World Civilizations Unit 2
How does Kaiser Wilhelm's "Place in the Sun" represent an expression of new imperialism?
"As head of the Empire I therefore rejoice over every citizen, whether from Hamburg, Bremen, or Lübeck, who goes forth with this large outlook and seeks new points where we can drive in the nail on which to hang our armor."
What is ulgulan?
(great tumult) of 1899-1900 carried out by the Munda tribe on the Bengal-Bihar border was critical to the ultimate success of the Indian National Congress.
Urbanization follows the path to industrialization and modernity. Why?
Cities built on factories, factories increase working class, urban development built around factories.
What are Voortrekkers?
Dutch who migrated inward from South Africa
What are the characteristics of economic development and expansion in Latin America after independence?
Economic expansion after independence was dictated by the growth of agricultural or mineral exports: bananas and coffee from Central America; tobacco and sugar from Cuba; copper and silver from Mexico; silver from Peru and Bolivia; and wool, wheat, and beef from Argentina. Not only did Iberians reap huge profits from investment in Latin American enterprises, but British, French, German, and North American investments wielded increasing influence in the decisions of Latin American nation-states.
How did the Nazi Party rise in Germany after World War I?
Embittered by the Weimar government's acceptance of the Versailles treaty and its inability to solve the economic problems, Adolf Hitler (1889- 1945) joined with other unemployed and like-minded veterans to form a National Socialist German Workers (Nazi) Party (1919) and shortly thereafter became its leader.
How would negotiating peace after World War II be different from World War I?
NOT Roosevelt believed that an international organization would help establish and maintain a rule of law among nations,
According to the authors, "The planners of the 1939 New York World's Fair attempted to create a futuristic vision of the union of science, technology, and industry in the World of Tomorrow." However, the authors believe due to world events what message did the World's Fair send to the world?
The 1939 New York World's Fair on one level bore little resemblance to the real world and yet on another level revealed sharply the dissonances of that world on the eve of the second global war of the twentieth century.
How did Europeans divide up or transitioned to new imperialism in Africa during the nineteenth century?
The British spread southward from Egypt, where they had established themselves by 1875 and assumed a protectorate (controlling authority) by 1882, while they moved northward from Cape Colony in South Africa, which they had held since 1815. A column of British-claimed territories that stretched up the entire east coast of Africa was interrupted by German acquisition of East African territory in 1885. They included timber, rubber, palm oil, minerals, and ivory. Even when slaves were no longer exported, slavery and other forms of coerced labor remained essential to the production and transport of commodities. The era has also been termed a period of informal empire, suggesting that the economic relations characteristic of the subsequent formal empires of the colonial era were well underway by the end of the nineteenth century. Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 King Leopold II of Belgium (r. 1865- 1909). Motivated by a desire to expand the wealth and territory of his small European kingdom, Leopold undertook what he called a "crusade" to acquire the Congo Free State (later, Zaire and now the Democratic Republic of the Congo or DRC). Acquiring the Congo as a personal possession, Leopold enriched himself at the cost of millions of African lives lost through brutal forced labor in the rubber industry. The relatively swift imposition of European colonial rule in Africa following the Berlin Conference also needs to be understood against the backdrop of several centuries of the Atlantic slave trade, the rise of an African merchant class, and the penetration of merchant capital prior to 1900. European trade competition, especially between Britain, France, Germany, and Belgium was fiercer. Before the outbreak of World War I, the lower Niger valley had become Nigeria, a British protectorate, as had Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast, but German imperialist activity checked British interest in the coast above Cape Colony The annexation of Algeria was an inaugural step toward realizing a French dominance of Africa north of the equator. The next step was the annexation of Tunisia (1881). In 1904, an agreement with Great Britain provided English support for rounding out French holdings in northwest Africa by establishing a protectorate over Morocco (1912), despite German opposition. In equatorial Africa, the French established themselves in the Kongo, and in West Africa in Senegal. With French acquisition of the island of Madagascar in 1896, What the British and French left unclaimed in Africa was taken by the Germans, Italians, Belgians, Portuguese, and Spanish. NOT The conquest of Africa provided perhaps the clearest example of the "new imperialism," an era beginning in Africa roughly in the 1880s and continuing into the twentieth century.
What were the connections among technological innovations in the early Industrial Revolution?
They were used by or for the working class and to develop capitalism
What is dhoti?
Traditional Indian dress
What is the point the authors are trying to make concerning the first performance of the opera Aida in 1871 in Egypt and the Suez Canal?
When it was first performed in Cairo in 1871, the con- temporary setting was shaped by conflict of a new and different kind: Anglo-Egyptian rivalry in East Africa and struggle over control of the strategically important Suez Canal.
What are the key points that would result in the victory of the Allies against the Axis powers during World War II?
Within four months, the Germans reached the vicinity of Moscow, when a com- bination of the extreme Russian winter and a Soviet counteroffensive checked them. In the following year the Russians halted a German offensive into the Ukraine in a bitter siege at Stalingrad (modern Volgograd). The costly campaign shifted back and forth across the deserts of North Africa, but by the spring of 1943, following the Axis loss of Tripolitania, the Axis "Army Group Africa," by now dominated by the Germans, surrendered. The Allies opened up an even more significant second front in western Europe on 6 June 1944, when the invasion of France began. Paris was liberated in a little more than two months, and the Allies reached the borders of Germany and the Netherlands in the fall of 1944. By spring 1945, they were deep in German territory, con- verging with a major Soviet offensive. On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide, and shortly there- after Germany surrendered. The war in Europe was over.
In the popular stories of the nineteenth century industrialization created opportunities for the ambitious and many white men took advantage of these opportunities. Yet, the story remains incomplete, largely because of the way it is structured. A national story designed to uplift everyone spirit, it actually neglects large parts of the workforce and it certainly ignores workers who labored in distant shores for factories thousands of miles away. Who is left out of the heroic stories and what does inclusion mean for our understanding of this dynamic process?
Women and children
What are caudillos?
independent politicians who relied on both personal charisma and military force
What impact would metallurgy have around the world?
By the sixteenth century, few parts of the world had not felt the tremendous effects of smelting, casting, and blacksmithing operations, which seriously deforested vast regions. With few exceptions, these technologies required large quantities of charcoal fuel, made from particular species of hardwood trees. Such trees provided the requisite high temperatures, but they were slow growing and not easily replaced within each generation.
What were the characteristics of British settler societies in Canada, New Zealand and Australia and how did they treat indigenous people?
