WORLD HISTORY - FROM THE MIDDLE AGES UP TO THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
What was the Enlightenment?
-AKA Age of Reason -intellectual movement of the 18th century among upper and middle class elites -looked for answers in terms of reason rather than faith -optimistic, natural, humanistic approach -secular worldview -faith in reason, not revelation
What were some of the ramifications of the slave trade?
-Africans engaged in the trade to get wealth -defense compromised with the loss of able men, colonization made easier -little development or modernization -laws changed to make crimes punishable by slavery (to meet demands) -populations in the cities decreased (people fled to escape capture) -contact with the outside world became limited -racism (blacks thought to be less intelligent) -Africa seen as a cheap source of labor -creation of powerful kingdoms that relied on warfare to generate slaves -Yoruba Kingdom used its army and iron technology to capture and sell many slaves -Kingdom of Dahomey became a major slave holder -Kongo became big slave exporters and developed an economy dependent upon slavery -Asante Kingdom
What were some other church reformers during the Reformation?
-Anabaptists --> Menno Simons; rejected baptism as a child (rebaptize as adult); association of believers with no connection to the state; pacifism and avoidance of state involvement -Calvinists --> John Calvin; predestination; union of church and state -Anglicanism --> Henry VIII broke relationship with the Pope to secure divorce from Catherine of Aragon; king as the head of the church of England *changes to the church came under Edward VI (adopted Calvinism)- priests allowed to marry, communion by the laity expanded, images removed from churches; justification by faith, denial of transubstantiation, only two sacraments
What conditions led to the Renaissance?
-Crusades and new trade routes created contact with more advances civilizations and inspired new ways of thinking -Church lost much power and people began to doubt their authority due to scandals, etc -Increased trade and middle class growth--> desire for worldly goods and less concern about the afterlife -competition among wealthy patrons led to development in education and art
Who were the principal officers of the central government in the Mughal empire?
-Diwan: finance minister (often called wazir= chief minister); supervised revenue collection and authorized spending; imperial orders recorded in his office before issuing and faujdars (provincial governors) went to him for instructions before assuming their duties -Mir bakhshi: in charge of the War Department (army, soldiers, horses, allocating expenses for defense) -Mir saman: liaison between merchants and war department -Sadr: director of religious matters, charities and endowments
What contributed to the fall of the Ottoman empire?
-European nationalism -European bankers financing modernization that bankrupted the empire
What was Roman Catholic Jansenism?
-French movement against the idea of an uninvolved and impersonal god -emphasized original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination.
What was the Enlightenment view of God?
-God as a rational explanation of the universe (creator no longer involved in the operation of it; natural look takes care of that)
What were some important developments in Asia during the early modern years?
-Gunpowder Empires (growth thanks to gunpowder adaptations in the army) -Mongols brought yasa law (secular law) and imposed it on the conquered *the Ottomans adopted it)
What were the short-term causes of the Reformation?
-John Wycliffe and the Lollards --> simplification of Church doctrine and lessening of priestly power; questioned transubstantiation -Jan Hus - priests weren't a holy group, question transubstantiation and said the people should also have the wine and bread -Avignon Exile and Great Schism undermined power and prestige of the church and questioned absolute power of the papacy -printing press - distribution of ideas, people could read the Bible and make up their own minds
What were the three types of mansabs?
-Mansabdar (10-400 men and horses) Amirs (nobles) - 500-2500 men and horses Umara-i-kabir- higher category; usually princes in charge of thousands of men
What were the four main groups in the ruling class of the Ottoman empire?
-Palace section (headed by the Sultan - provided leadership) -Janissaries (military - protected the empire and expanded into new areas) -Treasury (taxes) -Religious section (uleman - religious scholars - ensured that the Shari'ah was followed, formed mosques and schools)
Who was Peter I? What were his achievements?
-Peter the Great -ambition to modernize Russia and compete with Europe -Russia produced more iron than England -built up the army -St. Petersburg (imperial capital of Russia)
Who were some of the most important people in Renaissance literature, art and scholarship?
-Petrarch -Dante --> Divine Comedy; reason can only take you so far, you need God's grace and revelation -Leonardo da Vinci - Last Supper, Mona Lisa; inventor -Michelangelo - architecture, sculpture (David) and painting (Sistine Chapel) -Raphael - The School of Athens; famous for his Madonnas -Titian -scenes of luxury; paintings seemed real; made a lot of money! -Leonardo Bruni - chancellor of Florence, used rhetorical skills to rouse the citizens against external enemies -Machiavelli - The Prince; analyzed politics form the standpoint of expedience; amoral tone; how a political leader could obtain and hold power by acting on his own self-interest
Who were some of the main humanists during the Renaissance?
-Petrarch -> only true examples of moral and proper behavior could come from the Ancients; encouraged study of ancient Rome, collected and preserved work of ancient writers and produced work with the classical literary style -Boccaccio --> The Decameron, first prose masterpiece in Italian; written to amuse the reader, not edify him/her; ordinary realistic characters -Baldassare Castiglione - The Courtier - conversations in the court of Urbino - manual of proper behavior -Guarino da Varona and Vittorino da Feltre - educators that turned humanist ideas into a practical curriculum; school of Latin, Greek, math, music, philosophy and social graces
What were other forms of entertainment, particularly in the palace?
