World History

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Sargon I of Akkad: ruler of city state of Akkad; established the first empire in Mesopotamian civilization ca. 2400 B.C.E.

Sumerians: people who migrated into Mesopotamia ca. 4000 B.C.E.; created the first civilization within region; organized area into city states.

Sunzi and the Shift from Ritual Combat to "Real" War. The development of classical civilizations, with their agricultural surpluses, increased populations, and improved technologies, advanced the business of making war. More people fought and suffered during hostilities. In most contemporary civilizations warfare was little organized and subject to ritual rules. Duels between warrior champions were important. Change came during the late Zhou period, and Sunzi, an advisor to a ruler produced a great classic of military theory, The Art of War. He argued that wars should be fought to increase the power of the state, and should be waged with great efficiency. The result was a transformation in the tactics of warfare. The Greeks of the same era independently developed similar patterns. The Han Dynasty and the Foundations of China's Classical Age. The Han era, a time of great creativity and innovation, emerged from the disorder following the collapse of the Qin. Liu Bang, a peasant village headman leading an army of soldiers, bureaucrats, and peasants, became its first ruler in 202 B.C.E. The Restoration of Imperial Control. After a brief return to the vassalage system, Liu Bang, officially known as Gaozu, relied on the shi to create a more centralized administration. Subsequent rulers continued his policies by weakening the position of landholding aristocrats and granting greater authority to appointed officials. Han Expansion. Han military might enlarged thei empire and strengthened its borders. The Hsiung-nu nomads initially were defeated, but they later returned to raiding China when rulers were weak. Han armies extended Chinese rule to northern Korea and southward into Vietnam. Many of the conquered peoples assimilated to Chinese civilization. The Revenge of the Shi. The Legalists, influential under the Qin, were replaced by Confucians. By the end of the 2nd century B.C.E. the shi were preeminent among ruling classes. Confucianism became the dominant thought system in Chinese civilization for the next 2000 years. Knowledge of Confucius's teachings was required for employment in government service; an imperial university was founded to train future officials. Education, Examinations, and Shi Dominance. Confucian classics were the centerpiece of the educational system. An examination process was established for entering the bureaucracy. Since education was expensive the system effectively excluded almost all peasants and served the shi and landholders. Even though many political positions remained essentially hereditary or appointive, the Han had initiated the concept of a professional civil service where holding office depended more on merit than birth. The Emergence of the Scholar Gentry. Three main social strata gained official recognition

city-state: a form of political organization typical of Mesopotamian civilization; consisted of agricultural hinterlands ruled by an urban based king.

civilization: societies with reliance on sedentary agriculture, ability to produce food surpluses, and existence of nonfarming elites, along with merchant and manufacturing groups.

combinations of ideas, objects, and patterns of behavior that result from human social interaction. Homo sapiens

culture: combinations of ideas, objects, and patterns of behavior that result from human social interaction.

cuneiform: a form of writing developed by the Sumerians using a wedge shaped stylus and clay tablets.

hunting and gathering: means of obtaining subsistence by humans before the mastery of sedentary agriculture; normally typical of band social organization.

matrilineal: family descent and inheritance traced through the female line.

matrilocal: a culture in which young men upon marriage go to live with the bride's family.

means of obtaining subsistence by humans before the mastery of sedentary agriculture; normally typical of band social organization. civilization

nomads: cattle- and sheep-herding societies normally found on the fringes of civilized societies; commonly referred to as "barbarian" by civilized societies.

pastoralism: a nomadic agricultural life-style based on herding domesticated animals; tended to produce independent people capable of challenging sedentary agricultural societies.

independent states

the Orange Free State and Transvaal; - established during the 1850s in the South African interior by Afrikaners. Cecil Rhodes

Defining the New Period. Three things must occur to mark a new period in world history. 1) Some civilizations must collapse and be divided in new ways (changing the map). 2) New contacts must be created between civilization areas. 3) New Parallel themes must develop in major civilizations. The collapse of all three empires meets these requirements. Cultural and political boundaries shift in India and the Mediterranean world. Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam spread widely. The Islamic world replaces India as the most expansive civilization. Again 1) The map changes 2) old ways die 3) New trends emerge Surge in the Great Religions. The major world religions

Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam - rose or expanded as the great empires declined and Hinduism continued to evolve. Political and economic instability, plus the impact of devastating epidemics, prompted individuals to seek new spiritual answers. Causes of Decline. Decline and Fall in Han China. The Han dynasty appeared to recover during the 2nd century C.E., but poor rulers and popular unrest fueled by landlord exploitation culminated in revolution. Daoist leaders, the Yellow Turbans, in 184 C.E. began a period of disorder ending with the fall of the Han in 220. China split into three unstable kingdoms, with the south separating from the north The landowning class was beyond government control. There were no firm dynasties for 350 years. Instability caused a human need for spiritual answers from Buddhism. Brought by Indian merchants and missionaries, Buddhism overcame Daoist attacks to spread throughout China by the 5th century C.E. However, locally, Chinese cultural values, including subordination of women, were incorporated into Buddhism. Under pressure Daoists adopted Buddhist beliefs about immortality through good works. Confucianism lost ground. Political unity returned at the end of the 6th century when the Sui dynasty reunited China. They collapsed in 618, but were replaced by the stable Tang Dynasty. During these troubled years old values still survived and China comparatively retained greater homogeneity than other collapsed civilizations. The End of the Guptas

political unity, rule by an emperor and a professional bureaucracy, and scholar-gentry dominance. Cultural differences persisted between the legacies of Confucius and Laozi, and an elite-mass gap continued because only a very few became literate. Still, the Han presided over the development of one of the most creative civilizations in world history. The basic components of the lasting and influential Chinese civilization had been established. Stearns Lecture Abbreviations-Brown-Chapter 1-page 1 Human Prehistory (ch-1 page 1) - Around 2 million years ago Homo Erectus appears = use of crude tools -Major Human Evolution slowed 140,000 years ago with modern Homo Sapiens and Homo Sapeins Sapians (sharing planet with Erectus and Neanderthal) -Erectus 1st "Out of Africa" migration 1.7 million years ago years ago (Not controversial) -Only Homo Sapians Sapians left by 25,000 years ago. - Controversial. Sapiens Sapiens Wave around 100,000 years ago? Neanderthal Wave? Inbreeding? Both? - Hunter Gatherer Sapiens Sapiens developed language, rituals, and sophisticated tools over 90,000 years Neolithic Revolution -Climate warms toward "end" of last ice age-big game hard to find -Settled Agriculture and Pastoralism in West Asia (Middle East) 12,000 years ago-still hunter/gatherers -Economic (surplus, specialization, trade ) Technological ( writing, irrigation, metalwork and pottery) Political (priest/king bureaucracy and military, city-states) Cultural (complex religions, class system, and population growth) All = "Civilization" (Latin meaning city, "civic") -While many ingredients existed in Catal Huyuk and Jerico (6000-5000 BC) for civilization, it did not occur strictly until the Sumer city states in 3500BC -Diffusion to North Africa (Egypt), India (Indus River) and China (Huang He) Metalworking -This specialization was common in middle east by 3,000BC

Diffuses rapidly -Metal cycle similar to settled cycle = higher crop yields = population growth = cities with surplus = competition = better metal weapons=war -copper age -bronze age 3000BC - iron age 2000-1500 BC -But knowledge not always freely shared River Valleys -First 4 civilizations occurred on rivers (due in large part to helpful flooding-silt and loess) -They were, 1) Tigris/Euphrates 2) Nile 3) Indus 4) Huang He Yellow - these civilizations were in decline or greatly changed by 1000 BC Mesopotamia -(Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, Assyria) on the Tigris/Euphrates -Sumerians started from scratch with no models and Developed 1st writing (Cuneiform), astronomy, math, universal religion, bureaucratic city-states (Ur, Urik, Eridu) -Cuneiform evolved from pictographic (2000 characters) to more phonic (300 characters) on wet clay tablets -Sumerians were polytheistic led by divine priest/king (war chief) with potentially destructive nature gods and a negative world view-This was likely linked to unpredictable devastating floods (opposite of Egypt) Sumerians city-states were highly organized bureaucracies w/ clearly defined borders, state control over religion, taxes, courts and armies, building projects (irrigation and Ziggurats) Hammurabi's Code (Babylonian-1800 BC) is the culmination of Sumerian/Akkadian culture. It specifically defined courts and punishments, property rights, fines and taxes (1st national legal standardization) Egyptian Civilization (ch-1 page 2) -3000BC-Influence (through trade) by Mesopotamia, but with major differences - Tight Central Authority (not City -States) Egypt was politically a single kingdom within its cultural borders - Dynastic succession (many dynasties but cultural continuity) Egypt would exist independently (with short exceptions) for 3000 years (Egypt and China experience 3 millennia of cultural continuity) - Universal polytheistic optimistic world view with divine priest/king (Pharaoh) at head (likely due to very predictable flooding and desert protection from invasion) -mass embalming evidence -Massive building projects (enormous organization of labor-Slave controversy) by 2700BC with Pyramids at Kufu then Giza- hieroglyphic writing and papyrus Harrapan (Indus River) Civilization) - 2500 BC on Indus River in Western India (City-States of Harrapa and Mohenjo-Daro -Trade (possibly ocean trade) with Mesopotamia and likely China and Burma (proto silk road) -Distinct pictographic alphabet (evidence largely destroyed and not deciphered-but found as far as Mesopotamia) - Indus Innovation included

Mesoamerica: Mexico and Central America; along with Peru, site of development of sedentary agriculture in western hemisphere.

Mesopotamia: literally "between the rivers"; the civilizations that arose in the alluvial plain of the Tigris Euphrates river valleys.

Natufian complex: preagricultural culture; located in present -day Israel, Jordan, and Lebanon; practiced collection of wild barley and wheat to supplement game; large settlement sites.

Neanderthals: species of genus homo that disappeared at the end of the Paleolithic.

Neolithic: the New Stone Age between 8000 and 5000 B.C.E.; period in which adaptation of sedentary agriculture occurred; domestication of plants and animals accomplished.

Paleolithic: the Old Stone Age ending in 12,000 B.C.E.; typified by use of evolving stone tools and hunting and gathering for subsistence.

An Era of Accomplishment and Affluence. The Han dynasty established a cyclical pattern of dynastic succession and overthrow enduring until the 20th century. A core of lasting Chinese cultural values emerged

Babylonian Empire: unified all of Mesopotamia ca. 1800 B.C.E.; collapsed due to foreign invasion ca. 1600 B.C.E.

Bronze Age: from 4000 to 3000 B.C.E.; increased use of plow, metalworking; development of wheeled vehicles, writing.