Canada, like so much of the globe, became an arena for competing European imperial ambitions following the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century voyages of exploration and subsequent colonization. Because parts of this vast northern half of the North American continent were claimed, explored, and settled by both France and Great Britain, it became an extension of their competition for dominance in Europe. The American Civil War (1861-65) was crucial to the Canadian nationalist desire for confederation. Some native peoples resisted being moved to "reserves." At least one important Plains chief, Big Bear (ca. 1825-88), joined discontented Métis (mixed) in a rebellion (1885) against the encroachment of government policy and immigrants into the western Great Plains. The Big Bear- Métis rebellion was suppressed, and Indian policy remained directed by the interests of settlers. Although the Dutch were the first Europeans to reach Australia, the first British settlements there during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century were penal colonies for felons transported from Britain. The spread of European settlers into the interior of the continent destroyed the fragile ecology of the Australian Aborigines, the indigenous people who were forced into the deep interior and whose way of life was virtually destroyed by the incursion The largely British and European population remained predominantly in the major cities, especially Melbourne and Sydney, despite important mineral discoveries that led to gold rushes in the 1850s and again in the 1890s. The individual colonies of Tasmania, Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, and Queensland were united into a federation as the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, part of the British empire. like both Australia and Canada, New Zealand became a self- governing dominion within the British empire in the early twentieth century (1907). As with other dominions in the British Empire, the settlement of New Zealand by Europeans came at the expense of native peoples. Britain claimed sovereignty over New Zealand and its native inhabitants, the Maori people, in the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi, though the terms of this treaty as understood by Maoris and British differed. Granted a constitution in 1852, New Zealand was governed according to a British provincial system. In the 1850s, an influx of European settlers into the colony led to disputes over land between the "pakehas," as the Europeans were known, and the Maoris. In response to European demand for land, Maoris formed a pan-tribal anti- land sales league known as the "Maori King movement." Land wars beginning in 1860 led finally to the confiscation of much Maori land, and in 1864, the Maoris were confined to reservations. Many Maoris were actually forced to sell their lands to pay legal fees necessary to prove their claims to the land. By the 1890s, the bulk of New Zealand had been shifted to pakeha owner- ship, and many Maoris were left in poverty.
In what ways were labor and capital critical global elements in the Industrial Revolution?
Capitalism and urban development
What was the impact of the Opium Wars and the Taiping Rebellion?
China was defeated, and the Treaty of Nanjing (1842) opened five treaty ports along the southeast coast, ceded the island of Hong Kong to the British, and established the concept of extraterritoriality, exempting foreign residents in the treaty ports from the rule of Chinese law. The most significant of these was the Taiping Rebellion (1851-64), which reflected not only the socio-economic strains connected to the Opium Wars, but also the influence of Western ideas, particularly Christianity, resulting from missionary activity. The Taiping leader Hong Xiuquan (1814-64) was influenced by Old Testament ideas in a Christian missionary pamphlet given to him in Canton, where he had gone to take the civil service examination. Their radical vision of the ideal society presented such a profound challenge to the prevailing Confucian social order that the Chinese elite rose up in defense of the Manchu government.
What reforms did Mustafa Kemal and the Turkish Republic introduce to Turkey?
Kemal drove out the occupiers of Anatolia one by one, and in 1923, he was elected the first president of the Turkish Republic. Subsequently, he led the adoption of an ambitious series of measures aimed at changing Turkey into a modern Western country. it abolished the caliphate (the religious leadership of the Muslim world that had generally been appropriated by later Ottoman sultans); replaced religious courts with civil courts and civil law based on European models; dis- banded the religious brotherhoods; abolished the fez (male headgear) and veil for women, which were symbols of religious conservatism; replaced the Muslim calendar with the European calendar; and officially disestablished Islam as the state religion. Turkey became the first secular Muslim state. Other measures were equally far-reaching. The Latin alphabet replaced the Arabic alphabet. Polygamy was abolished, and women were given the right to vote and hold all public offices and professions in the country. A system of public schools and universities was established.
What was the "new imperialism" and how did it differ from earlier forms of imperialism?
New imperialism and earlier forms of imperialism both had to do with the colonization of new lands and control over agriculture and resources. They also dealt with the interrelations between settlers and indigenous peoples. However, the main difference between new imperialism and earlier imperialism is that new imperialism focuses on developing an economy and market with cheap labor, raw materials and foreign trade while previous versions of imperialism focused on the development of the colony and financing the land and agriculture.
How did the Industrial Revolution spread around the world (West and Central Africa, Japan, China, Russia, North America, Latin America/Caribbean, & Islamic World)
More hidden expressions of personhood such as circumcision or public beads worn below the waist also contributed to individual identity and helped to sustain tradition amidst the overlay of imported textiles that became even more widely available as a result of industrialization in Africa. Meiji policies encouraged rapid industrialization and the abolition of feudalism followed. One of the goals of the pragmatic Meiji leaders was to modernize the country's military through industrialization. For nearly two years (1871-73), a mission of dozens of high- ranking officials was sent abroad to study Western industrial life. Expansion of silk production meant larger workshops in towns and eventually the application of mechanized spinning to the industry. A Frenchman first introduced a mechanized spinning machine to Suzhou, Jiangsu silk weavers near the end of the Qing (1644-1911). It replaced a female-dominated silk weaving industry that had wealthy elite consumers and commerce along the Silk Roads since the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE) Key factors encouraging industrial growth were the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812, both of which had severely limited imports of manufactured goods. The expansion westwards increased the need for improved transportation systems and roads, railways, and steamships became critical elements in the expansion of commerce and the construction of national identity. At the Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond, Virginia (founded ca. 1837), white ironworkers supervised black artisans. The expansion of blast furnaces from 9 to 15 in 1847 required expanding the labor force. White workers refused to train additional blacks, precipitating a strike. The owner, Joseph Anderson, discharged the striking whites, replacing them and expanding the black workforce. Textile factories in New England appeared in the early nineteenth century, based on a series of technological innovations, including the cotton gin and expanded production system that brought spinning and weaving under one roof. The circum-Caribbean region had witnessed the mechanization of sugar production as early as 1815, when a steam-powered mill was established in Brazil. Steam-powered coffee processing plants and sawmills appeared in the 1830s. Many of these industries continued to rely on slaves or contracted labor. A Brazilian initiative in 1852 provided state support for railway investment importing experts and machines from England to build textile factories, sugar refineries, and steam-powered mills. NOT North America A Brazilian initiative in 1852 provided state support for railway investment and by 1874 there were 1,290 kilometers (800 miles) of railroad tracks in the country, compared to half as much in Mexico.
How and why did the Manchu dynasty fall in China and what was the result for China as a Nation-State?
On 10 October 1911, when a unit of the new army mutinied in the central Yangzi Valley city of Wuchang, provinces began declaring their independence from the Manchu government. What became known as the Revolution of 1911 led to the founding of the Republic of China on 1 January 1912. the real forces that brought about the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty - regional militarization dating from the mid-nineteenth century and socio- political disintegration - had little to do with the revolutionary ideals espoused by Sun and his supporters. Sun's political ideology, known as the "three principles of the people" - ethnic identity or nationalism, people's welfare or socialism, and people's rights or democracy - were adaptations of Western political concepts and had no grounding in traditional thought.
The authors point out the two contradictory conceptions of peacemaking during the negotiations at the end of World War I. What are they and how were they realized?
One was the traditional idea that "to the victor belongs the spoils," the assumption that a defeated state would have to sacrifice territory and wealth to the victor. Contrary to this in spirit and content was the peace envisaged by President Woodrow Wilson a "peace without victors or vanquished."
What is metropole?
Parent state of a colony
What would be the impact of Commodore Matthew Perry and the Meiji Restoration have on Japan?
