes the intangible values of the job, such as variety and independence, instead of focusing solely on the financial gains, which may not be a concern for many older workers. In general, their message concerning recruitment is to "know your target market."

Physical Redesign

Ergonomic workplace design can reduce the potential for strain and injury (Farr et al., 1998). Sterns et al. (1996) discussed custom work station design to match older employees' changing body structures (e.g., size, strength, flexibility) and sensory capabilities, while Paul (1988) noted special supports for workers who must stand all day

Generativity across the lifespan

Erikson's (1959) (and McAdams, 2001; McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1998) concept of generativity in developmental theory suggests that during midlife individuals typically move beyond concerns about the self and identity and the interpersonal focus on intimacy to concerns for others, including family and younger colleagues. An interesting feature about generativity is that it falls outside of the usual trait domain (for example, the Big Five or the CPI dimensions). Thus, although there is considerable evidence for stability and coherence in many of the typically targeted personality constructs, change is more evident from this developmental perspective.

Flexible Scheduling

Establishing such practices to respond to the wishes or needs of older workers may involve small additional monetary costs relative to the payoffs. Flexible work arrangements have been linked to lower work-family conflict and increased work-family balance (e.g., Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux, & Brinkley, 2005), job satisfaction, lower absenteeism, and greater employee productivity (e.g., Baltes, Briggs, Huff, Wright, & Neuman, 1999). In addition, Moen, Kelly, and Huang (2008) tested a life-course fit model and found, among other things, that employees in their 30s, 40s, and 50s were more likely to have greater work time control than do employees in their 20s.

Why does the Age-Job Attitude Relationship Change Across Age Groups?

First is the model of workers moving from job to job until they find one they like and then staying in that job. One way to at least partially test for this is to control for job level. This kind of analysis, however, generally does not reduce the age-job satisfaction correlation (Birdi, Warr, & Oswald, 1995; Clark & Oswald, 1996). A second possible explanation for this relationship is cohort differences in levels of job satisfaction. This argument is that cohorts of older workers have always been more satisfied with their jobs, even when they were younger. The argument against this explanation is that average job satisfaction levels over time suggest that job satisfaction is actually reasonably high for some of the younger cohorts as well (Warr, 1998). A third explanation is that as employees become older, their expectations about what a job should offer are reduced (e.g., Brandstädter & Rothermund, 1994). A fourth is that broader mental health, which may on average be higher for older workers, "causes" the higher levels of job satisfaction (Warr, 1998). However, when life satisfaction, at least as indexed by the admittedly somewhat superficial variables of marital status and number of dependents is controlled for, the age-job satisfaction relationship is not affected. The last potential explanation is that older people who had low levels of job satisfaction may have already left the workforce. To the extent that older persons who leave the workforce are those less satisfied with their job—a plausible hypothesis—the positive relationship between age and job satisfaction will tend to be overestimated. On balance, each of these explanations likely has some merit. However, in each case the empirical evidence is somewhat mixed, and it is not clear to what extent the relative contribution to the age-job satisfaction correlation is related to each of these explanations (Warr, 1998).

Methodological Considerations for these Findings

First, Longitudinal is Better than Cross Sectional A second methodological observation is that even longitudinal studies have a potential problem interpreting across-age ability levels, especially as the sample members reach advanced age. This is because as the cohort being followed reaches older age, those who drop out of the sample may have done so because of dementia or even death. Longitudinal studies may on balance underestimate average declines in ability because the more able members of the cohort are likely to remain in the sample. Third, sophisticated approaches for tracking individuals' different trajectories in personality changes have been applied in aging research. Structural equation modeling, hierarchical linear modeling, and latent curve analysis are examples of analytical techniques that have been used in this context. Similar techniques have been employed in studying changes in intellectual abilities (e.g., Ferrer, Salthouse, McArdle, Stewart, & Schwartz, 2005; McArdle & Hamagami, 2006).

Research Findings on Personality and Job Performance Over Time

First, at the Big Five level, Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness to Experience tend to decline with age, and Agreeableness and Conscientiousness have upward trajectories across the adult life span. The Openness declines also likely tie in with the cognitive literature that shows deficits in speed-related abilities and fluid intelligence (e.g., Schaie, 1994). Thus, it appears that personality characteristics likely to be on average higher for older workers are correlated with positive individual and organizational performance outcomes including citizenship behaviors. To reinforce this point, Conscientiousness has been found, consistently across all types of occupations and criteria, to be a good predictor of overall performance (Barrick, Mount, & Judge, 2001). Moreover, Emotional Stability (the inverse of Neuroticism) predicts overall job performance and some specific criteria (e.g., teamwork). Finally, Agreeableness was found to predict teamwork-related criteria (Barrick et al., 2001). These relationships are also favorable for older workers. For all three of these Big Five personality traits, older workers score higher than younger workers.

Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) research on aging and personality over the lifespan

HLM allows the researcher to separate individual and group effects as well as to examine relationships other than linear, or straight-line, relationships between variables (Bryk & Raudenbush, 1987). Helson et al. (2002) found that for both men and women, there were increases with age in several norm-adherence dimensions (e.g., self-control). They also found decreases over time for all of the social vitality dimensions of the CPI (e.g., Sociability and Social Presence). Finally, their results, along with earlier cross-sectional studies, suggest that personality changes with age are very similar across culture, cohort, and gender. However, the HLM results gave evidence in several cases of nonlinear change patterns. These findings cast some doubt on the maturational hypothesis (McCrae et al., 1999, 2000), which posits that the vast majority of personality changes occur before age 30, with considerable stability after that. This is because there is evidence that personality changes occur throughout the life span for most of the traits, with for the most part curvilinear trajectories. We should add, however, that Terracciano, McCrae, Brant, and Costa (2005), although finding the same general trends across age in a large scale longitudinal study (the Baltimore Study of Aging) using hierarchical modeling, estimated that the changes are only about 0.1 SD on average per decade

Careers in the Future

Hall and Mirvis (1995) This new perspective, which they referred to as a person-centered or protean career, is characterized by variability, adjustment, and change. The protean career concept provides a new way of thinking about the relationship between the organization and the employee, with organizations merely providing a context in which individuals can pursue their personal aspirations. A fundamental precept of the new type of psychological contract is that a worker's needs and career concerns change in dynamic ways over the course of a career. If the older person is proficient at self-assessment, and can engage in a personal "needs analysis," then the chances are much better for successful mid-career transitions, and a good match with the new work environment. Hall and Mirvis (1995) argued that careers will be increasingly driven by the changing skill demands of the fields in which a person works. Where the life cycle of technologies and products is short, so too will be a worker's personal mastery cycles. According to Farr et al. (1998), careers of the future will involve periodic cycles of skill learning, mastery, and "reskilling" in order to transition into new positions, jobs, and assignments. This career planning process involves becoming aware of opportunities, constraints, choices, and consequences; identifying career-related goals; and engaging in work, education, and related developmental experiences aimed at attaining specific career goals.

Job and Skill Banks

Hedge et al (2006) noted that a relatively recent innovation has been the creation of job banks for older workers, providing them with a variety of part-time employment opportunities. As described by Menchin (2000), these job banks can provide not only part-time work but also a diversity of assignments. Some companies refer to these temporary work pools as "skills banks" to note that they include high-responsibility positions requiring advanced engineering and technical skills. Job and skill banks help to offset the loss of valuable expertise that results from retirements and downsizing. Job banks are often established by companies as internal recruitment facilities for purposes of implementing flexible work arrangements for retirees and other experienced workers. In terms of re-hiring retirees, Dychtwald et al. (2004) noted that recruitment and placement costs would be close to zero because the organization is already in contact with these workers, and training costs should be minimal. One additional benefit of such a program is that it would help to retain institutional knowledge.

What has the ADEA focused on in America in terms of lawsuits?

Historically, enforcement of the ADEA has focused on termination more than on hiring. However, in a recent review of the ADEA, Neumark (2008) concluded that as the number of older workers increases, just by shear volume alone increasing numbers will join the ranks of displaced workers seeking employment.

Human Resource Management Audit

In addition to knowing workforce demographics, it is also critical to understand how the organization's policies and procedures promote or detract from worker productivity. This can be accomplished by examining an organization's policies and practices in recruitment, hiring, evaluation, training, promotion, and termination to check for age neutral or age-friendly policies. An HRM audit can reveal how an organization's current policies and procedures align with what the available research suggests as key considerations by older workers in deciding whether to join or stay with an organization (Armstrong-Stassen, 2008; Armstrong-Stassen & Templer, 2005).

Relationship Between Job Attitudes and Age May Change Over Time

In cross-sectional studies, there appears to be a small positive correlation between chronological age and job satisfaction. Whereas Warr (1994) estimated the relationship to be relatively modest (between .10 and .20), others have posited a more complex relationship, with job satisfaction relatively high very early in a career (e.g., early 20s), lower between the mid-20s to early 30s, and then rising through the 40s and beyond (see Warr, 1994). If this is the case, the age-job satisfaction relation for individuals in their early 30s and beyond is likely to be stronger than it is for those in their 20s. Kacmar and Ferris (1989) made the excellent methodological point that studies of the age-job satisfaction correlation should control for tenure. In their study, they controlled for organizational tenure, job tenure, and tenure working with present supervisor. They also examined multiple facets of job satisfaction, using the Job Descriptive Index (a multi-faceted measure of job satisfaction; Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969). Results showed that for four of the five facets (Supervision, Coworkers, Pay, and Promotions), a U-shaped relationship emerged; with the Work Itself facet, the correlation was positive and linear. So this well-controlled study reported results reasonably similar to the more complex relationship suggested earlier.

Retirement and Well-being 1

Income is important for adjusting to retirement, with both perceptions of having an inadequate income, as well as real inadequate income and financial problems being associated with dissatisfaction and maladjustment (Kim & Moen, 2001). In addition, research has demonstrated that social relationships (e.g., family, friendships, and group affiliations) promote retirement adjustment, or as Mutran et al (1997) suggested, social support may buffer the uncertainty of retirement. In addition van Solinge and Henkens (2005) found that social embeddedness was an important determinant of adjustment to retirement. However, they also suggested that while partners played an important role in decision-making with regard to retirement, the actual adjustment to retirement was a highly individualized process experienced differently by each partner. Van Solinge and Henkens (2005, 2008) differentiated between satisfaction in retirement and adjustment to retirement, and suggested that examining the two as distinct constructs would help to establish a better understanding of the psychological processes that follow from retirement and its outcomes.