Christianity, copied Roman organization for the church, gave more value to missionary activity, and claimed exclusive truth. Christianity began as a Jewish reform movement, gradually turning to missionary activity. The Christians believed in a single god who loved humanity, that virtuous life should be devoted to his worship, and that Christ's sacrifice permitted attainment of an afterlife. The message, its travels facilitated by Roman unity, satisfied unfilled spiritual needs present in the deteriorating empire. Under Paul, Christianity became a separate religion open to all. Christianity Gains Ground. Despite competition Roman persecution, by the 4th century Christianity had won over about 10% of the Roman empire's population. Constantine converted and allowed Christianity. Rulers intervened in church affairs, particularly in the eastern empire where government remained strong. In the collapsing west bishops created a centralized church organization that lasted when the western empire collapsed. There were many doctrinal controversies. The Council of Nicea (325 CE) demonstrated the importance of unified doctrine to Christianity. It passed the Nicene creed, (god in three persons). Leo I established the papacy (Bishop of Rome) as supreme religious authority. Augustine formulated a theology that incorporated some classical philosophy. Mystics flourished through monasticism. Benedict of Nursia created the Benedictine Rule for monks in 6th century Italy; Basil organized eastern empire monasticism in the 4th century. Christianity appealed to all classes, especially to the poor and women. It spiritual equality. Classical values remained includeding philosophical themes, architectural styles, and the Latin language in the west and Greek in the east. Monastic libraries preserved classical literature. The New Religious Map. The rise and spread of Christianity, Buddhism, and Islam over many centuries incorporated most of the inhabitants of the civilized world. Peoples in different societies left old beliefs and turned to concentration on a single divine force and a hope for an afterlife. The world religions, a new force in world history, provided beliefs that transcended political entities.. Conclusion

Decline in India. Chandraguta II achieves golden age of Gupta Empire in the early 5th century C.E. But, his successors in the decentralized empire couldn't repel Hun invasions. By 500 CE the Huns controlled northwestern India. By 550 CE the Gupta collapsed. Although Harsha Gupta, briefly built a loose state in the north during the early 7th century the end had come. India returned to regional dynasties ruled by princes called Rajput. Buddhism kept dying under Hinduism Devi (mother earth goddess) worship spread widely.The caste system strengthened, extending to southern tip of India. The economy flourished, with new trade links to southern India and Southeast Asia. Islam threatens India's cultural continuity as Muslim invaders entered the northwest and win many converts. By the 8th century Arab traders gained control of Indian Ocean commerce. Ap ch 5-2 The Decline of the Western Roman Empire was far more disruptive to continuity than that of the Han or Gupta. The Causation of Western Roman Decline (12 reasons). The Empire was in decline from the late 2nd century C.E. for multiple reasons. 1) A shrinking population hindered army recruiting. 2) Emperors had less ability. 3) Disputes over succession led to continual army intervention. 4) Tax revenues fell during hard economic times. 5) individuals felt a loss of meaning in life. 6) Sources of slave labor died when the empire stopped expanding after 180 CE.. 7) Efforts to reform labor policies on mines and estates failed leading to economic decline. 8) Environmental deterioration in North Africa diminished grain supplies and tax revenues. 9) Recurring plagues further decimated population and disrupted economic life. 10) Germanic soldiers had to be hired to defend frontiers. 11) Rome's upper classes turned from political service to pleasure-seeking lives. 12) Cultural activity, except for Christianity decayed. The Process of Western Roman Decline. As central authority declined, farmers, seeking protection, clustered around large landlords (Latifundia System). This was political decentralization. It was acute in the west.. Power passed to landlords and the economy became regional. Tax revenues fell, trade declined, and cities shrank. Some emperors slowed the decline. Diocletian (284-305) improved administration and tax collecting, and increased controls on the economy. Constantine (312-337) established a second capital at Constantinople and accepted Christianity. But this just bought time. While the east flourished economically, the western did not. Economic regulation lowered production. Peasants welcomed the changes brought by the Germanic invasions of the 5th century. The last western Roman emperor was removed in 476. Byzantine Empire. The eastern part of the Roman Empire, in a sense, did not fall. Civilization was more deeply entrenched there than in some of the Western European portions of the empire, and there were fewer pressures from invaders. The eastern empire came to be known as the Byzantine Empire. It was a product of late imperial Rome, rather than a balanced result of the whole span of classical Mediterranean civilization. Though its language was Greek, it maintained the authoritarian tone of the late Roman rulers. The empire itself was vibrant, artistically creative, and active in trade. Under the emperor Justinian, the Byzantine Empire made attempts to regain the whole heritage of Rome, but it fell short of this ambition. Results of the Fall of Rome. Rome's collapse ended Mediterranean unity. Three zones emerged, each with distinct civilizations. 1) The eastern part of the empire did not fall for another 1000 years! The successful Byzantine Empire merged Hellenistic and Roman patterns. 2) The 2nd zone, in North Africa and along the Mediterranean's southeastern shores, suffered serious disruption. Temporary regional kingdoms (mostly Vandal) emerged. Although Christianity spread, differing interpretations split its unity. Eventually North Africa fell to Islam. 3) In the 3rd zone, the western and northern portions of the empire, civilization declined. Regional Germanic kingdoms appeared. The only vital, unifying force was Christianity, but it was not able to prevent the decline of civilization. In Depth

Defining Social History. Until recently historians awarded an undue emphasis to political and intellectual history. Social and economic history was given a secondary place. It is now recognized that the lives of ordinary men and women deserve a major place in the study of the past of all societies. The daily activities of the often silent masses are difficult, but not impossible, to reconstruct. To understand the past, and the present, historians must attempt to portray the lives of all segments of society. So-called ordinary people, after all, have made up the bulk of human society. The often-neglected role of women is an obvious example of the past insensitivity to the reality of human existence. The only way to understand how a society functions is to give proper attention to all of its members. 20)Patterns of Greek and Hellenistic Society. The standard features of an agricultural society, a large peasantry and a landowning aristocracy, were basic to Greek and Hellenistic society. Commerce, although often looked down upon, was vital. Patriarchal family values predominated, although there was more ambivalence about women than in classical China. Slavery was of major importance. 21)Economic and Social Structure. Economic and social structure in classical Greece resembled that of other civilizations where warlike invaders had settled down to agriculture. The aristocracy was based on land ownership and military service. Many independent farmers owned land and claimed political and social rights. Increasing commerce and urban growth then complicated social structure. Distinctive factors for the Greeks included an infertile, mountain environment making city-states dependent on trade. War and colonization allowed the frequent seizing of slaves, thus resulting in less attention being given to manufacturing technology. Aristocratic dominance in politics and society persisted. Merchants remained in an ambiguous position; their status was higher than in Confucian China, but lass firm than in India. 22)Rural Life and Agriculture. The majority of the population was rural, not urban. They maintained distinctive beliefs, such as fertility rituals. Even though free farmers played a vital role in early politics, much societal tension resulted from large landholder efforts to force them from their property. The problem was increased by the nature of Greek agriculture. Soil was unsuited for grain, the basic life staple. Farmers turned to crops, olives and grapes, that gave a greater return. They required intensive capital investment and thus favored aristocratic landowners. Mediterranean agriculture became unusually market-oriented, spurring tendencies to import grain supplies and to develop export markets. Large-scale, commercial agriculture became dominant throughout the Hellenistic world. As a result peasants clustered in small towns, not the villages typical elsewhere. 23)Slavery and Production. Slavery, justified by Aristotle, was vital to a society and economy dominated by aristocrats devoted to political and cultural pursuits. Slaves, often acquired in war, served in almost all occupations. Many enjoyed considerable personal and economic independence, but the system clearly demonstrated the limited nature of Greek democracy. 24)Men, Women, and Social Divisions. Greek culture emphasized the husband/father in control of a tightly structured family. Women performed vital economic functions , especially in farming or artisan families, and powerful female personalities often were influential within households. Although women had some legal rights, both law and culture held them inferior. Female infanticide might occur in large families. Marriage was arranged by a father. Divorce was possible for men at will; women needed court procedure. Adultery was without penalty for men; women could be divorced. Women focused their lives on household duties. Upper class men consorted more often with lower-class women and male youths than with wives. In the Hellenistic period conditions for women improved, but they remained a subordinate group.. 25)Conclusion

Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. All art was intended for public utilization

Epic of Gilgamesh: the first literary epic; written down ca. 2000 B.C.E.; included story of the Great Flood.

Hittites: an Indo European people who entered Mesopotamia ca. 1750 B.C.E.; destroyed the Babylonian Empire; swept away ca. 1200 B.C.E.

Homo sapiens: the species of humanity that emerged as most successful at the end of the Paleolithic.

Huanghe or Yellow river basin: site of the development of sedentary agriculture in China.

In the Wake of Decline and Fall. By 600 C.E. the major civilizations had altered in permanent ways. China maintained political cohesion; along with India it preserved much cultural cohesion. The Roman Empire in contrast disintegrated, and successor civilizations did not restore geographical unity or a unified classical culture. Nomadic invaders both toppled empires and spread new ideas and techniques. Missionaries brought Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam into new regions. Ap ch 5-4 Beyond the Classical Civilizations. While the development of the three great civilization centers form the central thread in world history during the classical period, significant changes also occurred in other parts of the world. On the borders of the major civilizations, as in northeastern Africa, Japan, and northern Europe, these changes had some relationship to the classical world, though they were partly autonomous. Elsewhere, most notably in the Americas, new cultures pushed forward entirely independently. In all cases, changes during the classical set the stage for more important links in world history. Kush

Jericho: early walled urban culture based on sedentary agriculture; located in modern Israel-occupied West Bank near Jordan river.