Perry: Sometime after Perry's visit, the coup leaders declared the "Meiji Restoration," the restoration of authority to the imperial line in the person of Emperor Meiji after more than 600 years of shogunal rule. The act of consulting with the daimyo irrevocably undermined the authority of the shogun to decide foreign policy and led to the unraveling of the threads that bound the daimyo to the shogunate. the presence of foreign residents in Japanese cities and foreign ships in Japanese harbors incited extremist attacks by young samurai who identified this presence with the weakness of the shogunate as well as with the aggressive intrusions of outsiders. with the coming of a new emperor to the throne, a coup led by these and two other domains overthrew the shogunate. The coup leaders declared the "Meiji Restoration," A new capital was declared at Edo, now known as Tokyo, and governors appointed by the Meiji leaders, who claimed to speak for the emperor, administered newly created prefectures (administrative districts) carved from former daimyo domains. The Meiji leaders adopted a national land tax base and organized a modern army. Westernization, guided by the Restoration leaders, in political and social institutions as well as in intellectual life Future invasions of Russia, Korea, and China
What types of forms or resistance did Africans employ against colonialism?
Resisters sprinkled their bodies with protective magic water known as maji-maji that they believed would turn their enemy's bullets into water. The use of spiritual beliefs helped foster African unity, and although thousands were killed by machine gun fire, the Germans ultimately reduced their use of violence in order not to provoke another mass uprising. Using the traditional jihad or holy war waged against non- believers in Islamic regions, peasants challenged British colonial authority. With no technological match for advanced European weaponry, the failure of African resis- tance was endemic until well into the twentieth century, when the educated elite and masses eventually found common political and some- times even nationalist grounds.
Compare and contrast the role of governments in the spread of industrialization in Russia and Japan.
Russia: State Run Japan: End of Feudalism Both: Women and children workers
How do the stories of Mary Saxby (page 538), Hannah Goode (539) and Mrs. Smith (539) each provide windows in gender, poverty and children?
Saxby: It illustrates how difficult it was for many women to survive the urban experience at the end of the eighteenth century and while cities became centers for the abundance of material goods, but access to the riches of industrial life was extremely limited. Hannah Goode: "I work at Mr. Wilson's mill. I think the youngest child is about 7. I daresay there are 20 under 9 years. It is about half past five by our clock at home when we go in . . . We come out at seven by the mill. We never stop to take our meals, except at dinner. William Crookes is overlooker in our room. He is cross tempered sometimes. He does not beat me; he beats the little children if they do not do their work right . . . I have sometimes seen the little children drop asleep or so, but not lately. If they are catched asleep they get the strap. They are always very tired at night . . . I can read a little; I can't write. I used to go to school before I went to the mill; I have since I am sixteen." Mrs Smith: "I have three children working in Wilson's mill; one 11, one 13, and the other 14. They work regular hours there. We don't complain. If they go to drop the hours, I don't know what poor people will do. We have hard work to live as it is . . . My husband is of the same mind about it . . . last summer my husband was 6 weeks ill; we pledged almost all our things to live; the things are not all out of pawn yet . . . We complain of nothing but short wages . . . My children have been in the mill three years. I have no complaint to make of their being beaten . . . I would rather they were beaten than fined."
What are some of the signs of increasing disparities in wealth during the era of industrialization?
Separation between the working and upper classes
How did Adam Smith, Francis Bacon and Eric Hobsbawm see global expansion differently?
Smith: What benefits, or what misfortunes to mankind may result from these great events, no human wisdom can foresee. Bacon: Adam Smith's pronouncements accurately predicted the enormity of the impact that Europe's global expansion would have on the world. By the late eighteenth century, an Industrial Revolution was taking place in Europe, and political changes that laid the foundations of modern nation-states accompanied this revolution. English historian Eric Hobsbawm has referred to the combined force of these two historical processes as the "dual revolutions,"
What countries would carve China up into Spheres of Influence in the nineteenth century and what impact would it have on China?
The "self-strengthening movement" resulted in such things as the establishment of schools that taught Western languages and learning, particularly mathematics and science, and the building of arsenals and shipyards. Western powers, by the end of the century, most of the country had been carved up into foreign "spheres of influence," territories where foreign powers had special economic or political privileges.
How would Indian nationalism evolve during British imperial rule?
The African experiences of imperialism and colonialism were as diverse as the peoples, landscapes, and imperial powers that interacted on that vast continent. This act strengthened the British government's role in India and remained the mode of governing the colony until the mid- nineteenth century when the Great Indian Rebellion transformed British colonialism in India. Both Hindu and Muslim soldiers, believing that the grease was made of forbidden animal fat, refused to obey the orders because it was sacrilegious to have contact with cows (in the case of the Hindus) or pigs (in the case of the Muslims). The agent of Indian nationalism was the Indian National Congress, formed in 1885 by members of the largely English-educated urban elite. The convergence of the demand for independence from British rule among urban intellectuals with popular resistance movements such as the ulgulan (great tumult) of 1899-1900 carried out by the Munda tribe on the Bengal-Bihar border was critical to the ultimate success of the Indian National Congress. The progress of the Indian nationalist movement was slow and fraught with regional and religious differences, the most difficult of which were the divisions between Hindu and Muslim. The leaders of the Indian National Congress also disagreed on how to bring an end to British rule. Congress became divided between extremists, the leader of whom was Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and moderates, led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale. In 1905, Hindu-Muslim differences resulted in a separate Muslim League; in 1906, when Congress split between Tilak and Gokhale, the unity of the nationalist movement seemed ruined. the Government of India Act of 1909. This act introduced indirect election and provided for more Indian representation on councils, but it was still not self-governance, much less independence. The India Councils Act of 1892 enlarged both the size and scope of the ruling councils and allowed increased but non-official Indian membership. Mohandas Ghandi protests.
In what way was the Boxer Movement a rebellion and what was it a rebellion against?
The Boxers reacted to the tangible presence of Western imperialism in the form of missionaries, traders, and diplomats by attacking missions, residences, and foreigners. The Boxer Protocol, signed in 1901, called for China to pay compensation to the Western powers; but, in fact, many of these funds were used to pay for Chinese students sent to study abroad. Representatives of Western governments believed that Western education would help China to become a modern nation and reduce the likelihood of future conflicts with the West. In addition, the collapse of the Manchu government was not in the interests of Western nations, who restrained their demands in order to avoid the complete loss of power by the dynasty.
What was the state of the war when the United States got involved in World War I?
The Germans declared the British Isles a "war zone" in which any Allied merchant ship might be sunk by torpedoes fired from a submarine or U- boat America's entry into the war came shortly after the revolution that broke out in Russia (23 February 1917) put an end to effective Russian participation in the war.
The advent of what helped to get a new phase in iron technology for the European Industrial Revolution (1750-1850 CE)?
The Industrial Revolution also introduced new iron technology; indeed the parameters of the revolution may be set by the introduction of coke as a substitute for charcoal in the smelting process (eighteenth century) and the perfection of a new and successful process for steelmaking (nineteenth century).
According to the authors what were the true horrors of the Holocaust?
The complicity of those who watched the killings in silence or knew about them and did nothing remains the most troubling and unexplained aspect of the century's history.
What demographic changes (or the impact of demographic changes) did the Industrial Revolution bring to European cities?