Effects of Declines in Physical Capabilities on Performance

It does not automatically follow that these declines result in lower work performance. In fact, the declines are generally quite gradual and frequently do not impact work performance in the majority of jobs. Second, it is possible to compensate for many of these declines through, for example, corrective eyeglasses, change in work strategies, and job redesign. As a result of their experience, older persons often move to jobs that are less dependent on physical capacity (Hale, 1990; Warr, 1994). Finally, some of the declines can be slowed through environmental intervention. Wellness programs, for example, can increase functional capacity, improve mental outlook, reduce health care costs, and reduce lost work time (Hale, 1990; McDonald, 1988).

Job Sharing

Job sharing usually involves the sharing of one full-time job by two (or more) part-time workers, with the work split in some agreed-upon way. Rix (1990) noted that job sharing allows different skills, abilities, and perspectives to be brought to jobs; makes it easier for organizations to retain valued employees; provides a means for skill transfer from older to younger workers; and provides staffing continuity, as those sharing a job can fill in for each other as necessary.

Job Transfer and Special Assignments

Job transfers (especially if they are lateral transfers) allow workers to gain some variety in work activities, work with a different group of coworkers, and possibly even reduce the stress of the work environment. These may include such schemes as job rotation, where employees are allowed to move to different jobs with similar levels of responsibility. Some organizations have strategies where older employees are given special assignments that require a high level of organization-specific knowledge they have accumulated over the years. These job placement practices can be a useful way of utilizing older workers, because older employees can be given assignments that match their particular interests and talents. Beehr and Bowling (2002) noted that older workers may make excellent mentors for newer employees, and others have echoed this (e.g., Belous, 1990; Doeringer & Terkla, 1990; Marshall, 1998). Such an arrangement also provides critical organizational knowledge transfer.

Sensory Redesign

Jobs can be redesigned to compensate for losses of sensory skills, with improvements such as larger computer screens, larger print on warning signs, better lighting, use of easily discriminated colors, and sound amplification (see for example, Hansson et al., 1997; Sterns et al., 1996; Warr, 2001; Wegman & McGee, 2004).

Post-Retirement Employment

Kim and Moen (2001) found a significant positive impact of postretirement employment on psychological well-being. In part, because of the growing popularity of bridge employment, it has become more difficult to distinguish between individuals who are retired and those who are not. Consequently, Feldman (1994) redefined retirement to emphasize exit from a position or career path after having spent a considerable length of time in a position, and taken by a worker at middle age or beyond, so as to reduce their psychological commitment to work. Volunteer participation in retirement may be either a continuation of activities begun earlier or a qualitative shift in relative emphasis from paid work to unpaid volunteer labor (Kim & Moen, 2001). Moen and Fields (2002) suggested that community participation in midlife may help to replace social networks lost when an individual exits the world of work.

Knowledge Audit

Mapping the age profile of a workforce provides insight into one dimension of workforce planning. Another key dimension is experience, and a knowledge audit is a method that management can use in this diagnostic process to identify where the organization is most vulnerable to the loss of specialized expertise (DeLong, 2004). Knowledge audits can provide detailed information about the dynamics of knowledge use, and reuse in an organization, as well as potentially uncovering critical knowledge sources. Lowe (2006) suggested that the more an organization has downsized and restructured, the more likely it is that only a small cluster of key senior managers and professionals have deep experience in their roles. This creates a serious risk of knowledge drain, so employers need to think of flexible retirement options and re-employment not only as ways to respond to the needs of employees, but also as a knowledge transfer strategy.

New Age of Continuous Learning

Maurer (2001) noted that although mid-and late-career stages used to be viewed as periods of mastery and maintenance, with no real demand for learning new things, now all workers are increasingly being called upon to continuously learn and adapt. Indeed, new skills are required of workers at midlife and beyond just to continue to perform their jobs, and those who fail to embrace the notion of continuous learning at work may find their careers cut short (Greller & Stroh, 1995).

Other research on Cognitive Ability and Aging

McArdle, Ferrer-Caja, Hamagami, and Woodcock (2002) found that fluid intelligence declined among older adults whereas crystallized intelligence did not (see Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004). Similarly, Finkel, Reynolds, McArdle, Gatz, and Pedersen (2003), found across a six-year period that crystallized intelligence remained stable among older adults, and most other abilities declined linearly. An exception was cognitive abilities with a speed component, which showed accelerating declines after age 65. However, Allen, Lien, Murphy, Sanders, and McCann (2002) found that older adults can multitask as well as younger adults, albeit at a slower speed.

Meta Analytic Relationship Between Age and Job Performance

McEvoy and Cascio (1989) found a correlation of .06 between age and job performance. Sturman (2003) also conducted a meta-analysis and found some evidence for an inverted U relation although the mean effect size was only .03. Waldman and Avolio (1986) conducted a meta-analysis and found an overall mean correlation of near zero between age and job performance, but they also identified a moderator of this relationship. When performance measures were objective, the relation was positive; when ratings were used as the performance measure, the mean correlation was negative (see also H. L. Sterns & Alexander, 1987). The authors noted that one possible reason for the latter finding is rater bias against older workers.