KEY TERMS NEOLITHIC

KEY TERMS NEOLITHIC hunting and gathering

KEY TERMS NORTH AFRICA AND MIDDLE EAST

The Emergence of Autonomous Civilizations. In central America an Indian group called the Olmecs developed and spread an early civilization from about 800 BCE until about 400 BCE. The first American civilization was based on many centuries of advancing agriculture, expanding the early cultivation of corn. This center of early civilization in the Americas developed in total isolation from developments elsewhere in the world. LECTURE NOTES GREECE Ap world - lecture notes- chapter 4 1)Background Classical Greece built on the legacy of earlier regional civilizations in the Middle East, Egypt, Crete, and Mycenae. Indo-European Greek-speaking invaders were assimilated. Internal warfare and new Indo-European invasions destroyed the early civilization, but Greek-speakers spread around the Aegean Sea. By 800 B.C.E. a new classical civilization began to emerge. Greek politics and culture flourished until 400 B.C.E. Then Alexander the Great formed a military empire and introduced the Hellenistic period, a time when Greek culture spread widely in the Middle East, North Africa, and southern Europe. The Greeks demonstrated new political and cultural capacities in philosophy and politics, and in scientific and mathematical advances. The Greek legacy influenced many later societies. 2)The Persian Empire

The development of North Asian Civilization. People migrated to Japan from the Korean peninsula over a 200,000 year period which ended by 200 CE. Japanese civilization was organized into tribes with their own chiefs and god. They were skilled with agriculture, fishing, and ironwork. Northern Europe

The expansion of Egyptian Classical Civilization. The expansion from an established civilization affected parts of sub-Saharan Africa; in this case the interaction had begun well before the rise of Greece and Rome. By the year 1000 BCE, the independent kingdom of Kush was flourishing along the Upper Nile. It possessed a form of writing derived from Egyptian hieroglyphics and mastered the use of iron. Japan

The less developed civilization. Much of Northern Europe was loosely organized into regional kingdoms. There was no written language, except in the few areas exposed to Latin. Agriculture was primitive and combined with hunting. Scandinavians developed their sailing skills, which they later used for trading and pillaging. The Americas

Theme

Unique, uniform brick cities (precise grids), dense urban populations, standardized kiln bricks, massive city walls, Autocratic government (controlled vast labor), Citadels, Public centers, public baths, Huge granaries, Uniform row houses with courtyards, best sewage and water system in the ancient world, sophisticated animal and plant domestication (wide variety of food), Cotton cloth, Bronze tools and weapons, unique pottery, mirrors! -polytheistic with horned nude male as chief deity -Monsoon winds likely aided sea travel and flood the river bank, but not always predictable -Origins of class/caste system -Decline 1700-1600 BC with little trace (Possibly due to a combination of flooding and invasion by Indo-European, Sanskrit speaking, Vedic Aryans) Shang (Huang He Chinese) Culture -Flooding on Huang He (Yellow River) in N.E. China brought water/loess - Mythical XIA-the Shang (origins 2000BC) civilization established as power by 1500 BC -Some trade with India and Mesopotamia but generally isolated (Middle Kingdom concept) Shang Innovation- World view = polytheistic. Concept of Ancestor veneration (as important as gods=Ancestor reunification. Impressive tombs and heavily fortified palaces-Huge peasant armies under different sub-warlords Writing= (Proto-Chinese script on oracle bones, but not universal) Irrigation - Dynastic leadership (Shang Family)- Proto Feudal system using war lords - Shang toppled by sub-warlord Zhou family 1000BC-But cultural continuity Jewish Monotheism - Settled in Levant (Holy land/Judea) by 1200 BC after Exodus from Egypt -Most influential small group in Middle East-Produce new concepts of Ethical Monotheism and Covenant-These concepts lead to a unique culture (to this day) and foundation for other major monotheistic religions (Christianity and Islam)

World History in Transition, 200-700 C.E. CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY ap ch 5-1 Three great classical civilizations. Rome, Han China, and Gupta India All collapsed. All three invaded by central Asiatic nomads when they were weak. The collapse of these three civilizations forms a key break in world history. While classical achievement survived, new social and political forms appeared that altered human history Periodization

agrarian revolution: occurred between 8000 and 5000 B.C.E.; transition from hunting and gathering to sedentary agriculture.

animism: a religious outlook that recognizes gods in many aspects of nature and propitiates them to help control and explain nature; typical of Mesopotamian religions.

band: a level of social organization normally consisting of between 20 and 30 people; nomadic hunters and gatherers; labor divided on a gender basis.

brahmans in India, scholar-gentry in China, land-owning aristocracy in Rome. Social mobility varied greatly. In India there was virtually none; in Rome acquired wealth was recognized; in China the examination system allowed advancement. The lowest classes in India, the untouchables, performed polluting occupations. The Romans had slavery as a major institution. 16. Discuss whether Rome was simply a continuation of Greek civilization or an innovator in the Mediterranean world. Rome served primarily to maintain the cultural accomplishments of the Greeks, especially in science, art, literature, and philosophy. The Roman developed significant innovations in engineering. In politics the Roman republic began in the Greek tradition with a balanced constitution typical of a city-state. The Roman empire was something new in Mediterranean civilization; its most innovative aspect was the formation of a universal legal code. The empire also presided over the development of Christianity, a major world religion. 17. Discuss the importance of the brahmans and the caste system to Indian development. In India, despite the achievements of the Maurya, Kushana, and Gupta empires, a division into many petty states governed by the Aryan warrior elite was most common. The duration of empires was relatively brief. Conversely, Indian social organization, although it became more complex and rigid as time passed, was constant throughout the classical period. The brahmans enjoyed both social dominance and religious authority; they were one of the highest castes and were monopolists of the rituals associated with the Vedas. Except for the Maurya empire under Ashoka, governments accepted the social position of the brahmans and patronized their religious authority. 18. Compare and contrast the political, social, and religious organization of Gupta India and Han China. In political life the Han state was vastly more centralized than the Gupta. The Han governed through the scholar-gentry, an educated and professional bureaucracy certified through national examinations; regional authority was limited. The Gupta depended on the brahmans for political advice and administrative personnel; they never directly controlled the various petty state subdivisions that paid tribute. Both Han and Gupta societies possessed substantial social stratification. In China the scholar-gentry joined land-holding with administrative authority; beneath them were artisans and peasants. Merchants, although wealthy, held low social status. In India the caste system provided social stability; brahmans, warriors, and merchants composed the higher castes; artisans and peasants were next. At the bottom were the untouchables. In religion Han China depended on the political and ethical teachings of Confucius institutionalized through the university and examination system. Gupta India patronized the revitalized Hinduism of the brahmans; their position in society was institutionalized by social tradition and religion rather than by state authority. The End of the Classical Era

cattle- and sheep-herding societies normally found on the fringes of civilized societies; commonly referred to as "barbarian" by civilized societies. "savages"

political and religious elites; specialized production of tools, weapons, pottery; merchants; lack of clearly defined social classes. 5. Discuss the innovations and technological advances that made possible the transition from sedentary to agricultural societies. Begin with conditions at places like Jerico and Çatal Huyuk and then move on to the larger populations typical of civilization. Factors to discuss are the spread of sedentary agriculture through the Middle East, the growth of the concept of private property, the need for new laws and enforcement, the development of more complex government, the building of irrigation systems, the status of women, and the invention of new tools. 6. Compare and contrast the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt. The following factors can be compared to illuminate the differences between the two civilizations

potter's wheel: a technological advance in pottery making; invented ca. 6000 B.C.E.; encouraged faster and higher quality ceramic pottery product.

social stratification (the roles of land-holding nobles, priests, agricultural workers, slaves), emphasis on astronomy and related sciences, conservatism to change, the degree of political centralization, monumental architecture, literary traditions, technological development, status of women. 7. Compare and contrast Harappan and Chinese civilization. 1st consider their agricultural systems, religious practices, and political organization. Both agricultural systems were based on irrigation; the Harappans grew wheat, rye, peas, and rice; the Chinese produced millet and silk. In religion the Harappans emphasized fertility rituals; they had a pantheon of gods, the most significant of which may have been a nude male deity with horns; there might have been ritual bathing. The early Chinese also were concerned with fertility and practiced human sacrifice; divination was practiced on animal bones. In political organization Harappan society was closely supervised from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro; a priestly elite probably ruled. The Chinese were governed through feudalism

societies engaged in either hunting and gathering for subsistence or in migratory cultivation; not as stratified or specialized as civilized and nomadic societies. culture

societies with reliance on sedentary agriculture, ability to produce food surpluses, and existence of nonfarming elites, along with merchant and manufacturing groups. Paleolithic

temples and markets were for daily use; dramas were public rituals for all citizens. 17)The Principles of Greek Culture. Cultural achievement was based on four principles. An emphasis on formal political theory reflected the special political atmosphere of Greece. Art and sculpture glorified human achievement. Drama and philosophy stressed the importance of human striving. The philosophical and scientific tradition emphasized the validity of logical constructs for understanding the natural world. There was, however, a large cultural gap between the elite and the masses. 18)Hellenistic Culture during and after Alexander. The decline of the city-state produced significant changes. Older literary works were preserved and analyzed, but little new drama was produced. Historical writing flourished. In architecture more elaborate decorative motifs emerged; in art and sculpture old styles persisted. Hellenistic intellectuals developed new knowledge in science, and mathematics. Astronomical charts and geographical knowledge improved. Overall, Hellenistic thinkers left a considerable legacy in all fields for later eras. 19)In Depth

the Chinese with Confucius emphasized social and political order and with Laozi stress on unity with nature; the Greeks stressed the rational basis for the political order (Plato and Aristotle) and the natural world. Greek philosophy tended to be more dependent on general theories based on rational explanation of phenomena than the Chinese. 14. Discuss the reasons for political and social fragmentation in classical Greece. Greek geography fostered political separatism. Their form of political organization, received from Mycenean civilization, was the city-state, not the empire. The city-states retained their separate identities until the Hellenistic period and existed in some form thereafter; competition between the city-states often ended in war. In social affairs there was always a gulf between the aristocratic elite and the lower classes. They had separate religious practices; philosophy did not appeal to the lower classes. The economy depended on slavery. In all, there was a greater gulf between social groups in Greece than in many other civilizations. 15. Compare and contrast the political and social organization of Rome, Gupta India, and Han China. In political organization all three developed imperial forms. The Gupta were the least centralized; they basically were a tribute-collecting network of otherwise independent petty states. The Romans also allowed substantial local autonomy in government, but exercised centralization through legal codes applicable to all residents of the empire. The Han, with its professionalized bureaucracy working in the emperor's name, was the most centralized. In social organization all three had rigid social classifications based on principles of social inequality. Each had different elites

the New Stone Age between 8000 and 5000 B.C.E.; period in which adaptation of sedentary agriculture occurred; domestication of plants and animals accomplished. nomads

the Old Stone Age ending in 12,000 B.C.E.; typified by use of evolving stone tools and hunting and gathering for subsistence. Neolithic