The eighteenth-century Industrial Revolution was accompanied by rapid demographic growth, and cities in most places expanded accordingly. The populations of many large European cities tripled in the period between about 1600 and 1750. London's population was an estimated 200,000 in 1600 and despite a plague that claimed 100,000 lives in the mid-seventeenth century, reached about 700,000 in 1700 and close to one million at the end of the eighteenth century.
In what ways did race, class and gender transition in Latin America after independence?
Colonial divisions between privileged minorities and masses of peasants and workers continued, and in some cases grew sharper. The new power base was the hacienda, the landed estate, which although not economically productive was retained essentially as a social institution bound to the availability of cheap labor. Slavery was abolished in all Spanish-speaking republics in the 1850s, with the exception of Portuguese Brazil: Brazil did not abolish slavery until 1888, and the African-Brazilian, like the majority of those of mixed ancestry there, remained at the bottom of the economic ladder. Attempts to integrate Native Americans into national economies by dividing their communal lands among individual owners resulted in their being overpowered by white neighbors. Social structures remained virtually unaffected by independence. Kinship ties continued to be a means of consolidating the landholding interests of wealthy families. Women remained largely dependent on their fathers and husbands; marriage was early, and by the age of 15 most girls were also mothers, effectively ending any possibility for schooling. In urban areas, however, public education was increasingly extended to girls as well as boys.
What are the challenges Shaka and the Zulu Kingdom faced in the nineteenth century?
During the famine, larger villages were needed to defend grain storage from the attacks of marauders. The control of cattle over a larger area was also necessary to compensate for the decrease in palatable grasses. One powerful leader known as Shaka (r. ca. 1818-28) exploited the crisis. Some of the changes of Shaka's time were inevitable. Revolutions in military tactics (the use of a new weapon, the short stabbing spear, and a new formation, the cow-horn formation) included the conversion of the traditional age-grade system into a military organization. The system was an association of similar-aged males, who from boyhood to man- hood created regiments in a unitary, nationalized army. Social changes also made the chief more powerful. With marriages delayed and warfare increased, population pressures, induced by the Madlathule, eased. Mfecane, the "time of the crushing." The forces and peoples of the Mfecane transformed the region, and societies that could not resist Shaka's armies became starving, landless refugees. NOT The Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902
Where and what parts of the world were best positioned for an Industrial Revolution and why?
England. They had the basic foundational industries (iron and textiles) that were facing serious challenges. In addition, they had access to sources of innovation, raw materials and labor, and the capital to invest in new enterprises.
What are the characteristics of the Textile Revolution?
Equally significant was the use of the Watt engine for industrial, especially textile, production. Earlier in the eighteenth century, machines were being made that had the potential for trans- forming spinning and weaving from processes that had remained unchanged for centuries.
Could Europe have led the Industrial Revolution without access to global networks (use specific information from the book to make your case, no generalizations)?
It is possible for Europe to lead the industrialization without global networks because they were the ones leading the revolution for the early part of the revolution. The increase in factories, mills, and railways that stemmed from the Industrial Revolution resulted from the use of coal to smelt iron into steel, which allowed for the development of new technology and factories as well as the depletion of European forests. It was only the introduction of foreign workers and global trade that would push development in Europe. In comparison, a country like Japan which experienced very little trade and migration during their 200 year isolation period was able to find success in silk mills and industrialized technology. Theoretically, Europe could find some success in the same manner.
What were the characteristics of global urban growth during the Industrial Revolution?
It was a slow, varied, and disjointed process by which prior social dynamics were merged into developing urban systems; but once underway, the process of accumulating levels of complexity and diversity continued without cessation or reversal. The new forms of technology and production relied on larger and more highly organized forms of labor. Factories provided employment for large numbers of otherwise homeless or poor, including women and children. The evolution of the welfare system in Britain began with the utilization of factory space as temporary poorhouses. New market agriculture was required by the expanding urban centers. The profitability of industrialization increased the accumulation of capital in the centers of production and attracted even larger numbers of people to these frontiers of opportunity. A new urban class culture appeared in the cities. The material benefits of the Industrial Revolution, while concentrated in urban areas, were not evenly distributed to the inhabitants. Cities were also places of widespread poverty and homelessness.
What were the incidents and factors that led to the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia?
The growth of urbanism and heavy industry and a great advance in railroad building (the trans-Siberian railroad was built between 1891 and 1904) signaled modernization, the rapid pace of which made cities like Saint Petersburg and Moscow seedbeds for revolutionary movements seeking radical change. an unsuccessful war with Japan over domination of Manchuria in Northeast China intensified internal unrest and made clear the weakness of autocratic rule under Czar Nicholas II Bloody Sunday and the October Manifesto. March 1917, more than 7,000 women workers went on strike in the city of Saint Petersburg (then called Petrograd) for International Women's Day. The protesters took to the streets, where they were joined by tens of thousands of other workers by the end of the day, all of whom were calling for bread and peace and an end to the czarist government.
How did the nature of government rule and social stratification entrench Latin American nations after independence?
The landholdings in the countryside were increasingly consolidated in the interest of economic profitability, leaving rural people to struggle as displaced workers. In Chile, some small farmers gained autonomy by paying rent to large landowners for the use of a plot of land that they could then cultivate. In Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay, large-scale immigration provided labor, much as it did in North America. Peru became a "Grace steamship republic" in much the same way that Central American states, such as Nicaragua, were controlled by the United Fruit Company and were condescendingly referred to as "banana republics." When slavery was finally abolished in 1888, planters felt betrayed by the Brazilian monarchy; this opposition fueled the impetus for a military coup and the creation of a new republic. Its motto was "Order and Progress," and both were sought in the following generations as Brazil also joined the neo-colonial pattern of Latin American economies.
How does the Panama Canal represent the United States' policy of expansion oversees?
The rapid spread of American influence and empire into the Caribbean and Latin America, across the Pacific, and into the diplomatic councils of Europe was also symbolized by President Theodore Roosevelt's advocacy of a large American navy, one appropriate to the position of the United States in the world.
How did the Industrial Revolution impact workers as a class of people?
These inequalities were not only reflected in the widening gap between industrialized and non-industrialized countries. Inequalities were also visible in the very nature of industrial organization. In this way, the expanding industrialization helped to increase the demand for slaves in other parts of the world. The parents rouse them in the morning and receive them tired and exhausted after the day has closed; they see them droop and sicken, and, in many cases, become cripples and die, before they reach their prime; and they do all this, because they must otherwise starve. Workers became interchangeable, anonymous individuals in urban landscapes, though they continued to participate in communal rituals and festivals that evoked earlier times. Despite the reluctance of some entrepreneurs and the resistance of some workers, by the middle of the nineteenth century, the factory system had become the common mode of production, and capitalist industrialists who owned the factories organized and controlled the economic, cultural, and even religious life of factory communities.
What were technologies were important to the success of the new imperialism?
This was the new wave of imperialism, the "new imperialism," defined as the imperial systems that snaked their way across the globe after about 1750. Industrialized European nations in the nineteenth century, and Japan and the United States in the twentieth, required expanding markets and cheap raw materials. Tools of empire, such as the steamboat, railroad, and telegraph, improved communication and transportation between colonies and imperial centers, and thus facilitated the exploitation of resources in far- flung lands.
According to the authors, what "underpinned" the Industrial Revolution which was not solely located in England?