Age Discrimination Research

Morgeson, Reider, Campion, and Bull (2008) found in a recent review of age discrimination research on the employment interview, studies conducted in field settings tended to show less overall age discrimination effects than studies conducted in laboratory settings; and they cautioned others not to necessarily infer a direct link between stereotypes and interviewer behavior Finkelstein, Burke, and Raju (1995) Their meta-analysis found that younger respondents judged (a) younger workers to have higher job qualifications, developmental potential, and qualifications for physically-demanding jobs; and (b) older workers as more dependable, careful, and stable than younger workers. In contrast, older respondents perceived no differences in job qualifications between younger and older workers.

Factors that Affect the Demographics of the Workforce

Mortality Fertility Immigration

Methods of Researching Personality Change Over the Lifetime

Most researchers on personality changes across time use correlational analysis to compare trait scores at different points in time or examine mean trait differences over time by using a repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical technique. Research using a correlational strategy shows reasonably high correlations, indicating considerable consistency across the lifespan, especially in adulthood (e.g., Block, 1971; Costa & McCrae, 1980; Moss & Susman, 1980). Researchers using the ANOVA technique tend to find only small changes in adult personality, indicating stability in these scores over time (e.g., Haan, Milsap, & Hartka, 1986).

Research on Older Workers and Job Involvement/Organizational Commitment

Older workers also tend to report higher levels of job involvement and organizational commitment (Warr, 1994). Could be due to cohort effects. Another possible explanation is that job autonomy and organizational rewards tend to be higher on average for older workers, and this could in turn account for higher involvement/commitment (Schooler et al., 1998).

Workflow and Pace Redesign

Older workers may function better with a slower work pace, or a work pace over which they have some control (Beier, 2008; Levine, 1988), particularly as a means of avoiding fatigue (Czaja & Sharit, 1993; Hale, 1990).

Older Workers are Often Denied Training Opportunities

One of the most persistent stereotypes about older workers is that they are not worth training (see Maurer, 2007). Studies have shown that older workers are persistently viewed as untrainable, not interested in training, and a poor place to invest training resources due to their attenuated careers (e.g., Novelli, 2002). As a result, older workers are more often denied training opportunities (Farr et al., 1998), their skills degrade and become obsolete, and, once again, the perception becomes self-fulfilling prophecy

Targeted Recruitment of Older Workers

Organizations could enhance their recruiting efforts by partnering with other organizations to help advertise themselves as employers of older workers Targeted recruitment refers to explicit recruitment efforts directed at a specific group of individuals for purposes of increasing employment of those group members, as opposed to increasing the general applicant pool. Rau and Adams (2005) found that scheduling flexibility and a targeted equal employment opportunity (EEO) statement positively influenced older workers' attraction to an organization, whereas opportunities to transfer knowledge had little impact. Taylor, Shultz, and Doverspike (2005) cautioned that targeted recruitment should not ignore the reality that although baby boomers have some characteristics in common, they constitute a diverse group, and an analysis of the cohort reveals wide diversity relative to background and needs

So, why is the relationship between age and job performance so low?

Park (1994) suggested that older workers often have jobs they are very familiar with and often have considerable practice and experience with their job tasks, thus allowing for successful performance even if broader cognitive functioning has declined. Artistico, Cervone, and Pezzuti (2003) found that older employees were actually better than their younger counterparts when working on familiar problems they encountered on the job. Moreover, older workers may have developed complex detailed knowledge structures (i.e., expertise) that compensate for any loss in general skills or abilities. Support for this contention comes from Thornton and Dumke (2005) who noted that professional expertise gained during a long career can often overcome deterioration in certain abilities. Kanfer and Ackerman (2004) observed that general declines in fluid intellectual abilities with age are often accompanied by increases in crystallized intellectual capabilities, and they suggest that a good strategy for older employees is to gravitate to jobs emphasizing the latter abilities such as those with requirements for managerial and interpersonal skills. Finally, senior workers may often have more access to coworker support to help them with their tasks. Schooler, Caplan, & Oates (1998) suggested the following reasons for smaller or no age differences in job performance compared with the age differences in cognitive abilities found in laboratory settings: (a) expertise and experience may help make up for declines in cognitive functioning; (b) lab tasks tend to push people to their cognitive limits, whereas actual jobs usually do not; and (c) older people with large declines in cognitive abilities have often left the workplace.

Retirement and Well-being 2

Personal resources (e.g., health, socioeconomic status, and self-concept) have also been shown to play an important role in retirement well-being. A substantial body of research has shown that better adjustment to retirement is related to better health (e.g., Schmitt, White, Coyle, & Rauschenberger, 1979). Having a higher education and a higher occupational prestige level in the preretirement job were also related to greater retirement satisfaction (Kim & Moen, 2001). For example, House (1998) noted that at higher socioeconomic levels, self-efficacy tends to decline modestly with age, especially around the period of retirement. Conversely, self efficacy tends to increase with age at lower socioeconomic levels, again most notably in the post-retirement years. He suggested that these findings might reflect the different experience and meaning of retirement for people at different socioeconomic levels. For those at higher socioeconomic levels, retirement often results in the loss of a position that had allowed them to acquire esteem, autonomy, and self-direction, while at lower socioeconomic levels, retirement often means escaping from a role characterized by the absence of these positive attributes and experiencing new work opportunities, or leisure roles that are more conducive to a sense of self-efficacy.