Natural Decline and Fall. Historians long have sought the causes of the decline or fall of great civilizations. Moral failure often has been awarded importance for Rome's collapse, but the explanation often is stimulated by anxieties of analysts worrying about the course of their own civilization. More realistically, it appears that civilizations naturally rise and fall as part of an inevitable process influenced by the changes occurring in their societies. And, importantly, the decline or collapse of a civilization does not mean that its contribution disappears. The Development and Spread of World Religions. The decline of the classical civilizations contributed to the growth of the three great world religions. Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam became the only religions spreading far beyond their original regions. Hinduism and Daoism, remained regional religions, but gained new followers. Ap ch 5-3 Christianity and Buddhism Compared. Both stressed otherworldliness, produced monastic movements, and offered afterlife. Chinese Buddhism, called Mahayana, emphasized Buddha as a savior liek Christ. Each religion had holy men - bodhisattvas among Buddhists and bishops among Christians

aiding believers to gain holiness. Key differences

the development of appropriate political philosophies; the contributions of Confucius and his disciples; other philosophies (Daoism, Legalism); the institutionalism of the teachings of Confucius in the examination system; the rise and triumph of the shi; the destruction of regional states and the feudal aristocracy; the creation of a unified political infrastructure. 12. Compare the social organization of China under the Zhou and Han dynasties. Zhou China was based upon the existence of a regional aristocracy that governed as feudal vassals; the aristocracy were often members of the royal family and more closely controlled by the dynasty than under the earlier Shang rulers. Beneath the warriors were the peasantry and artisans. Han China was ruled by the imperial family and the shi who evolved into the scholar-gentry. The peasantry was divided into those with land and those without who served as agricultural laborers; artisans were growing in numbers; merchants were becoming wealthy but remained with low social status. The clear difference between the Zhou and Han was the replacement of the feudal aristocracy by the scholar-gentry and the growing importance of artisans and merchants. 13. Discuss the differences in political organization between Greece and China. Greece was less politically united and hierarchic; it lacked imperial unity except briefly under Alexander; it did not have a formal bureaucracy. Both China and Greece developed formal theories of government. In social structure both held merchants and women in low social esteem, although women were marginally better off in Greek culture. The Greeks did not have a scholar-gentry class and they depended more on slavery than the Chinese. In philosophy both developed major systems

the shi, ordinary free subjects, and an underclass (the "mean people"). Each had many occupational and status divisions. Local landlord families increasingly were linked to shi by marriage to create a new class, the scholar-gentry. It controlled both land and office-holding and had a base in towns and rural regions. Scholar-gentry families lived in large, comfortable, extended family compounds. Some families played major roles in society for millennia. Class and Gender Roles in Han Society. Women, especially from higher social classes had more freedom in Han times than under later dynasties. Marriages were arranged as alliances between important families. A bride entered her husband's household, but powerful relatives ensured good treatment. Widows were permitted to remarry. Upperclass women often were educated. Extended family living was not common among the peasantry; women worked in households and in town markets. At all levels, however, women were subordinate to men. Their most vital social function was to produce male children. Elder males dominated households and males received the greater share of family property. Political positions were reserved for males. Peasant Life. Few peasants produced more than what was required for subsistence and taxes. With a large enough holding they might sell any surplus and live well. Poorer peasants with little or no land labored for landlords in conditions of poverty. Technological development eased labor burdens through inventions, as the shoulder horse collar and wheelbarrow; other improvements included iron tools, irrigation networks, and cropping patterns. Peasants remained liable to conscription for public works or military service. Population pressure was relieved by movement into uncultivated hill and forest regions, or to newly conquered lands in the south. Some peasants turned to banditry. or became beggars. Many, for economic and physical protection, formed secret societies which might, in stressful times, provide a basis for rebellion. The Han Capital at Xian. The urban growth of the Zhou era continued under the Han. Xian, the model for later imperial cities, was laid out on a grid pattern, with roadways defining its major quarters. Walls with towers and gates encircled the city. About 100,000 people lived within the walls, with an equal or larger number residing nearby. The imperial family lived in a "forbidden city" separate from the rest of the inhabitants. The complex was surrounded by administrative buildings and residences of the scholar-gentry and aristocrats. Towns and Traders. China then probably had the world's most urbanized civilization. There were many towns with populations over 10,000. Most were walled, and many were administrative centers. Others were centers for mining, industry, or commerce. Trade expanded under the Han by land and sea routes into central Asia, south China, southeast Asia, and India. Large firms controlled and grew wealthy from the trade. They also profited from lending and investing in mining and other activities. Despite their wealth, merchants were barred, because of scholar-gentry influence, from gaining political power or social status. A Genius for Invention and Artisan Production. The Han significantly advanced the Chinese aptitude for invention, becoming the most technologically innovative of all classical civilizations. Innovations included the introduction of the brush pen and paper, watermills powering mills and workshops, rudders, and compasses. Improved techniques appeared in mining, silk making, and ceramics. The advances led to the growth of a mostly urban artisan and manufacturing class. Artisans, although relegated by the scholar-gentry to a social status inferior to peasants, surpassed them in living standards. The Arts and Sciences of the Han Era. Art was largely decorative and geometric. Calligraphy was a highly praised form. Painting was less developed than under later dynasties, but bronzes and ceramics established a lasting standard. Work in the sciences focused on practical applications. Astronomers developed a 365.5 day calendar and calculated planetary movement. Medical advances came in disease diagnosis, herbal and drug remedies, and acupuncture. In mathematics the practical focus led to discoveries in acoustics and measurement standards. Imperial Crisis and Han Restoration. The successors of Han Wudi were not efficient rulers, losing control of affairs to the families of emperor's wives. The Wang family seized power in 9 C.E. Emperor Wang Mang's reform efforts alienated the scholar-gentry and peasants. In 23 C.E. he was overthrown and the Han dynasty was restored. The Later Han and Imperial Collapse. The restored dynasty did not reach the peak attained by earlier rulers. Political decline was continuous. Central authority crumbled as court factions, the scholar-gentry, emperor's wives, eunuchs, and regional lords dueled for power. The dynasty ended in 200 C.E. Conclusion

the species of humanity that emerged as most successful at the end of the Paleolithic. Neanderthals

uncivilized peoples were those organized differently. During the 17th and 18th centuries Europeans classified peoples according to their definition of stages in human development and in the 19th century Europeans and Americans divided societies according to supposed racially derived attributes. 2. Discuss the patterns of life in paleolithic society. People in paleolithic society lived in small groups, and relied upon hunting and gathering for survival. Their life-style meant a very limited material culture. They had discovered fire and made wood, bone, and stone tools. They lived in open ground and not in caves. In gender roles there was a social deference of males to females. They developed forms of artistic expression. 3. Discuss the first sedentary agricultural communities. Describe how the first communities domesticated plants and animals. Focus on the first efforts in central Russia and the Natufian complex, and then on the later developments at Jerico and Çatal Huyuk. Explain their legacy for the future. 4. The neolithic agrarian revolution. What was the revolution about? Explain how the transformation made possible a better life for humans through developments in tools, seed selection, planting, fertilization, irrigation, housing, fortifications, and fiber plants. Also discuss the resulting changes in social organization

ziggurats: massive towers usually associated with Mesopotamian temple connections.

Çatal Huyuk: early urban culture based on sedentary agriculture; located in modern southern Turkey; larger in population than Jerico, had greater degree of social stratification.

"savages": societies engaged in either hunting and gathering for subsistence or in migratory cultivation; not as stratified or specialized as civilized and nomadic societies.

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potter's wheel: a technological advance in pottery making; invented ca. 6000 B.C.E.; encouraged faster and higher quality ceramic pottery product.

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colonies

as South Africa, New Zealand, Algeria, Kenya, and Hawaii - where minority European populations lived among majority indigenous peoples. white racial supremacy

a type of settlement colony

as in North America and Australia - where European settlers made up the majority of the population. settler colonies

Hindu religious groups who stressed the importance of strong emotional bonds between devotees and the gods or goddesses

especially Shiva, Vishnu, and Kali . Mir Bai

The Legacy of the Classical Age in India. The civilization built by Aryan invaders proved more adaptable and long-lasting than that of Harappa. Unlike China, Indian strength was not in political and military innovation. The bulwarks of civilization were the caste system and Hindu religion; the resulting social order was able to absorb succeeding invaders.. Major contributions came in art, philosophy, science, technology, mathematics, urban development, commercial organization, and the ability to support one of the world's largest populations. CHAPTER 2 LECTURE NOTES-CHINA Shang Culture. Shang elites were preoccupied with rituals, oracles, and sacrifices. They joined the ruler in propitiating spirits to provide crops and offspring. Artistic expression peaked in bronze vessels used for offerings of grain, incense, wine, and animals. Human sacrifice occurred during ritual warfare and when war captives and servants were buried with the king and important officials. Shamans performed oracular functions for harvests, wars, journeys, and marriages. Readings were taken from animal bones and tortoise shells. They were drilled and seared, and the resulting cracks were interpreted. Patterns inscribed on the bones and shells formed the basis for a written language that provided the diverse peoples of the loess zone with a common culture. The initially pictographic characters evolved to convey complex ideas. By the end of the Shang period there were 3000 characters. The bones and bronze vessels on which the characters were first carved gave way to bamboo, silk, and wooden surfaces. In the 1st century C.E. they were replaced by the Chinese invention of paper. Writing and Chinese Identity. Writing became fundamental to Chinese identity and the growth of civilization. The written language made communication possible between the elite of the many different groups of the region and provided a foundation for the basic elements of the developing Chinese civilization. The Decline of the Shang and the Era of Zhou Dominance. The Zhou, a Turkic-speaking nomadic people from central Asia, became vassals of the Shang. By the end of the 12th century B.C.E. they seized power and established a dynasty enduring until the 3rd millennium B.C.E. The first ruler, Wu, greatly expanded the state's borders to the east and south. The new rulers had a more centralized government than the Shang. Their most powerful vassals were relatives or loyal allies who controlled other relatives under them in the hierarchy. A distinct class of scholar-administrators, the shi