Underpinning all these innovations was the Atlantic slave trade, which provided labor and markets and produced capital for investment in industry.
Explain how key advances of fuel and power were harnessed for industry.
Used for transportation of resources and running the factories
What would be the characteristics of Fascism in Italy?
Using propaganda and violence, Mussolini's National Fascist Party abandoned parliamentary democracy. Industrialists and landowners who rallied behind the Fascist government and supported Mussolini were eventually joined by the Catholic leadership. As stability was established and the Fascist regime seemed financially trustworthy, Italian and foreign capital was freely invested, and Italian economic life was stimulated. Domestic security enabled Mussolini to embark on an increasingly bold and adventurous foreign policy across the Mediterranean, in the Horn of Africa. Using aerial bombing and poison gas, Italy attacked the nation of Ethiopia, which was ruled over by Haile Selassie I, a descendent of African Christian rulers since the fourth century CE. Mussolini's successful invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 received worldwide condemnation and demonstrated as much as any other action the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations. NOT They addressed other needs affecting working people. Legislation was passed in 1935 to guarantee and protect workers in their right to organize unions and bargain with employers.
What ideas supported the new imperialism?
advances in shipbuilding, transportation, communication, medicine, and science served as "tools of empire" in the age of the new imperialism. Increasing speed and lowering costs of transportation shrank the planet Steamboats, steam trains, Suez Canal, railroads, The steam-powered locomotive was joined by other types, such as the electric locomotive (developed in 1837) and the internal combustion diesel locomotives
How did imperialism and nationalism contribute as a cause for World War I?
economic rivalry in Africa - the Sudan, East Africa, Morocco - fueled tensions that on several occasions nearly led to war between France, Great Britain, and Germany. Economic and political rivalries, military expansion, the maintenance of large standing armies, and naval competition provided the volatile background for war in 1914. The immediate cause for the outbreak of war, however, was nationalism in the Balkans. Serbians wanted to annex fellow Serbs from the Ottoman Empire in order to create an enlarged Serbian state. The nationalistic frustration of the Serbs was focused on Austria, and the event that precipitated hostilities in 1914 was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand Germany honored its pledge to come to the aid of Austria, and Russia rallied to the aid of Serbia, which also involved Russia's French and British allies. Britain's participation in turn involved Japan as an ally. Intense nationalism rampant in nineteenth-century Europe, together with eco- nomic competition stemming from the growth of capitalist industrialism and its extension through imperialism, lay at the heart of the conflict that engulfed Europe and other parts of the world in the early twentieth century.
What was the characteristics of the global economy after World War I and the 1920s? And what were the consequences of the Great Depression?
he aftermath of World War I saw a boom of prosperity from 1924 to 1929 and an increasingly interdependent global economy. This economic system was a complex and interlocking mechanism, with banking, stockholding, and corporate direction increasingly global and inter- dependent. By the mid-1920s, unregulated investment resulted in massive speculation, "playing the market" by buying stocks largely on credit in hopes of quick resale at huge profits. "Borrowed Money" The doubts of investors became fact: declining confidence led to dropping stock values and losses. Those who borrowed from banks were unable to repay loans. Major financial institutions, like the Credit Anstalt of Vienna, were unable to collect their investments and failed. The trend reached catastrophic proportions with the crash of the New York Stock Exchange in October 1929. Thousands of American and foreign banks closed their doors. Capital was no longer available for investment or borrowing; market demand slowed, industrial production declined, and factories closed, leaving millions unemployed and penniless. Between 1929 and 1932, as investments in business dried up, world production was estimated to have dropped by more than one-third, and international trade fell by two-thirds. Shortages were quickly felt in markets around the world, including those in African, Caribbean, and Asian colonies.
What impact did the factory system if the eighteenth century have on social roles and transformations in society?
in the industrialized factory, spinning became men's work, rather than women's work as it was before. The factory replaced the home as the workplace, requiring large numbers of workers to travel daily to the city or move there. Cities became clusters of factory sites - urban crucibles of change.
What is "new imperialism" and what are the factors or characteristics of it?
refers specifically to the expansion of European nations (including Russia) from the early decades of the nineteenth century to the outbreak of World War I (1914), and to both the United States and Japan from the mid-nineteenth century through the end of World War II.
Describe the Afrikaners and the challenges they faced in the nineteenth century?
the Afrikaners - found themselves competing with Africans and European empires for control over territory and resources.
How would the Russia implement a new communist state and society after World War I?
the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) and Leon Trotsky (1879-1940), struck and the provisional government fell. Insofar as possible, the promise made to the women and their families, of bread, land, and peace, was rapidly made good. On 8 November, land was nationalized and given to the peasants; on 29 November, control of factories passed to workers; on 15 December, a truce was signed with the Germans, leading to the Peace of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. Lenin saw the pragmatic necessity to abandon "War Communism," a program for rapidly establishing a communist society in Russia, and reverted to a compromise New Economic Policy, "one step backwards in order to take two steps forward," as he described it. This policy, which allowed peasants to keep land, small private business to continue, and prewar managers to run factories, continued in force until 1929 Rejecting the compromises of the New Economic Policy, Stalin issued the first of a series of five-year plans aimed at rapid industrialization and the restructuring of Russian agriculture.
What were the new technology and forms of modern warfare introduced during World War I?
the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5 had already demonstrated the conditions of modern warfare: huge infantry armies, decisive naval actions, amphibious war- fare, modern propaganda. The Germans constructed a labyrinth of trenches, which were complicated ditches designed to provide cover for troops. The French and their British allies in turn ordered trenches as defense against the possible German advances. Tanks, Planes, Gas and Masks. By the end of the nineteenth century, German efforts to build a navy competitive with that of Great Britain resulted in a race to construct new fleets of heavily armored and heavily armed battleships.
What reforms and ideas introduced and supported by the Tanzimat and through the Young Turks movement?
the Young Turk Party, which spread among the intelligentsia and the army. In 1908, the party engineered a coup d'etat and forced the sultan to restore the constitution. When the Young Turks seized power for themselves in another coup in 1913, the new government leaned toward Germany, which appeared to be a model of modernization and seemed to have no designs on the Ottoman Empire.
What impact did the aircraft carrier and submarine have on World War II?
the introduction of the aircraft carrier, which enabled aircraft, taking off on the high seas, to take part in naval battles, provide cover for troop landings from ships, and engage in long-distance bombing of targets on land. The U-boat campaign against British shipping produced a successful Allied response from Britain and the United States. In the United States, ships were constructed in such numbers and so speedily that a "bridge of ships" was maintained, enabling Britain to keep up the struggle against Germany.
What was the impact of Thomas Newcomen and James Watt?
Invention and Perfection of the steam engine. Eventually, however, their applications would create powerful tools for the expansion of Europe.
How did the Nazi Party transform society and government in Germany from the Weimar Republic?