Phased Retirement

Phased retirement is typically used as an employment option for full-time employees who are several years away from retirement. The concept underlying the use of phased retirement is that workers can "phase" into retirement gradually rather than work full-time until the day they retire (Paul, 1988). Penner et al. (2002) noted that phased retirement can be a very attractive option for older workers, although Greller & Stroh (2003) questioned whether such programs amount to anything more than a way to turn veteran employees into a contingent workforce. Hutchens and Pappa (2004) found that employers appear to prefer informal over formal arrangements, often because they want to maintain control over which employees are offered the opportunity for phased retirement. In a recent review, Chen and Scott (2006) found that phased retirement tends to be more available to persons who are best able to cope with change—those who are better educated, better off financially, healthier, and in management positions. Phased retirement also appears more prevalent at the younger end of the older worker age span (in their sample, early 50s), reflecting its role as a transition stage to full retirement

Age Discrimination Effects

Regardless of whether age bias is accidental or intentional, subtle or blatant, it can lead to age discrimination when it negatively affects workplace decisions about employment, training, promotion, termination, benefits, or retirement (Dennis & Thomas, 2007).

Research on Age and Turnover/Absences

Research suggests a negative correlation between age and turnover, in the range of -.20 to -.25 (e.g., Beehr & Bowling, 2002). Warr (1994) offered two possible explanations for this relationship. First, older workers stay in their jobs because they do not believe other employers are likely to hire someone at their career stage. And second, older workers are likely to be more satisfied because they occupy relatively high-paying jobs and thus tend not to seek employment elsewhere. A "sunk costs model" (i.e., the notion that time and effort have already been expended on this job) has also been suggested as a reason for lower turnover among older employees (Arkes & Blumer, 1985). A similar negative correlation is found between age and avoidable absences (i.e., absences under the employee's control; Rhodes, 1983; Thompson, Griffiths, & Davison, 2000). However, for unavoidable absences, the correlation with age is positive, presumably because older workers are more likely to have health problems that result in absences.

Schaie Longitudinal Cognitive Ability Study

Results of the longitudinal data suggest, first, that except for perceptual speed, which begins declining between ages 25 and 32, all abilities show modest increases from age 25 until about age 46, when they level off or begin to decline slightly. Ability × gender interactions were also identified, with women performing better in the areas of verbal comprehension and inductive reasoning, and men better in the areas of spatial orientation and numerical ability. Gender differences also occur in ability declines: When abilities are categorized as fluid (i.e., abilities in reasoning and related higher mental processes) versus crystallized (i.e., abilities related to already acquired knowledge) women decline earlier in fluid ability, men earlier in crystallized ability. In general, four of the six mental abilities Schaie and colleagues studied reached an asymptote (peaked and then leveled off) in early middle age and then declined modestly after that (Schaie, 1994). As mentioned, perceptual speed began declining by age 25; numerical ability reached an asymptote earlier, with fairly steep declines beginning about age 60. Regarding the older age ranges, comparing age 25 and 88, there was virtually no decline in verbal ability, with declines of 0.5 standard deviation for inductive reasoning and verbal memory, 1.0 standard deviation for spatial orientation, and 1.5 standard deviations for numerical ability and perceptual speed.

Formal and Informal Retirement Planning

Retirement planning occurs both formally, through participation in preretirement planning programs, and informally, as individuals develop strategies for dealing with life changes that accompany retirement. In general, individuals as they move through midlife, increase retirement preparation activities, especially informal retirement planning behaviors, such as reading about retirement and discussing with friends (Kim & Moen, 2001).

Work Affects one's Personality Development and Changes

Roberts, Caspi, and Moffitt (2003) studied a sample of 18-year-olds, relatively new in the workforce, and then tracked this group, conducting a second data gathering when they were age 26. The authors found that work experiences during their early career years were associated with personality changes. Furthermore, the traits that had a role in selecting members of the sample into the organization at Time 1 tended to be the traits that showed the most positive change across the eight years. An interpretation of this finding is that work experiences will deepen and elaborate traits we already have rather than bring out traits that are not as evident in us. The implication of these results for older workers is that the effects of work experiences on personality are likely to be even larger because of their longer time in the workforce compared to this sample

Effects of Age Stereotyping

Rosen and Jerdee (1985) suggested that to the extent age stereotypes influence managerial decisions, there are potentially serious consequences for older employees, including lowered performance evaluations, reduced motivation, career stagnation, and job loss Wren & Mauer (2004) concluded that beliefs about the decline of abilities are associated with older workers' waning inclination to participate in developmental activities Miller et al. (1993) found that older employees who believed that a perception exists that older workers' performance deteriorates with age experienced low levels of job involvement and more alienation from the job. Greller and Stroh (1995) suggested that stereotypes might influence workers' concepts of appropriate aging behavior, leading them to conform more closely to others' expectations.

Some Evidence that Cognitive Ability Training May Help with Age Related Declines

Schaie and Willis (1986) and Willis and Schaie (1986) focused on educational interventions related to spatial orientation and inductive reasoning. Results showed that about two thirds of participants significantly improved after the interventions, and 40% actually improved to levels attained before the 14-year decline. These findings are encouraging and suggest that engaging in activities related to an ability helps to maintain that ability or at least slow its decline.