men of service - took form. Vassal states were annexed and the Zhou rulers claimed ownership of all land. Vassals received land for their support; suspect people had to migrate to areas dominated by loyal subordinates. Zhou Feudalism. Formal oaths of allegiance and regularized fief-granting procedures transformed the Shang vassal system into a more genuine feudal order. Zhou rulers granted fiefs in return for loyalty and military service. The system worked under strong rulers, but weakness at the royal center facilitated rebellion. Changes in the Social Order. The continuance of the feudal system was undermined by two developments. The 1st was the elaboration of the concept of the Mandate of Heaven. King Wu, when the Shang were conquered, claimed that they had lost the Mandate of Heaven to him. The appeal to a supernatural source of authority enhanced the capacity of rulers to become absolutist, authoritarian, kings. But, if rulers failed to govern effectively, they might lose the mandate, making it legitimate for subjects to rebel and replace the dynasty. The 2nd development weakening feudalism was the emergence of a professional bureaucracy that provided an alternative to the use of military vassals. They were educated men, known as shi, who kept records, ran departments, and organized rituals. They were supported by land grants or regular salaries. By the middle of the 8th century B.C.E. some of the shi gained considerable influence with rulers and powerful vassals. They were the forerunners of China's later important scholarly governing class. New Patterns of Life. During the early dynasty the Zhou conquerors lived separately from the subjugated indigenous people. The rulers' palace in the twin capitals of Xian and Loyang was the locale for annual critical sacrifices for fertility. Zhou vassals lived away from the capitals in walled garrison towns laid out on a grid pattern. Servants, artisans, and slaves lived in or near the garrisons. The great majority of the population, peasants, producing millet, wheat, and rice, lived and worked in villages. Iron farm implements and extended irrigation systems increased productivity, but most of the surplus went to the ruling elite. The peasants' many obligations also included forced labor on roads and irrigation projects, and military service. Peasants living away from their lord's direct influence escaped many such burdens and were in effect free cultivators. Migrations and the Expansion of the Chinese Core. Improved agricultural technology stimulated population growth in Zhou lands and caused extension of cultivation to the south and east. Migrants moved down the Huanghe valley and beyond, eventually into the Huai and Yangtze river basins, and replaced non-Chinese inhabitants who were hunters and gatherers and shifting cultivators. By the close of the Zhou era the region that became the heart of Chinese civilization was permanently occupied. Cultural Change in the Early Zhou Period. The Zhou strengthened male dominance within Chinese society. Males probably secured increased authority by their control of the ceremonies of ancestor veneration which became the central foci of religious observance. Human sacrifice ended and philosophical speculation remained a distant 2nd to elaborate rites and ceremonies designed to win divine blessing. Emphasis on correct ritual performance led to concern among the elite for refined manners and proper decorum. The End of the Early or Western Zhou. The Zhou were in decline by the 8th century B.C.E. Vassals defeated and killed the ruler in 771 B.C.E. The state broke apart, and Xian was abandoned. A less powerful Zhou dynasty for another five centuries ruled from Loyang over a continually shrinking domain. Several competing kingdoms emerged during the long period of chaos and societal suffering. The chaos and suffering prompted a reaction among the shi that altered the course of Chinese civilization. In Depth

A Complex Legacy. The durability of classical Greek and Hellenistic culture came from the power of its cultural forms, settled peasant routine, and technological continuity. The Greeks, unlike the Chinese, did not develop enduring political forms. Their legacy was in the realm of ideas and examples, in the ideals of citizenship and the heritage of slavery. Art and philosophy made the most lasting contributions, particularly in intellectual circles. Ordinary people were less influenced.. Greece's legacy became a fundamental part of the Middle Eastern and Western heritage. ROME 26)Background When the Greek and Hellenistic worlds declined many their political, cultural, and economic traditions were carried on by the Romans in their own distinct society. Rome grew from a minor city-state to become the dominant factor in Mediterranean civilization. Its civilization included much of the Greek and Hellenistic sphere in the eastern Mediterranean and extended beyond it into Europe and North Africa. The Roman empire surpassed the political and commercial organization of the Greeks in durability and organization.. 27)Rome as Heir to Classical Mediterranean Civilization. Roman and Greek societies had many shared elements, but each emphasized different factors. The Romans preserved, and modified, many features of Greek society while developing their own focus. They gave engineering and law more emphasis than philosophy and science. Through mixing old and new factors Rome created a new version of classical Mediterranean civilization. The greater Roman geographical extent spread that civilization to new regions in Europe and North Africa and served as a breeding ground for the development of Christianity. 28)The Development of Rome's Republic. Rome established firm political institutions balancing aristocratic and popular interests. Rome also quickly began expanding in Italy and beyond. The tensions between expansion and established political values were a key theme by the 2nd century B.C.E. 29)Etruscan Beginnings and the Early Republic. Rome's people were Indo-European migrants who assimilated agriculture and interacted with indigenous peoples and Greek colonists. They were ruled for a time by Etruscans, securing independence around 510 B.C.E. The Romans created a republic to avoid tyrannical control. They adapted the Greek alphabet to form their Latin version. The early constitution allowed aristocrats to control the most important offices. Lower-class citizens had political and economic rights; they elected tribunes to voice their interests. The Senate was the center of political life, with two annually-elected consuls as chief executives. The system balanced the various interests of society, but gave aristocrats most weight. The early economy resembled that of Greece. Aristocrats controlled large estates, while smaller holdings belonged to free, citizen, farmers. Social strife was minimized by written laws, popular participation in government, and patron-client relationships. Rome, without important city-state rivals, and with fewer societal tensions, went on a different military and diplomatic path than the Greeks. 30)The Expansion of Rome. Rome developed a disciplined army based upon the service of citizen-farmers. Lacking the protection of natural boundaries, the Romans had to defend themselves against neighboring rivals. By the mid-4th century B.C.E. Rome, through alliances and warfare, had won control of central and southern Italy. The success of the aggressive Roman polity was based upon their disciplined legions (infantry units) and the wealth of its prosperous agricultural economy. The granting of citizenship to subjugated elites and the continuation of local governing institutions built loyalty to the developing state. Rivalry in the western Mediterranean with Carthage led to hostilities, the Punic wars, ending in Roman victory in 146 B.C.E. Rome also expanded into the eastern Mediterranean as Hellenistic kingdoms collapsed. 31)The Results of Expansion. The often brutal course of imperial expansion changed Roman society and politics. The wealth gained widened gaps between the rich and poor and weakened the traditional constitutional balance between classes. Aristocrats bought out smaller farmers, and client relationships deteriorated. Large estates producing commercial crops pushed displaced farmers into Rome, swelling the numbers of its impoverished citizens. Slavery greatly increased because of the conquests. 32)The Crisis of the Republic. The increasing social tensions caused class conflict on a much larger scale than in Greek society. The republic declined as ambitious individuals battled for power. The tribune Tiberius Gracchus attempted to redistribute land, but he was assassinated by conservatives. Gaius, his brother, tried to introduce land reforms and extend citizenship; the Senate ordered his suicide. Then generals intervened in politics. Marius coerced the Senate with his army, composed of permanent paid volunteers instead of citizen conscripts. Sulla sided with the Senate, which he packed with his followers, and drove out Marius. Later Pompey gained power through military success. The succession of generals ended with Caesar taking over the government in 49 B.C.E. He maintained republican forms but dominated through military power. Caesar was assassinated in 44 B.C.E. In the following civil war, Octavian, later called Augustus, emerged as victor in 31 B.C.E. and became the first Roman emperor. 33)Roman Culture. During the years of political crisis a major cultural transformation merged Roman ways with the Greek and Hellenistic heritage. Intellectual life did not match the vibrancy of Athens, but Romans developed their own strengths while carrying forward the Greek heritage. 34)The Range of Roman Art. The Roman cultural foundation was based on Greece. Writers and artists followed Greek models. Romans advanced rhetorical arts,, and gave much attention to ethical philosophy. In architecture engineering advances permitting increases in size were adapted to Greek forms. Roman arches were unsurpassed. Urban planning efforts were made to regulate building safety and living conditions in Rome and other cities. A chief Roman contribution was the dissemination of their culture to the empire's regions in the Middle East, North Africa ,and Europe. 35)Major Themes in Roman Literature. The late republic early empire witnessed a literary revival. Horace adapted Greek poetic meters into Latin, while Ovid stressed aristocratic sensuality in the arts of love. Livy composed histories linking the empire to its republican past, while Vergil wrote of the glories of Augustus and his empire. Later intellectual life did not match this attainment. 36)The Institutions of Empire. With the winning of a large empire the importance of military administration and effective laws increased. Rome did not, as China, develop an elaborate bureaucracy or integrating political culture. 37)Imperial Rule of Law. Rome's rule rested on tolerance and cohesion through law. Considerable autonomy was granted to local authorities, thus not requiring the development of an elaborate bureaucracy. Military garrisons kept order where necessary. Rome's greatest contribution to governing was the development of legal codes. Jurists constructed an extensive legal system based upon general principles

natural law - and case precedents. The laws focused upon protection of private property and family stability. They evolved to meet changing conditions, providing firm rules to govern social relationships. Roman willingness to extend citizenship increased access to the law and loyalty to the empire. 38)Augustus and His Successors. Augustus maintained republican forms while securing domination of the government. He consolidated his regime by instituting moral reforms, banning mystery religions in favor of traditional ceremonies, and strengthening family legislation. A building program created new jobs. Augustus reformed provincial control and rewarded the military for loyal service. The basic forms established endured for two centuries. The army was the source of power, a factor causing trouble when unclear succession mechanisms for selecting new emperors brought instability, or when incompetent emperors ruled. 39)Government and Expansion. Efficient administrative and taxation structures allowed the extensive empire's long existence. Commerce was regulated to secure vital grain supplies. Public works facilitated both commercial and military needs, and provided amenities - baths, stadiums - for large urban populations. The government supported official religious ceremonies, but did not impose beliefs on its subjects. Worship of local gods was tolerated unless believers - as Jews and Christians - refused primary loyalty to the state. Expansion continued during the early empire. Trajan (101-106 C.E.) brought the empire to its greatest extent, bringing the influences of Mediterranean civilization to much of western Europe and deeper into the Middle East. The process placed heavy burdens on the economy. By 180 C.E. the empire was in gradual decline. 40)The Evolution of Rome's Economic and Social Structure. Rome's basic social structure was based on an agricultural economy composed of an aristocracy and free farmers. A merchant class, both native and foreign, expanded during the late republic. Its societal prestige never matched that of aristocrats, but was higher than among the Greeks. Roman cities had large artisan and property-less classes. Family structure resembled the firm patriarchal pattern of classical Greece. Women were less oppressed than in Greece or China. They freely appeared in public and a few received education. Inequality between the sexes increased during the latter empire. 41)Slavery in Rome. The spread of slavery contributed to the decline of free farmers and to Roman militarism. Displaced farmers sought economic advancement through military careers. Military expansion secured new additions to a slave population that did not reproduce itself. Slavery caused many societal tensions and occasional slave revolts. Slaves were used in all occupations; many were better off economically than poor free individuals. Some were able to buy or secure freedom. Slavery had important consequences for Roman development. From the 2nd century B.C.E. commercialized agriculture and mining industries increasingly utilized slave labor. As in Greece, the dominance of slavery led to stagnant technology in manufacturing and agriculture. 42)Rome's Economic Structure. The empire had a varied economic and social structure. In conquered regions Rome established cities inhabited with soldiers and colonists who often married local women.. Estate agriculture spread slowly and incompletely to northern Europe,. There were great cultural gaps between Romans and the indigenous population. In North Africa and Egypt large estates predominated and peasants often were exploited ruthlessly. The agricultural exploitation resulted in lasting harm to the environment. In Greece and western Asia pre-Roman traditions were maintained. 43)In Depth