Invoking emergency clauses of the Weimar constitution, he suspended civil liberties and all forms of opposition, including newspapers and the Communist Party, were suppressed. After 1933, Germany was a totalitarian state dominated by the Nazi Party. Hitler stressed struggle and violence as positive virtues; militarism was glorified, and the secret police (SS) conducted sporadic reigns of terror designed to subdue opposition and purify the German nation. Hitler seized the attention of the masses with propagandistic rhetoric and began to expound a policy of action against those who were not members of the "pure" race. Non-Aryans - Jews, Gypsies, Slavs, those of mixed racial backgrounds - and those whose behavior and, therefore, genetic make-up were considered socially unacceptable - such as homosexuals, the mentally ill, alcoholics, or political resisters - were declared undesirable and subject to scorn and destruction. In the Nuremberg Laws (1935), a Jew was defined as any person with one Jewish grandparent and their German citizen- ship was stripped. By the night of 9 November 1938 (known as "Kristallnacht"), when synagogues were destroyed and books and property of Jews were burned, anti-Semitism had become a permanent part of the ideology and culture of the Third Reich. Abortions among the racially pure Germans were outlawed, and women were pressured to increase the size of their families. Germany in 1871, the Krupp firm became the chief arms supplier for the German state, often keeping ahead of the military in the development of new weapons, such as its cannon "Big Bertha." Following World War I, the Krupp family firm turned from weapons to non-military production, from railroad equipment to stainless steel dentures. During the interwar years, however, the Krupps also secretly manufactured weapons banned by the Treaty of Versailles and developed new ones. Not only did they participate in Hitler's rearmament of Germany in the 1930s, but during World War II, 70,000 forced laborers and concentration camp inmates toiled in Krupp factories on behalf of Hitler's armies. The relationships between military industrialism, armament, and security were ones with which the world, teetering between war and peace in the twentieth century, would continue to wrestle.
In what ways did Americans try to "assimilate" the native population of the United States?
Assimilation meant that traditions and customs such as the shuffling and chanting of the Sun Dance, a cornerstone of Lakota belief, had to be given up.
What accounts for the social impact of factories? What role do gender and race play?
Create new working class, separating typical jobs between men and women
How did both the slave trade and the metallurgy industry in West Africa transform that region?
In general, deforestation as a consequence of traditional iron industries and the violent depopulation of sub-Saharan Africa during the slave trade destroyed the conditions necessary for agricultural growth and indigenous technological innovation. Deforestation was the inevitable consequence of industrial expansion.
What is swaraj?
Self-Rule. The abolition of untouchability to the goal of swaraj, saying "Swaraj is a meaningless term if we desire to keep a fifth of India's population [the untouchable caste] under perpetual subjection."
What are dual revolutions?
The Political and Industrial Revolutions
What factors led to the end of the World War I?
But the failure of German food supplies, the strain on finances, and the withdrawal of Germany's allies from the war signaled its end. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire, a result of Arab rebellion and British intervention, had begun as early as September 1917, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, faced with revolts among its many subject peoples and the failure of its armies, capitulated on 4 November 1918. The Germans surrendered on 10 November and firing along the western front ceased the next day.
What were the different colonial "systems" in Africa?
For example, the textile industry of France depended on the cheap cotton supplied by French West African colonies to remain competitive with technologically more advanced manufacturing in Great Britain and the United States. In some places, such as the Benin kingdom of Nigeria in 1897, Europeans forcibly removed the local rulers (the oba and his chiefs) from power and sent them into exile. The British policies were termed "indirect rule," and they required British district officers to be supported by local chiefs and puppet administrators drawn from local circles. French rule was termed "direct rule" and utilized the French themselves as colonial officials in the field; under French assimilationist policy, Africans who adopted the culture (language, dress, and lifestyle) of French nationals were able to become French citizens.
How did the Chinese, Japanese and Africans (specifically the Bassari people) see metal work as metaphor?
According to a sixteenth-century Chinese thinker, when observing the molten metal in the great blast furnace, one understood the origin of Heaven and Earth The steel of Japanese samurai swords were made in furnaces that were thought to be like human beings. Iron and coal were fed to "her" until the ingot was removed and the occasion was said to be like the birth of a child.
What cultural and economic factors inhibited technological innovations in some parts of Africa and Eurasia?
Africa: The increase of textile mills and their machinery would affect cultural and economic factors in Africa. More people began to wear hand-woven clothes with more industrialized stitching patterns. The increase of African merchants that would trade said goods would introduce European ideas such as circumcision and beads to the African Peoples.
What was the problem of "fuel" in the making of iron and steel?
As a result, the scarcity of wood for charcoal, an essential ingredient of the smelting process, soon jeopardized the English and other European iron industries.
Describe the different stages of the rise of global capitalism-by way of the Industrial Revolution? (Agricultural, Market-Oriented Agriculture, Commercial Capitalism, Industrialization, Industrial Capitalism, Finance Capitalism, Europe's Industrial Revolution)
Agricultural: wealth was both made from the land and invested in its improvement and expansion. These revolutions often interacted in negative ways. Changes in the mode of production from rural agriculture and handicraft industries, embedded in community life and characterized by personal relationships, to the Industrial Revolution's relatively impersonal and urbanized factory system had a dramatic effect on individual and family life. Localized, self- sufficient agriculture was only gradually replaced with market-oriented agriculture, which required capital investment. Commercial capitalism developed in Europe with the late-medieval revival of cities and trade and flourished as a result of global exploration, trade, and colonization beginning in the sixteenth century. Before the sixteenth century, the power of monarchs depended on their relationship with an agrarian-military aristocracy. With the development of commercial capitalism, monarchs could expect the support of their merchant partners in mercantilism. In turn, standing armies made up of professional soldiers could access the resources required by the scale of industrialization. Industrialization furthered the processes of urbanization and cities attracted the forces of globalization. The key strategies of globalization included the centralized control of capital for investment, technology, raw mate- rials, and labor, marked by the increasing ability to move these elements around the globe in order to maximize profits from industry. By the late eighteenth century, the investment of capital in industry, much of it obtained from commerce and agriculture, began the vast expansion that would make industrial capitalism the dominant form of capitalism not only in Europe, but also eventually around the globe. Older forms of capitalism were gradually subsumed in finance capitalism, in which bankers and financiers invested in industry, commerce, and even agriculture. Finance capitalists combined huge corporations and immense concentrations of money in economic activities that were increasingly global and intertwined with the expansion of European nation-states in the Americas, Asia, and Africa.
How did the Allies pursue war in Asia and the Pacific?
Because the long struggle in Europe had exhausted its allies, the burden of the campaign to defeat Japan fell on the United States. It was a campaign of naval warfare, "island hopping" whereby the Japanese had to be driven from one after another of the many Pacific islands they had occupied, and air power. On the Asian mainland the Japanese put up stiff resistance. In support of the land campaigns, the Americans took the war to Japan itself by an air offensive - launched from bases in China, liberated Pacific islands, and aircraft carriers - designed to destroy Japanese industrial centers and morale. Nagasaki and Hiroshima
How does the evolution of the bouillon or stick cube demonstrate the global industrial system?
Beef from the countryside's cattle raised for their hides could be extracted for use in Europe as dehydrated meat at a fraction of the cost. With Belgian capital, Uruguayan cattle, British organization and financing, and German manufacturing science, the plan to commercialize the extract worked and the bouillon cube was born. By the time of the 1870 Franco-Prussian War, both sides were relying on von Liebig's beef extract to restore the health of the troops. The global and interconnected nature of ideas, technologies, capital, and experiences came to epitomize the global industrial system.
Compare China's reaction to Europeans and Japan's reaction to these foreigners.