Knowledge is lost when older people leave organizations

Schetagne (2001) argued that of all the available HR strategies and practices, the most important should be those that favor the transfer of knowledge and skills between generations of workers. He suggested that only a small part of knowledge and skills are transmitted from older to younger workers before they leave the organization. Rappaport, Bancroft, and Okum (2003) suggested, knowledge is a competitive advantage, so documenting and transferring knowledge within the organization is vital. When important knowledge resides with older workers nearing retirement age—or with workers of any age who are susceptible to turnover and will be difficult to replace—an organization needs to take deliberate steps to record and disseminate that know-how.

Model of Age Discrimination

Shore and Goldberg's (2004) review of the literature led to the development of a model of age discrimination that suggests: (a) age derives meaning from the workgroup context (b) the resulting age comparisons influence employment opportunities (c) employment opportunities for older workers are influenced by forces both inside and outside the organization. The authors also developed a model that characterized the age-norming process as involving: (a) selection of the age comparison standards (e.g., occupational, organizational, industry, workgroup, and societal norms; (b) target-standard comparisons (e. g., if a hiring manager makes comparisons using workgroup norms, then age and its associated meaning becomes one component used in the comparison process); (c) information evaluation (e. g., the hiring manager may decide that the applicant is a poor fit with the job because of the age-position mismatch).

Little Research on Mid-Career People

Shultz and Wang (2008) suggested, however, there is relatively little empirical and theoretical work on the unique career issues faced by workers in their mid to late career stages, and encouraged researchers to pay more attention to the differences among early midcareer, late mid career, and late career workers, as the motives for their careers as well as their career environment could be considerably different

Use of Latent Curve Analysis on changes in personality related to age

Similar to Helson et al. (2002), they were most interested in exploring personality change over time. They employed a complex analytical technique known as latent curve analysis, a method that allows a view of individuals' unique patterns of change over time (Meredith & Tisak, 1990). It is similar to HLM but has more flexibility. Personality data were available for a sample of approximately 100-200 men and women tested at intervals of about 10 years from age 20 through age 60. The target personality variables were self-confidence, assertiveness, cognitive commitment (e.g., values intellect, is introspective), outgoingness, dependability, and warmth. Most people gained in self-confidence between ages 30 and 50, leveling off after 50. Assertiveness showed considerable consistency, with men scoring higher across the entire life span. Cognitive commitment increased from ages 18 to 30, remained steady from ages 30 to 50, and then decreased somewhat from ages 50 to 60. The main finding for outgoingness was that women showed consistently higher scores and that both men and women increased their scores over time. Dependability showed an increase from age 18 to 30 and then stabilized across the rest of the life span. For warmth, the individual differences in across-time trajectories varied so greatly that no group pattern could be determined.

Older Workers are Interested in Training...As Long as it a job related

Simpson, Greller, & Stroh (2001) reported a high level of training activity among older workers in response to recent competitive pressures in the labor market. Simpson et al. criticized studies showing a lower incidence of training among older employees, because such studies typically focus only on employer-provided training. They observed that older workers are actually more likely to participate in training off the job. Older employees are more likely to invest in training that is directly job-related, including credentialing programs, targeted career and job-related courses, and on-the-job computer-based training Warr (2001) noted older workers' higher interest in training that is directly job-related. The low interest level of older workers for many in-house training programs may say more about the content of those programs, their job relevance, and the degree of comfort that older trainees perceive in this type of training than it does about older workers' general interest in training.

Impact of Unemployment on Older Workers

Some of the literature in this area suggests that older workers remain unemployed longer than younger workers (e.g., Hanisch, 1999; Kanfer, Wanberg, & Kantrowitz, 2001; Valetta, 1991). As noted by McKee-Ryan, Song, Wanberg, and Kinicki (2005), there are likely elements of discrimination at play, but there may also be age-related differences in the activities and expectations of unemployed workers which influence opportunities. Both psychological and physical well-being seems to be lower for individuals with longer lengths of unemployment. Thus, the impact of displacement may be more severe for older workers (McKee-Ryan et al., 2005). Chan and Stevens (1999, 2001) The earnings of those individuals (50 years of age or older) who return to work following job loss were also dramatically affected, dropping initially to only 2/3rds of their expected value had the job loss not occurred. Consistent with this study, Haider and Stephens (2001) found not only large earnings losses following displacement, but significant losses in pension wealth and health insurance. Even if these workers were prepared for retirement prior to a job loss, changes in earnings and wealth associated with displacement may significantly reduce the private resources available to them during retirement.

Older Workers Came in During a Different Time, when people stayed with one company

Sterns and Kaplan (2003) have suggested that older workers may not be as well suited for embracing greater career self-management as are younger workers. After all, many older workers initially entered the workforce with a one career-one employer ideal, and transitioning from an organization-driven career to a protean career may be a daunting task. Many of the present 50- and 60-year-olds were hired at a time when they could choose among jobs, and they expected that they would have control over how long they worked and when they exited the workforce (Hedge et al., 2006). Organizations can assist with the process by providing career management resources to all employees. Doing so provides workers with additional information and assistance that can be very beneficial in dealing with the rapidly changing employment market. Employers should assume that workers of all ages would likely benefit from training programs, opportunities to take on challenging developmental assignments, and interventions aimed at organizational change

Redesign for Stress Control

Sterns et al. (1996) noted the importance of removing stressors from work environments, as such stressors can be more distracting for older workers. These include factors such as information overload, noise, overcrowding, dirt, and poor air quality.