decentralized under the Shang, centralized under the Zhou. 8. Discuss the responses of Harappan and Chinese civilizations to contacts with outsiders and external migration. Harappan civilization was conservative, but it did have commercial contacts with foreigners; it was unable to withstand the migration of the Aryans. The Chinese were able to handle migration by absorbing invaders. The Zhou might replace the Shang, but the fundamental nature of Chinese civilization remained. 9. Discuss the types of human ecological adaptation. How do the two types

niche ecological adaptation and holding ecological adaptation - determine the course of human evolution toward civilization? The niche type results in minimal transformation of the natural environment and usually was followed by hunting and gathering societies living in prairies or rainforests. There is an intermediary type combining shifting cultivation and pastoral nomadism; in the former slash-and-burn cultivation tactics are followed; in the latter herds are raised on savanna and grasslands. The holding pattern is used by sedentary agricultural communities and is associated with civilization; it requires a drastic transformation of the natural environment. Civilizations incorporate about 90% of population, but pastoral nomads occupy the majority of habitable regions, most of them not suitable for sedentary agriculture. 10. Compare the advantages and disadvantages possessed by nomadic societies and civilizations. Discuss the disadvantages nomadic societies faced when confronting civilizations. They had lesser populations and their basic social organization, punctuated by bloodfeuds, made it difficult for interclan or intertribal cooperation. They lacked occupational specialization and were technologically primitive; there were no trained bureaucrats to administer their affairs. The disadvantages of nomadic societies were balanced by some advantages. They had greater mobility if they used horses or camels. Their way of life provided the opportunity for greater military training and the development of successful weapons and tactics. Service as mercenaries and frontier guards for civilized powers gave them access to their regions and their knowledge; the nomads often controlled international trade routes. 11. Discuss political centralization under the Qin and Han dynasties. Discuss the factors associated with the creation of political unity in classical China. They include

The Classical Mediterranean in Comparative Perspective. The three great classical civilizations had both striking differences and similarities. Each developed empires, and relied on an agricultural economy. Greece, Rome, and China emphasized secular over religious culture. Greco-Roman political values and institutions were unlike the Confucian emphasis on deference and bureaucratic training. The Greek emphasis on theoretical constructs in science contrasted with the Indian and Chinese approach. Each civilization had a definite social hierarchy and the groups at the top subordinated those beneath them to assure their economic supremacy. Greece and Rome depended upon slave labor. The groups at the top varied in the three civilizations

priests in India, bureaucrats in China, cultivated aristocrats in Greece and Rome. There was limited opportunity for social mobility. India's caste system kept people in their original social and occupational position. In China only a very few individuals from non-landed aristocratic families managed to gain the education to enter the bureaucracy. Greek and Roman society allowed some opportunity for those gaining wealth to rise in status. The concept of political power for Greek and Roman citizens was unusual. Each civilization held its social hierarchy together in a different manner. Greece and Rome relied on local authorities to work for common goals; they also relied on military force and clear legal regulations. China and India used force and legal rules, but had other structures. Hinduism promised reincarnation as a reward for submission. Confucianism urged cultural values of obedience and self-restraint to legitimize social ranks. All civilizations had bouts of social unrest, but basic patterns remained firm. 44)The Origins of Christianity. The early history of Christianity is an integral part of the Roman experience. The Jews, ruled by Rome , believed in the coming of a messiah. The early stages of what became Christianity focused on reforming aspects of Jewish practices and had little to do with Roman culture. 45)Life and Death of Jesus. Jesus, a Jewish prophet and teacher, was regarded as the son of god by his disciples. He urged purification of Jewish religion and taught a moral code based upon love, charity, an humility. Jesus won many followers among the poor, but roused suspicion among the leaders of the Jewish community. They helped to convince the Roman authorities that he was a danger to the state. Jesus was crucified in 30 C.E. His followers believed he rose from the dead three days later. The religion based on his thought initially spread among Jews, but hostility and persecution from unconvinced Jews caused disciples to leave Israel for other locations in western Asia. 46)Christianity Gains Converts and Religious Structure. By the 4th century C.E. Christians comprised about 10% of the population of the Roman Empire. Christianity appealed to the poor because of the social grievances suffered by farmers, city dwellers, and slaves. The new religion answered spiritual needs unfilled by Rome's state religion. Christianity also benefited from the political stability and communications systems of the empire. The early Christians modeled their church organization after Roman forms, with bishops as local leaders. Under Paul's leadership the religion moved away from Jewish law to become open to all. He used the Greek language and explained Christianity in terms understandable to Greco-Roman culture. He emphasized female subordination to men and the dangers of sexuality. 47)Relations with the Roman Empire. By the 4th century C.E. Christian writings were the most creative cultural expressions within the empire. Theologians related Christian thought to Greek philosophy and Roman ethics, redirecting Roman culture into new paths and preserving earlier intellectual achievements. Christians clashed with Roman authorities when they refused to honor the emperor as a divinity. Some emperors persecuted Christians as scapegoats for political problems, but the persecution was not constant. Roman influence in time reshaped Christianity to accept the state as a legitimate, but separate, sphere of authority. Conclusion 48)Decline. The empire was in decline before Christianity became important. The government lacked the resources necessary for continuing expansion. Economic disruptions reduced prosperity and tax revenues. Slavery declined and economic and political units focused on their own regions, not the larger empire. Epidemics seriously reduced population size. The Mediterranean Heritage. Classical Mediterranean civilization left an important legacy that survived the collapse of the Roman empire. Greek and Roman science, philosophy, political theory, and definitions of citizenship are part of today's Western civilization. Their attitudes to the role of women had a less beneficent influence. Greco-Roman religion did not survive. AP World-Brown-Ch 3 lecture notes Religious Rivalries and India 's Golden Age Main Ideas The basis for Indian civilization after 1500 B.C.E. was laid by Vedic Aryan invaders who ended Harappan civilization. By 500 B.C.E. regional "divine" Aryan kings controlled much of the Ganges plains. They cleared forests which contributed to broad climatic changes. Rigid social castes systems developed, with brahmans dominant because of their literary and religious functions. However, ascetic holy men now offered new religious ideas. Buddha began a religion that challenged and revitalized Vedic tradition creating Hinduism that survived the Buddhist challenge. This religious unfolding accompanied the rise of India's 1st empire. The Mauryan Empire spread Buddhist teachings through Asia (IMPACT) before falling to nomadic invasions. A later dynasty, the Gupta Empire, restored unity, reasserted brahmanic caste dominance Hinduism, during an age of splendid artistic and intellectual achievement. The Age of Brahman Dominance. Brahmans founded small regional states based on agriculture and livestock breeding along the Ganges; they were ruled by warrior councils. Constant regional warfare kept brahman power localized and religious skepticism flourished. A religious caste system (jatis), emerged. Brahmans and warriors were at the top of the system, but by 500 B.C.E. major Buddhist challenge emerged. A new religion coalesced around the teachings of the Buddha. The Kingdoms of the Ganges Plains. By 1000 B.C.E. Aryans moved into the Ganges plains. Many rival kingdoms, dominated by warrior elites competed for power. The rulers were expected to protect their subjects and to follow the advice of brahmans. Constant small wars made such conduct unlikely. Sources of Brahman Power. Brahmans, the only literate group, dominated bureaucracy and administration (similar to scholar gentry in China). They granted rulers divine status. Brahmans mediated between gods and humans. Brahmans alone knew the Vedic texts. All brahmans were exempt from taxes and protected from injury. An Era of Widespread Social Change. Towns grow around royal capitals or riverbank trading and manufacturing centers. Merchants and artisans became distinctive social groups. Farming replaces herding and peasants became a large percentage of the population. Efficient, well irrigated peasant villages spread through the rain forest. Farmers resisted paying tribute to monarchs. The Caste System. Social divisions among Indians consisted of broad categories (varnas) arranged in a hierarchical system based upon whether your occupation "polluted" you. At the top of the order were the brahman, warrior, and merchant castes. Most of the people were members of peasant and artisan castes. Below them were the untouchables who performed defiling tasks. Caste boundaries hardened. Status determined diet and spouse. Only the three highest varnas could read the Vedas. ------ Enforcing Social Divisions. Caste position, determined by birth, was permanent. Non-acceptance = being ostracized or killed Since the system was believed to be of divine origin, all individuals had to accept their place (dharma). Transmigration of souls explained individual status. Souls existed through many lives and earned merits or demerits during one existence that determined status in a new life. In Depth

Inequality as the Social Norm. The Indian complex mode of social organization, the caste system, is built on the belief that humans are inherently unequal. An individual's place in life depends upon the social strata of his or her birth. As all classical social systems