Before the Opium Wars, China limited the influx of European foreigners -- notably with the Canton system that bottlenecked European trade to the port of Canton. After the Opium Wars, The Treaty of Nanjing allowed the trade and flow between Europeans with several more port cities, eventually allowing full authorization in the future. The opening of Japan in 1853 after a 214 year isolation would lead to hostile attitudes between the homeland Japanese and new foreigners. Specifically, attacks on foreigners by samurai
What are the different responses and different forms of colonialism in Southeast Asia in the nineteenth century?
Before the nineteenth century, the Dutch dominated the islands of the East Indies while indigenous monarchies retained control on the Southeast Asian mainland. Conflicts between the British and Dutch erupted in the wake of the Napoleonic wars in the early nineteenth century, resulting in a division of control between the two European powers in the islands of the East Indies. In 1819, the British Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles founded the free trade port of Singapore at the southern tip of the Malay peninsula, thus breaking the Dutch Southeast Asian maritime trading monopoly through the Straits of Melaka. French interest in Southeast Asia dated from the beginning of the century when volunteers from the French navy helped put down a rebellion against the Vietnamese monarchy. In 1858, the French occupied Saigon, which they intended to use as a port to compete with the British ports of Hong Kong and Singapore. Britain acquired control of Burma (1886) in connection with its colonial domination of India and Ceylon. The British and Thai governments signed a commercial treaty in 1826, Thai territory ended in the French takeover of Thai-controlled Cambodia and a portion of Laos. Southeast Asia provides examples of different forms of imperialism: direct colonization (Britain in Burma, France in Vietnam), establishment of an independent city-state (Raffles in Singapore), or ruling as a native monarch (Brooke in Sarawak). In differing ways and to different degrees, Europeans often collaborated with established local regimes. With its Westernizing reforms, Thailand's response to European imperialism stands out and more closely parallels that of East Asia than the rest of Southeast Asia.
In what ways did the Japanese government move away from a democratic government introduced during the Taisho Era towards war with China in 1937?
Beginning in 1915, with the Twenty-one Demands for economic concessions issued to the Chinese republic, which was too weak to resist, Japan carried out a steadily escalating policy of encroachment on Chinese sovereignty. The loss of autonomy culminated in 1919, with the out- come of the Versailles Peace Conference, which formalized Japan's special rights on the Shandong peninsula, rather than returning the German concessions there to Chinese sovereignty. Japan became a member of the League of Nations in 1924, but in that same year, In 1931, units of the Japanese army in Manchuria, responsible for overseeing Japan's interests in the region following the Russo- Japanese War, utilized a pretext to launch an invasion of Manchuria. The civilian government in Tokyo was helpless to control the situation, and in 1932, the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo was declared. the Japanese delegate walked out of the League of Nations. The Japanese government issued its Amau Statement in the following year, a document that claimed Japan's paramount interests on the Asian continent and its right to protect those interests.
In what ways did United States policies oversees resemble the new imperialism?
Between the end of the Civil War (1865) and the beginning of World War I (1914), Thomas Jefferson's dream of an American republic of small, independent farmers became a distant memory. The Civil War had clarified the nature of the federal union by uniting the continent's diverse communities in basic agreement about their national identity. By the end of the nineteenth century, an economic destiny matched the political one.
In what way did the governments of France, Britain and the United States look to social democracy to address the global financial crisis of the 1930s?
Britain:The government was forced to reduce social welfare programs, such as unemployment insurance, and to reduce the salaries of public employees such as school teachers and police. The government was forced to reduce social welfare programs, such as unemployment insurance, and to reduce the salaries of public employees such as schoolteachers and police. After a century of free trade, tariffs were imposed to protect British goods, an example of the sort of economic nationalism that all countries engaged in during the Great Depression The Blum government also took control of the Bank of France and its credit policy. The Roosevelt administration's program of recovery and reform, called the New Deal, was based on broadening the government's role in solving social and economic problems. Works Progress Administration and the Civilian Conservation Corps. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) A major item of the New Deal was the federal Social Security Act (1935), designed to aid the unemployed, aged, disabled, and dependent, Between 1935 and 1937, the US Congress adopted neutrality legislation designed to insulate the United States from any future involvement in foreign wars.
What other factors gave Europe an advantage in terms of industrialization?
Europe's Industrial Revolution could not have occurred without the materials acquired from overseas. Cotton from Egypt and India, rubber from the Congo, palm oil from Nigeria, and a myriad of other raw materials helped fuel the Industrial Revolution. Sugar, tea, and coffee sustained its workers.
What factors helped to set Europe apart and provided the foundation for the European lead in industrialization beginning in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries?
Europe's Industrial Revolution could not have occurred without the materials acquired from overseas. Cotton from Egypt and India, rubber from the Congo, palm oil from Nigeria, and a myriad of other raw materials helped fuel the Industrial Revolution. Sugar, tea, and coffee sustained its workers. Beginning in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the control over and access to resources and the continuous flow of technological transformations determined the fate of nations and their economies and the well-being of their societies.
How did China transition from a "warlord government" to a civil war?
German possessions in the Shandong peninsula to Japan by the terms of the Versailles Treaty sparked student demonstrations beginning on 4 May 1919, that spread from Beijing University to other urban centers among members of the educated elite and a growing nationalist middle class. This protest became known as the "May Fourth Movement" and marked the first major stage in the evolution of modern Chinese nationalism. The May Fourth Movement took place in the political context of warlord control of China. Following the 1911 Revolution and the establishment of the Republic of China, the fragile republic shattered into zones dominated by warlord generals. Chiang led the Nationalist Army in a two-year campaign (1926- 28) to subdue the warlords and established himself as the leader of a unified Republic of China. However, Chiang had no intention of including Communists in his government and in March 1927, he ordered an attack on the Communists in Shanghai who had organized a general strike in support of the Nationalists. Hundreds of Communists were summarily executed as they tried to flee. This blatant betrayal ended the first United Front between the Nationalists and the Communists, and the Communists went under- ground Between 1927 and 1934, Communist Party policy gradually shifted from the orthodox Marxist and Soviet model of organizing urban workers to the mobilization of the rural peasantry. Communists to undertake strategic retreat that became known as the "Long March." Between October 1934 and October 1935, the Red Army moved out of its base camp on a circuitous route that took it finally to its wartime base in northwestern China, Yan' an, where the Red Army would organize an effective strategy of guerrilla warfare against the Japanese
How was the transportation linked to the Industrial Revolution?
In many ways, the railroad became the quintessential artifact of the industrial age. Its construction spurred industrial growth and increased the demand for iron, steel, and coal. In turn, the exploitation and movement of global resources relied on the ever-expanding network of railways snaking their way across continents. Equally important to industrial growth in Europe and beyond was the development of practical ocean-going steamships, which made all parts of the world readily available as sources of raw materials and markets for finished products of European factories. Equally important to industrial growth in Europe and beyond was the development of practical ocean-going steamships, which made all parts of the world readily available as sources of raw materials and markets for finished products of European factories.
The railroad stands as the symbol of industrialization in the nineteenth century. It embodied technological achievement and the spread of prosperity. Yet, is such story complete or are some key elements of the railroad history absent?