The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA)

The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) Enacted in 1967, then amended in 1974 (to cover government employees), and in 1978 (to abolish mandatory retirement for federal employees), the ADEA was designed to protect individuals age 40 and older from employment discrimination based on age, and to promote opportunities for older workers capable of meeting job requirements. The ADEA binds every employer with twenty or more employees that is covered by federal labor laws, and covers employment agencies and labor organizations, the federal government, and state and local governments. The intent of the ADEA is to: (a) promote employment of older persons based on their ability, (b) prohibit arbitrary age discrimination in employment; and (c) help employers and workers find ways to overcome problems arising from the impact of age on employment (ADEA, 2004).

Selection Considerations for Older Workers

Sterns, Sterns, and Hollis (1996) advocate using job analytic techniques to identify the specific levels of task performance that are required on a job, so that those levels can be compared to individual capabilities. Because there is a complexity about the performance of older workers such that they can compensate for age-related declines in certain capacities, a layer of challenge is added to task-analytic techniques and selection. Hoyer (1998) recommended the use of high-fidelity job simulations wherever possible in selection, as such measures allow compensating mechanisms to influence test performance. I Farr, Tesluk, & Klein (1998) suggested that knowledge be emphasized in selection/placement decisions, given the demonstrated association between job knowledge and job performance On measures that are not speeded, older persons typically perform as well as their younger counterparts (Sonnenfeld, 1988); indeed, on measures such as job knowledge or other experiential assessments, older experienced persons may be at an advantage (Warr, 2001). Measures of physical ability may put older workers at a disadvantage, but again it will be important to match carefully the physical ability level sought to the level required in the job, as the existence of an age-related decline does not necessarily mean that the extent of decline places a person below the threshold necessary for job performance (Schooler et al., 1998). Also, selection measures that require human judgment in the scoring processes (e.g., structured interviews, assessment exercises, etc.) are susceptible to the age-stereotyping and age-norming effects mentioned earlier. It is therefore important that evaluators be properly trained.

Pathways to Retirement

Szinovacz (2003) discussed the concept of pathways into retirement as a way to convey the notion that retirement decisions reflect long-term and sequential processes over the life course. This dynamic view of retirement processes suggests that transitions are imbedded in societal and organizational structures, and tied to past and current experiences in individuals' lives. Thus, retirement decisions evolve not only from occupational and employment experiences but also from a variety of contextual influences and lifelong experiences in work and non-work realms. One challenge to retirement research is to untangle these dynamics and complexities, including those associated with changing retirement policies and cohort flow. Women's pathways are different from men's and no research has looked at racial and cultural differences in retirement. Wang (2007), examined five waves of data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), and concluded that retirees do not follow a uniform pattern during the retirement process, and suggested eesearchers should use a broad range of variables to profile retiree subgroups that correspond to different psychological well-being change patterns, and in so doing identify corresponding intervention programs that can be designed and tailored to improve their retirement quality.

The ASA Model

The attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) formulation proposed by Schneider (e.g., Schneider, Smith, Taylor, & Fleenor, 1998) suggests the latter. People gravitate to jobs and organizations that fit with their values, interests, and personalities, and provided the fit is good, they tend to stay in those jobs and organizations. There is some evidence for the validity of the ASA model (Schneider, Goldstein, & Smith, 1995; Schneider et al., 1998).

Disparate Impact

The disparate impact model focuses on establishing that a specific employment practice adversely affects all employees within a protected group, and to prove disparate impact, it is only necessary to show that the employment practice under scrutiny had a differential effect on older workers regardless of the motivation.

Disparate Treatment

The disparate treatment model requires proof that an employee was specifically and intentionally discriminated against, that is, the plaintiff must show proof of an employer motive to act in ways that lead to less favorable employment consequences for older workers.

Exceptions to the ADEA

The law recognizes that age may sometimes be a "bona fide occupational qualification" (BFOQ) reasonably necessary to the normal operation of the business. It also allows adverse personnel action if the action is based on "reasonable factors other than age," ranging from lack of basic job skills to broad, organization-wide problems. A "good cause" exception also allows the employer to discharge or discipline an employee, even though he or she is part of a protected class, if it can be shown that age is not a determining factor in the decision. The last exception, associated with an organization's seniority system, allows differentiation based on age when the employer is abiding by the terms of a bona fide seniority system or any bona fide employee benefit plan, such as retirement, pension, or insurance plan, as log as the plan was not designed as a means of evading the purposes of the ADEA.

Considerations when thinking about training for older workers

Their information processing abilities may have declined, such that they are no longer able to learn new material as efficiently as they once did, and they are more susceptible to distraction (e.g., Sonnenfeld, 1988). However, older workers often have the benefits of more knowledge and experience on which to link new training (Warr, 2001). They may falsely attribute their training difficulties to an inability to retain information (Hansson et al., 1997) and thus lose confidence in their ability to profit from training (Warr, 1994). Their confidence may be further eroded by being overlooked for training and by past experiences with training that has been poorly designed for them (Farr et al., 1998). They may have more fear of failure in training and fear of embarrassment, especially in the presence of younger trainees, in part because their previous training experiences may have been some time ago.