with limited exceptions among the Greeks and Chinese - the caste system stressed the primacy of broad social groups over the importance of individuals. Castes were directly opposed to modern Western society's basic belief in individual equality and opportunity for social movement. The Family and the Changing Status of Women. The extended family was the ideal, although only the higher castes were able to support its cost. The majority of families lived in nuclear households. The father held extensive authority over family members. Women were regarded as weak and unstable by nature and were subordinate to men. The Mahabharata and Ramayana indicate an earlier greater freedom. Women then read the Vedas, practiced many occupations, and participated in ceremonies that celebrated high-caste membership. The End of an Era. A civilization very different from the Harappan complex had emerged about 1000 years after the Aryan arrival. Well-established agriculture supported a complex society. The caste system provided both social stratification and labor division. Accomplishments in philosophy and religious speculation, as the Bhagavad Gita, were important. Brahman dominance, endless warfare between kings, and religious/ethical bankruptcy prompted unrest and the beginning of a new era. Religious Ferment and the Rise of Buddhism. The 6th and 5th centuries B.C.E. were a time of social and intellectual ferment in Eurasia. Confucius and Laozi in China, Zoroaster in Persia, Hebrew prophets, and Greek thinkers all sought new religious and philosophical forms. Indian reformers, above all the Buddha, questioned the brahman monopoly over ritual, posed questions about the nature of the universe, and sought alternatives to the caste system. The Buddha was responsible for a new religion spreading widely throughout Asia. The Making of a Religious Teacher. The Buddha was born in the 6th century in a Himalaya hill state where the power of brahmans and kings were limited. He was a member of the warrior ruling class, but renounced his inheritance to become a wandering ascetic. He experimented with forms of religious experience, finally turning to meditation to find enlightenment and discover the Four Noble Truths. Buddha believed individuals could escape suffering only through ceasing to desire worldly things. This realization was possible by following an eight-step process of right action, thinking, and meditation. When enlightenment was achieved an individual attained nirvana, an eternal state of tranquillity. After gaining enlightenment Buddha became a traveling teacher offering alternatives to brahman interpretations. He won a substantial following from all castes. The Emergence of Buddhism as a Religion. After Buddha's death many of his followers worshipped him as a deity. Some became monks devoted to the spread of his teachings. Disputes over meaning of Buddha's legacy led to the formation of rival schools of interpretation. Some monks gained followers among the general population through stressing the performance of good deeds winning salvation. Others emphasized monastic meditation. The Buddhist Challenge. Buddha's teachings offered revolutionary challenges to the established bramanical order. Buddha rejected acceptance of the Vedas as an ultimate authority and ridiculed the powers claimed by brahmans. Buddha sought to do away with the caste system, teaching that both untouchables and women were capable of achieving nirvana. Monasteries were open to all, including women. The Greek Interlude. Political upheaval intensified societal ferment. Alexander the Great's well-trained men successfully invaded India in 327 B.C.E.. When the weary soldiers refused to continue the campaign, Alexander left India. The brief invasion stimulated trade and cultural exchange between India and the Hellenistic world. Greek mathematical and astronomical ideas reached India, while Indian religious thinking spread to the Mediterranean. Both the Stoics and mystery religions were influenced by Indian philosophy. A distinctive Indo-Greek school of sculpture emerged. The Rise of the Mauryas. Alexander's withdrawal left a political and military vacuum. Chandragupta Maurya, a regional ruler in the Ganges plain, created a great empire in northern India. Chandragupta borrowed Persian forms to rule as an absolute monarch. He built a standing army and sought to replace regional rulers with loyal officials. One of his advisors, Kautilya, included most of these tendencies in a treatise on statecraft, Arthashastra, a work similar to Sunzi's Art of War. Chandragupta's successors pushed Mauryan boundaries far to the south. and gave India a period of great prosperity and cultural splendor. Ashoka's Conversion and the Flowering of Buddhism in the Mauryan Age. Ashoka was a harsh and war-loving ruler during the early years of his reign. He radically changed course following his conversion to Buddhism. Ashoka ended military campaigns and instead developed roads, hospitals, and rest houses. He favored vegetarianism and, by seeking to reduce animal slaughter, contributed to the enduring veneration of cattle. The brahmans regarded this as a threat to the dominance they gained from their ritual slaughter. Ashoka tried to develop a state bureaucracy to enforce sanctions against war and animal slaughter, actions that aroused opposition among displaced brahmans and once regionally important warrior families. Imperial Patronage and Social Change. Other social groups profited from Ashoka's Buddhist-inspired reforms. The expansion of international trade benefited merchants and artisans who supported their ruler and patronized Buddhist monasteries. Indian cotton cloth makers were renowned as far away as Rome. Women also supported the Buddhist alternative to their former societal status. Monasteries spread widely; their legacy remains in great stone shrines (stupas) that held the relics of Buddha. Buddhism spread beyond India to Sri Lanka, the Himalayan kingdoms, and the steppes of central Asia. From Sri Lanka Buddhism went to Burma, Java, and southeast Asia; from Nepal and central Asia it went to Tibet, China, and the rest of East Asia. Ashoka's Death and the Decline of the Mauryas. Ashoka's weaker successors were unable to maintain his reforms. Dynastic divisions and internal strife ended the empire by 185 B.C.E. Political fragmentation reappeared and warrior invasions increased political instability. The brahmans regained lost authority and pushed Buddhism from the center of Indian life.. Brahmanical Recovery and the Splendors of the Gupta Age. After the fall of the Mauryas waves of invaders from central Asia entered India. Indo-Greek rulers attempted to establish states. They were attacked by Scythian nomads who settled in the north. Later the Yueh-chih came from the eastern steppes. They established the Kushana dynasty, the most powerful Indian state between the end of the 1st and the early 3rd centuries C.E. They were the last great imperial patrons of Buddhism. The Kushana failed to extend dominance to the Ganges plains or central and south India. There, where most Indians lived, the brahmans reestablished their former dominance. Brahman Revival and Buddhist Decline. Buddhism had developed weaknesses that made it vulnerable to a brahman counteroffensive once the Mauryans disappeared. Buddhist monks isolated themselves in monasteries and became obsessed with fine philosophical points. They lost contact with the common people and instead focused upon serving wealthy patrons. Brahmans, in contrast, tried to make Hinduism more appealing to ordinary people. They stressed personal worship and small, regular, offerings to gods. Shiva, Vishnu, Kali, and Lakshmi were the most important deities; other gods were revered by particular caste groups. Temples were established as a focus for popular worship. Devotional cults were opened to all castes, and women, at times, were allowed to join in. In all, Hinduism had absorbed salvationist Buddhism and added the Buddha to its pantheon of gods. Among the elite brahmans emphasized the philosophical ideas of the Upanishads stressing that meditation and asceticism released the soul from rebirth and allowed its fusion with the godhead. Buddhism's decline was accelerated by the falling-off of the Rome-China trading connection. Merchant groups favoring Buddhism lost power and became dependent upon local rulers who favored brahmans. The rise of the Gupta dynasty sealed the demise of Buddhism as a major Indian religion. The Gupta Empire. A wealthy landholder family of the eastern Ganges plain, the Gupta, built an empire across most of northern India by the 4th century C.E. It controlled less territory, and had less dominance over vassals, than the Maurya. The Gupta were content to receive tribute from locally autonomous elites. The local lords periodically fought among themselves, but did not threaten the empire's general peace and prosperity. A Hindu Renaissance. The Guptas supported Hinduism and restored the brahmans' roles as royal sanctifiers and teachers of the ruling elite. Great Hindu temples, which became repositories of symbolic Hindu art, were constructed in urban centers. They helped increase urban growth by their economic impact and the visits of pilgrims. They reflected the Hindi world view that saw the divine mirrored everywhere around them. Achievements in Literature and the Sciences. The Gupta reign initiated a great age of Indian literary achievement. Kalidasa, the foremost Sanskrit author, created poetry describing life in that era. Hindu scholars made major discoveries in mathematics, the sciences, and medicine. They devised the concepts of zero, decimals, and the "Arabic" number system. Intensifying Caste and Gender Iniquities. The caste hierarchy supported by brahmans became the backbone of the social system. Caste divisions grew more complex and restrictions on untouchables and low-caste individuals grew harsher and more pervasive. Women suffered further reduction in status and career outlets. Women were legally minors, supervised by males, and unable to inherit property. They were barred from reading the Vedas. In dowry-high regions female infanticide resulted. Marriages were arranged to support family interests. Residence was patrilocal and a wife's status depended upon producing sons. There were few avenues except marriage open for women. The Pleasures of Elite Life. The upper castes lived in large compounds and enjoyed luxurious lives. Males had special privileges as they passed through the four stages of an ideal Hindu life. Youths studied and enjoyed pleasurable diversions. Next, one became a householder and worked to strengthen family fortunes and raise sons. Few individuals advanced beyond this stage. In the third stage a man became a meditating ascetic. Finally, an individual became a wandering holy man. Life-styles of the Ordinary People. The great majority of Indians followed a different path. Their lives were devoted to hard labor for the benefit of caste superiors. Lower caste women had more freedom of movement and employment opportunity than upper class females. Both sexes participated in festivals and social happenings. The general prosperity of the era allowed ordinary people satisfactory lives. Commerce continued to be important, with India serving as a pivot of Indian Ocean trading networks. There were strong links to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Gupta Decline and a Return to Political Fragmentation. The Gupta empire was threatened in the 5th century C.E. by Hun invasions. Efforts to repel the Huns diverted attention from local rulers challenging the dynasty. The empire disintegrated into a patchwork of warring local states. Conclusion

The Legacy of Asia's First Civilizations. The region where the Shang and Zhou polities emerged became the center of a civilization continuing until today.. The system of writing became a major factor in the evolution of Chinese civilization. The continuity of Chinese identity strongly influenced the civilizations of Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. Chinese technological innovation was comparable, on a global scale, to that of Mesopotamia. The Indus valley civilization, Happy, collapsed , and, although much was lost, influences persisted as the core of Indian civilizations passed to the east and south. The Zhou dynasty in the 8th century B.C.E. lost control of its vassals. Internal political disorder was increased by nomadic pressure. The unstable times eventually led to the emergence of a more complex classical society. Political stabilization began in the 3rd century B.C.E. with the victories of Shi Huangdi of the Qin dynasty. Unwise policies by the Qin rulers caused revolts ending with the emergence of the Han dynasty in 207 B.C.E. The Han, ruling over 400 years, reestablished and expanded the extent of Chinese civilization and created an lasting sense of Chinese identity. They founded an enduring bureaucracy whose members, the shi, were a major influence on social and cultural development. Philosophical Remedies for the Prolonged Crisis of the Later Zhou. The continuing disorder marking the decline of the Zhou dynasty prompted debate over appropriate remedies. The warfare awarded societal value to military skills and depressed the worth of the shi. Aristocratic power grew while the shi fell to minor occupations. Rituals and court etiquette were replaced by rough nomadic manners. Warfare consumed state resources and public works, including dikes and canals, were ruined. Peasants were taxed heavily and conscripted into the military. The need for military materials stimulated commerce, helping the growth of a prosperous merchant class with an important role in society. By the end of the Zhou period China supported larger urban centers than any other contemporary civilization. Confucius and the Restoration of the Shi. By the 5th century B.C.E. thinkers, including Confucius, sought ways to create a stable society and political structure. Confucius, a member of a poor shi family, became a traveling teacher whose political and philosophical ideas attracted followers. He was a social philosopher concerned with the need to reestablish order and harmony in China; he thought that achieving order depended upon rulers accepting the advice of superior men