Immigration and globalization of capitalism
How did the war in the Pacific end and what was its long-term impact?
In early August 1945, an air raid by the United States on the Japanese main island dropped an atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima, destroying military targets and killing outright 80,000 civilians. Japanese surrender - and thus the end of World War II - was brought about by the detonation of a second atomic bomb three days later over the city of Nagasaki on the southern island of Kyushu. The use of nuclear weapons ushered in a new age in warfare, altering forever the conduct of war and the negotiation of peace by making the prospect of total annihilation a global reality.
How did Christian missionaries bring imperial changes to the Pacific Island societies?
In the 1820s and 1830s, a steep decline in population caused by disease and male emigration threatened traditional communal patterns of economic organization and precipi- tated a crisis in Hawaiian society. Hawaiian rulers resolved the crisis by carrying out land reforms that enabled Hawaiians to retain their political identity by holding on to territory, but these reforms also severely undermined traditional social and economic organization by reassigning land to individual ownership rather than the traditional looser communal "ownership." missionaries and churches actually provided a focal point for traditional community life that was elsewhere disintegrating under the impact of land reform and other changes. Even after annexation by France in 1880, there were two sectors of Tahitian society: one that mixed with the foreign commercial community and one that remained traditional, isolated, and inde- pendent. Fiji became a British crown colony in 1874, when it was already home to about 2,000 European settlers. However, rather than strengthening and securing the position of resident foreigners, the imposition of colonial rule actually protected the political and economic traditions of Fijians, supporting a gradual development led by Fijians themselves. By 1900, every Pacific island belonged to Britain, France, Germany, or the United States. Even though they lay at a great distance from European metropoles, the relatively small size of Pacific island societies made them vulnerable targets of imperialism.
During the Occupation of foreign countries during World War II, what forms of resistance and collaboration occurred around the world?
In the colonized Dutch East Indies, the Japanese invaders were welcomed as liberators from Western colonial rule. In Norway, most citizens resisted both the Nazis and a handful of Norwegian collaborators set up by the Nazis as a puppet government. the White Rose was the name of a small group of German students, professors, and intellectuals who opposed the war and distributed pamphlets urging the German people to resist the Nazis and the war effort. In the Warsaw ghetto, where thousands of Polish Jews were confined to one quarter of the city and subjected to overcrowding and starvation, an armed rebellion broke out in 1943. The resisters received no outside back-up, and most were ultimately killed by the Nazis. One example of mass resistance by German women did occur in 1943, when about 600 unarmed women marched on a building near Gestapo headquarters in Berlin and demanded the release of prisoners who had been rounded up as a result of the laws restricting marriage between Jews and non-Jews. French patriots led by General Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970) organized resistance to the Germans from abroad. There were also resistance movements in communities in Denmark and the Netherlands. In Yugoslavia, resistance took the form of guerrilla warfare against German and Italian occupation forces conducted by two groups: loyalists to the monarchy and "partisans" supported by the Soviet Union and led by Josip Broz (1892-1980), known as Tito.
According to the authors, what is the relationship between scientist/engineers and artisans with regards to knowledge and ideas in the nineteenth century?
In the nineteenth century, professional scientists and engineers gradually discovered the scientific laws that would explain what artisans already knew.
What were the challenges facing the world between 1900-1945?
In the twentieth century, conflicts among European nation-states reflected in imperialist rivalries in Africa, Asia, and the Americas twice led to global war. The dual economic and political revolutions of industrialization and the nation- state, ongoing since the seventeenth century, created a political environment in Europe in which war was viewed as an instrument of state policy used to maintain the balance of power within a system of rival states and to protect national economic interests.
How did the rise of the caudillos in Latin America represent a way to "redefine" these countries after independence from Spain?
In this manner, independence for the peoples of Latin America became a process of substituting one master, imperial Spain, for another, the caudillos. As they assumed control of Latin American republics, caudillos sometimes exercised power very much as imperial officials had, and the development of Latin American nationalism was shaped by the military forces that controlled politics under the leadership of the caudillos.
What is the Industrial Revolution?
Industrial Revolution, in modern history, the process of change from an agrarian and handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacturing. This process began in Britain in the 18th century and from there spread to other parts of the world.
Why did iron play such a critical role in early industrialization?
Railroads and Mills
What kinds of transformations did the United States experience in the "rise of American Empire?"
Rapidly evolving technology, expanding and more diverse populations, and increasing urbanization were forces transforming the United States into what could be called a billion-dollar country, the most richly productive capitalist nation on Earth. The late-nineteenth-century boom was based on the exploitation of human and natural resources by ever-larger units of production and new technologies that resulted in efficient, rapid, and increased production.
What were the factors and conflict between the British and Boers in South Africa in the nineteenth century?
The Mfecane had left large unpopulated areas vulnerable to European imperialists. This was the eve of the country's mineral revolution: the European discovery of diamonds and gold in 1868 and 1886 dramatically altered the role of land and capital. The sudden influx of people and capital transformed the areas of the Transvaal and Orange Free State, where the mining settlements were attracting a large number of immigrants and investments and creating urban crises. The land on which the gold and diamonds were situated had been easily expropriated from Africans. Attracting labor to the mines while industrializing the operations was a more complicated problem. Eventually, the economy developed a depen- dence on cheap and temporary unskilled labor to work in the mines. Legislative initiatives in the colony and the ravages of the Anglo-Boer conflicts at the end of the century speeded up the process by which Africans and their labor were brought under control. Initially both African and Afrikaner were attracted by the opportunities for employ- ment. The wide disparity between the earnings of skilled and unskilled laborers in the mining sector came to be entrenched along racial lines, as discrimination and color prejudice were used to give white workers advantages. The Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 was basically about who should dominate South Africa: the British, who controlled mining, or the Boers, who controlled politics. After the 1880s, and under the influence of capitalist economic forces, rural and urban whites sought and received privileged status. Parallel to this movement were the expropriation of African land and the incorporation of African labor into the South African process of industrialization.
Why did the Asian and Muslim World not respond to technological innovations and expansion equally to Europe (1500-1700 CE)?
The Ottomans and Mughals often discounted European ideas and failed to maintain consistent access to key sources of metals. Therein lies at least part of the explanation for the relative success of Europeans, whose expansion and developments after 1750, appeared particularly to favor technological innovation at an increasingly dizzying rate of transformation and change. NOT In China, innovations in metallurgy and manufacturing utilized coal and greatly expanded the size and scale of industries.
What factors led to Civil War or the success of the Nationalists (Fascist) in Spain in the 1930s?
The anticlericalism of this government alienated many pious Spaniards as well as clerics, and its land reform policy - dividing up large estates for distribution to impoverished peasants - along with its efforts to curb the army's influence turned both landowners and the military hierarchy against the republic. The Nationalist victory was assured by support from both Italy and Germany. With the fall of Madrid to the Nationalists in 1939, the Spanish Civil War ended, and the republic was replaced with a militaristic totalitarian state controlled by Franco for the next 35 years. NOT With the fall of MadrIn 1939, the republic was replaced with a militaristic totalitarian state controlled by Franco for the next 35 years.
What would be the impact of the Sino-Japanese War?
The Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95 ended in the crushing defeat of China and the recognition of Japan's paramount interests in Korea.