Environmental/Event Related curvilinear changes in personality related to age

There is also impressive evidence for environmental, event-related change in personality. For example, there is a curvilinear change in dominance and independence, with peaks in middle age when most people attained their maximum power and status at work. Thus, work experiences and the work-related environment do influence this personality change. Also suggestive are the curvilinear results for responsibility, with a temporary drop from approximately 1960 to 1980, even though the cohorts were born almost 20 years apart. A plausible explanation is that this period witnessed the height of individualism, with an emphasis on private and interpersonal experience and a de-emphasis on formal roles and social commitments. Apparently cultural or environmental events do affect personality change (Helson et al., 2002).

Individual Differences Matter in terms of Aging and Cognitive Ability Decline

Thus, Schaie's and others' work demonstrates that on average, most cognitive abilities are at least gradually declining as people reach their late 50s. This is especially true for perceptual speed and numerical ability. The emphasis here, however, should be on average; there are large individual differences in when and how much these mental abilities decline among older persons. In fact, Schaie (1994), Warr (1998), and Reynolds, Finkel, Gatz, and Pedersen (2002), among others, have observed that the standard deviations in abilities increase with older study participants.

Age Biases Research Framework

Tripartite Model Within this framework, the cognitive component is comprised of beliefs and expectations about a social object as a result of membership in a particular group (e.g., age stereotyping). The behavioral component to an attitude involves a tendency to treat others in a particular manner due to their social category membership (e.g., age discrimination). There is also an affective component of a biased attitude (e.g., age prejudice). In summary, then, they suggested that age bias at work can involve some thoughts, beliefs, feelings, evaluations, and treatment of older workers in routine interactions and important employment decisions. Finally, as Finkelstein and Farrell (2007)

Job Type as a Moderator Between Age and Job Performance

Waldman and Avolio (1986) found a more positive correlation between age and job performance for professional jobs compared to non-professional jobs. Yet another potential moderator is the dimension of job performance. Gilbert, Collins, and Valenzi (1993) examined performance ratings on different dimensions for workers ages 25 to over 50. For the dimensions technical competence and job commitment, the highest ratings were associated with 25- to 30-year-olds; the lowest ratings were given to those over 50. For the dimension of work relations, the pattern was the opposite, with workers over age 50 receiving the highest performance ratings. On the other hand, Schappe (1998) and Williams and Shaw (1999) both found virtually no correlation between age and citizenship performance (see also Cleveland and Lim, 2004), although Ng and Feldman (2008) observed a low positive relationship. Finally, Ng and Feldman's (2008) meta-analysis found negative correlations between age and both counterproductive work behavior and absences and no correlation between age and creativity.

Research on Factors Associates with Post-Employment Work

Weckerle and Schultz (1999) examined factors associated with retirement—continued full-time employment in the present job, bridge employment in the present type of work, or bridge employment in a different type of work—for workers 50 years of age or older who had been in their current job at least 10 years Those who were considering early retirement were more satisfied with their current financial situation; those who were less satisfied with their future financial prospects were considering continued full-time employment, and those whose average financial satisfaction fell between the other two groups were most likely to be considering some form of bridge employment.

Age Norming

When beliefs about older workers are shared by an organization's members, they help establish age norms for that organization, and reinforce age-related patterns of behavior. These norms, in turn, often have a direct and adverse impact on managerial behavior toward the older employee. Young people in "older" jobs acquire high status and power as a result of their age, whereas old people in "young" jobs tend to acquire low status and power labels. Cleveland and Hollman (1990) found that as the proportion of older workers in a job increased, so too would the rating of a job as appropriate for older adults Shore & Goldberg (2004) concluded, it is clear that being older than others, whether relative to the immediate manager, the workgroup, or job level, works to the disadvantage of individuals for most employment opportunities.

Compensation and Benefits for Older Workers

Whereas many older workers may have a need for monetary compensation, benefits tend to become relatively more important to workers as they age (Belous, 1990). Older workers tend to choose different health care plans than younger workers, preferring fee-for-service plans over health maintenance organizations so that they have more flexibility in choosing providers (Barringer & Mitchell, 1993). Consequently, some older employees may be particularly attracted to improved health insurance, or other medical benefits. In fact, they may want to work beyond normal retirement age in order to keep their health insurance coverage. The absence of such benefits for part-time workers will make part-time schedules and phased retirement unfeasible for some individuals. Extending health care benefits to part-time workers and those in other nontraditional arrangements will undoubtedly increase the cost of such plans. Consequently, organizations who seek older workers to fill part-time and consulting positions (which often do not come with health care benefits) may need to consider adding health care as a major incentive (Wellner, 2002). Pension plans and health care benefits are large factors in the decisions of older employees to retire, remain on the job, or seek other employment.

Two ways plaintiffs can show discrimination

disparate treatment and disparate impact.

New Statistical Techniques used to Examine Personality Change Over the Lifespan

hierarchical linear modeling (HLM). Environmental/Event Related curvilinear changes latent curve analysis