women were excluded - who were awarded power because of their moral excellence. Such men, recruited from the shi, gained wisdom through education and, in principle, could be from any social class. Confucian Thought and Social Ideals. Confucius thought that superior men should rule to serve the interests and welfare of the entire society. In return the common people should respect and support their ruler's superior status. Social harmony depended upon everyone accepting their social place and performing its required tasks. Society was held together by personal ties of loyalty and obedience that made state intervention minimal. The Confucian Gentleman. Confucius thought that the superior man defended his decisions against all opposition. Rulers should receive deference, but the shi should criticize them for neglecting their subjects' welfare. The shi gentleman was a generalist equally accomplished in public and private aspects of life. With such men, said Confucius, China would be peaceful and tranquil. The Heirs of Confucius. The most important division among Confucius's disciples was between Mencius and Xunzi. Mencius believed that humans were good by nature and that government should develop that goodness. He stressed the consent of the common people was the basis of political power, and that they had the right to overthrow oppressive rulers. Xunzi thought that humans by nature were lazy and evil, thus requiring a strong and authoritarian government. Education could improve people, he thought, but he rejected the idea that government was based on their consent. The later Legalist school of thought embraced his views. Daoist Alternatives. The philosopher Laozi offered an alternative to Confucianism. Although he urged rulers to cultivate patience, selflessness, and concern for the welfare of all creatures, Laozi thought that a strong state and absolute ethical prescriptions were not significant in solving human suffering. Laozi instead advocated a retreat from society into nature where individuals could attune with the Dao, or cosmic force. Some of his followers, particularly among the shi, followed Laozi's stress on meditation. Others mixed his ideas with magic and eroticism and sought immortality. The Triumph of the Qin and the Establishment of Imoerial Unity. The western state of Qin, led by Shi Huangdi, one of the many competing rivals striving to supplant the Zhou, unified China at the end of the 3rd century. Qin rulers had nomadic origins and were regarded as barbarians by other Chinese. The Transformation of a "Barbarian " Land. The Qin rulers introduced critical reforms strengthening their state. The Qin produced better metal weapons and tools. Peasants were freed from bondage to lords and allowed to hold land. The change weakened vassal warriors and allowed the Qin to employ shi in a loyal bureaucracy. Freed peasants enlarged armies made more efficient by shi management. The nomadic heritage of the Qin helped in military tactics, especially in the use of massed cavalry and the crossbow. The Legalist Sanction. The political centralization of the Qin was supported by statesmen known as Legalists. Shang Yang and other thinkers argued that the power of rulers should be absolute, but that they subject to the law. Legalists considered that people existed to serve the state, and that strict laws and harsh punishments were required. Legalist disciples served Shi Huangdi. They utilized Xunzi's thought about the evil nature of humans to increase the authoritarian status of the ruler and constructed rigorous law codes to enforce absolutism. Shi Huangdi, Emperor of China. In 221 B.C.E. Shi Huangdi unified China under the rule of the Qin. He ordered all regional fortresses and the weapons of local warriors destroyed. Formerly independent states were replaced by provinces ruled by bureaucrats. Surviving aristocrats and rich merchants had to live in the capital, Xianyang. State officials developed a standard script, coinage, and weights and measures. Shi Huangdi expanded earlier constructions to create a defensive barrier against nomadic invaders, the Great Wall. Other projects, also employing forcibly recruited peasants, included canals and roadways. The Collapse of a Tyrannical but Pivotal Regime. Shi Huangdi's harsh policies created opposition among both the shi and peasantry. All but a few state-approved books were ordered destroyed. Building projects stimulated a rising which ended the dynasty in 207 B.C.E. Despite its short rule the Qin marked a watershed in Chinese history. Shi Huangdi unified China and ruled it through a centralized bureaucracy. The power of the feudal aristocracy ended. The building of roads and canals, the shelter of the Great Wall, and a unified currency all helped to hold the territory together. A sound foundation was ready for the succeeding Han dynasty. In Depth

Parallel Power in the Middle East. The Persians developed different political and cultural values than the Greeks. They influenced many world historical currents and today's nation of Iran. About 550 B.C.E. Cyrus the Great established a Persian empire as successor to the Mesopotamian states of the past. The empire tolerated traditional cultures and Persians advanced iron technology. Religious leader Zoroaster revised Sumerian beliefs to produce a religion emphasizing the importance of choosing between the divine forces of good and evil; a last judgment decided the eternal fate of each person. Later Persian rulers expanded the empire and provided much of the Middle East with a long period of peace and prosperity. Although ultimately conquered by Alexander, Persian language and culture remained influential. 3)The Political Character of Classical Greece. Greek civilization emerged in small communities incorporating the heritage of Crete and Mycenae. Invading Indo-Europeans contributed a polytheistic religion carried through oral traditions embodying societal cultural values. Another stimulation to Greek civilization came from a general revival of trade in the eastern Mediterranean spurred by the introduction of coined money. Increased wealth spurred population growth and social change in Greece that encouraged new political forms. 4)The Emergence of Greek Forms. The Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet to write their own language. The spread of literacy enhanced commercial exchanges and cultural life. The Iliad and the Odyssey were written down and provided a mythic foundation for Hellenic culture. In architecture the Greeks developed distinctive forms based upon an oblong building framed by pillars. Sculpture moved to a more realistic portrayal of the human body, while decorated pottery depicted scenes of human activity. 5)The City-State as a Political Unit. After 800 B.C.E. government revolved around a city-state (polis), polities varying in size and embracing a city and its agricultural hinterland. Many city-states formed, but political unification did not occur. The city-states were ruled by landowning aristocrats descended from Indo-European warriors. They and free farmer citizens met to discuss political issues in councils, even when there were kings. After 700 B.C.E. the system of aristocratic control was challenged as a result of commercial expansion and the growth of specialized commercial agriculture. Small landholders suffered and a growing gulf emerged between the rich and poor. Some aristocratic oligarchies in purely agricultural regions, as in Sparta, remained unchallenged, but others faced steady pressure. By the 6th century B.C.E. urban commercial groups and dispossessed farmers sought reform. Tyrants won support by challenging aristocratic interests. Other reformers, like Solon of Athens, labored to develop new laws to regulate economic relationships. Additional cause for change came from the democratization of military service by qualified citizens. By 500 B.C.E. most city-states were based upon principles of loyalty to the public community rather than to an individual ruler. Widespread participation in public life by male citizens was common. Since each city-state had its own gods, religious rituals also supported involvement. 6)The Rise of Democracy in Athens. Athens took the lead in democratic development, but Solon's reforms did not resolve all societal tensions. Pisastratus ruled as a tyrant, but following his death the reformer Cleisthenes reestablished a council elected by all citizens. Athens continued to depend upon a popular assembly of citizens as sovereign authority. Citizens formed the army and served as jurors. Most officials were chosen by lot and were responsible to the assembly. The Athenians did not follow today's democratic ideals. Many adults

women, slaves, and foreigners - were excluded from political rights, and aristocrats, as Pericles and Alcibiades, had excessive importance. 7)A Comparison of Greek and Chinese Political Styles. Greek political life emphasized individual participation, but in a decentralized system quite different from the single centralized Chinese state. Formal law was more important to the Greeks, while the Chinese stressed bureaucratic codes. 8)Greek Diplomacy and the Tensions of United Effort. Many city-states founded colonies along the coasts of the Mediterranean and Black Sea. They relieved population pressure, provided grain supplies, and served as markets for Greek products. The city-states acted together in a few activities. They cooperated in the Olympic games and recognized the oracle at Delphi. An important collaboration occurred when Greeks united and preserved independence by defeating a Persian invasion. After the wars Athens dominated other Greek city-states through an alliance, the Delian League. Athens gained valuable resources, but the new wealth caused political divisions and infighting. 9)Athens versus Sparta. The growing power of a democratic, commercially active Athens led to competition with oligarchic, conservative, and militaristic Sparta. They fought from 431 to 404 B.C.E. in the Peloponnesian War. Athens, weakened by a disastrous plague and an unsuccessful invasion of Sicily, surrendered to Sparta in 404 B.C.E. The defeat marked the end of the dominance of the polis. 10)The Hellenistic Period. Sparta failed to dominate Greece after its victory. The Peloponnesian War had destroyed any basis for Greek unity and weakened the major participants. A conquering northern state took control of Greece and expanded into the Middle East and Egypt. The short-lived empire of Alexander the Great greatly expanded the impact of Greek culture. 11)Macedonian Conquest. The northern kingdom of Macedon filled the power vacuum in Greece. The loosely organized, Greek-influenced state, was strengthened militarily during the rule of Philip II (359-336 B.C.E.). He invaded and conquered the divided Greek city-states by 338 B.C.E. 12)Alexander the Great. Philip's son, Alexander, invaded and defeated the Persian empire in campaigns between 334 and 331 B.C.E. He also took control of Egypt. Alexander pressed on into India but was halted when his army refused to go on. Alexander hoped to merge Greek and Asian traditions. He founded numerous cities, spread Greek officials widely, encouraged intermarriage with local women, and established centers of Greek scholarship. Alexander's unexpected death in 323 B.C.E. ended the dream of a multinational empire. 13)Later Hellenistic States. The new empire quickly fragmented into states run by former generals. City-states still existed, but politics centered on military empires. The three principal dynasties were the Ptolemies in Egypt, the Seleucids in Persia, and the Antigonids in Macedon and Greece. Many Greeks remained in the successor states as officials and merchants, and Greek culture spread widely to mix with other cultures and form a new intellectual framework for much of the civilized world. In northwestern India the kingdom of Bactria importantly mixed Greek and Indian themes. 14)Creativity in Greek and Hellenistic Culture. The genius of Greek civilization expressed itself more in culture than politics. Greek culture made lasting contributions to the Mediterranean world in art and philosophy and served as a key contribution to the larger Hellenistic world created by Alexander.. 15)Religion, Philosophy, and Science. Unlike the Indians and Chinese, the Greeks did not create a major religion. They focused upon a pantheon of unruly gods and goddesses who interfered in human affairs. Both Greeks and Indians drew their religion from Indo-European origins, but the Greeks produced a more human-centered approach. Its lack of spiritual passion contributed to the development of alternative "mystery' religions more satisfying to people's needs. Since religion did not provide a basis for ethical thought, Greek thinkers worked to create a separate philosophical system. The effort to understand phenomena through rational observation became a hallmark of Greek and Hellenistic culture. Socrates urged consideration of secular criteria for moral decisions. Aristotle stressed the importance of moderation to balance political and religious instability. The Stoics stressed inner moral independence. Other philosophers attempted to define appropriate political structures. Plato proposed an ideal government where philosophers ruled. Most philosophers stressed practical, balanced systems incorporating democratic and oligarchic elements. A nonreligious philosophy encouraged emphasis on the powers of human thought. Socrates encouraged skepticism; Plato suggested reason could approach an understanding of eternal reality. In science the Greeks, unlike the Chinese, speculated about nature's order, founding a lasting Western passion for seeking rationality in the universe. Pythagoras and Euclid contributed major achievements to geometry, while Galen's contributions to anatomy were a standard for centuries. 16)Literature and the Arts. All arts received attention, but drama had a central role in Greek culture. The Greek division of drama into comedy and tragedy remains a Western tradition. Athenian dramatists Sophocles used tragedy to demonstrate the fragility of human virtues. Aristophanes did the same through comedy. Greek literature included a strong epic tradition, and formal historical writing emerged with Herodotus and Thucydides. In visual arts the Greeks emphasized architecture, ceramics, and realistic sculpture. Temples, markets, and public buildings had three building styles

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