-Pigeons that tumbled in the air (especially trained) *favorite pastime of women (20 somersaults in mid-flight) -Pachisi -artists, poets, dancers and musicians hired by the emperors for entertainment
What was a wergild?
-a fine paid by a wrongdoer to the family of the person injured or killed "money for a man" = value of a person in money (dependent on social status) *used to avoid blood feuds
What did Akbar do to make sure Hindus weren't discriminated against?
-abolished most discriminatory taxes (jizya) against Hindus -filled advisory councils with non-Muslims -would invite Muslim and Hindu scholars to the palace for weekly debates on religious topics -tried to institute a new religion that melded traits of Hinduism and Islam into one (Divine Faith or Din-il Ilahi)
What were some of the manly entertainments of the Mughal culture?
-archery and horseback riding -hunting (Akbar liked it; many paintings use hunting themes) -falconry (early form of hunting considered a noble art; falconer seen as figure of authority) -chess (prized for strategy; game for the educated and wealthy) -polo (sport of kings, considered a war-training exercise
What was the Counter-Reformation?
-attack on Protestantism and changes to the Catholic Church *Ignatius of Loyola - founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
What were the major developments during the Late Middle Ages?
-banking houses (particularly in Florence) financed monarchs -Black Death (1347-1349) killed ~1/3-1/2 of European population and contributed to the end of the feudal system because of loss of labor force and enforcement measures -establishment of English Parliament (House of Lords and Commons) -guilds: controlled membership; move from apprentice to journeyman to master craftsman; quality-controlled merchandise, price control and beginning of unions -Inquisition - Pope Innocent IV, 1252 Attack of heretics, interrogation, trial and execution -Summa Theologica by Thomas Aquinas --> faith and reason aren't in conflict, they enhance each other
What components did African Traditional Religion have in common?
-belief in a Supreme God and several divinities or lesser gods -belief in ancestors, afterlife and reincarnation -belief in the power of the spoken word (incantations, songs), prayer and sacrifice -roles for priests, holy men, seers, and spirit mediums
What were the social and economic consequences of the Black Death?
-belief that it was divine punishment or caused by the devil -anti-Semitism (blamed it on the Jes) -population decline -trade decline and shortage of workers --> lower demand for food --> lower prices -feudalism suffered a heavy blow
What were the three ways to decide a feudal trial?
-by battle, compurgation/oath and by ordeal
What kind of government did the Safavid have?
-centralized -shah made decisions in consultation with advisers (nobility) -nobility filled administrative posts -wealthy merchant class (Armenians, Georgians, Indians) --> increase wealth of the empire through trade -artisans -majority of people were peasants
What was the role of the emperor in the Byzantine Empire?
-chosen by God and crowned in sacred ceremonies -subjects expected to prostrate themselves in his presence -absolute power -appointed the head of the church (patriarch), so he exercised control over the church
What were some of the problems that king Frederick of Germany faced in attempting to unify Germany and Italy?
-church opposition (protecting the Papal States) -alliance of northern Italian cities
What was the role of women from elite households in the Ottoman Empire?
-could hold and inherit property -conduct business -run charitable foundations -defend their interests in court
What happened during the Carolingian Renaissance?
-creation of schools by Charlemagne (clerical schools and centers of learning unifying church and education) + invitation for scholars to go to Aachen -scholars copied ancient texts and sent them all over Europe -creation of Carolingian minuscule script (capital and small letters, spaces between words -feudalism (system that bound vassals to lords): serfs at the base of the pyramid worked at the demesne (lord's property) for the right to work their own land -manorialism: economic system of large estates encompassing one village populated by serfs; strove to be elf-sufficient
What characterized the High Middle Ages?
-economic and territorial expansion -demographic and urban growth -emergency of national identity -restructuring of secular and ecclesiastical institutions -Crusades -Gothic art and architecture -papal monarchy -birth of university -recovery of ancient Greek thought -Thomas Aquinas -Common law established in England + grand jury, trial by jury and the Magna Carta
Why did Shah Abbas move the capital to Isfahan?
-economic potential (river and fertile plains) -security reasons (inland = less vulnerable)
What was the result of the Opium War?
-entered "unequal treaties" --> give up Hong Kong, open ports to European commerce and residence, allow Christian missionaries, legalize opium trade, no tariffs on British imports -By 1900, 90 Chinese ports under foreign control --> foreign merchant control of China's economy, conversion to Christianity and foreign gunboats patrolling China's waters
Who was Charlemagne?
-fierce warrior, strong statesman and pious Christian -created the Carolingian Empire -counts acted as his chief representatives in local areas (checked on them via the missi dominici = messengers of the lord king) -crowned first Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire -revived classical studies, preserved Latin culture and established monastic and palace schools (Carolingian Renaissance) -works copied by Carolingian monks
What was literature like during the Enlightenment?
-first modern novel by Samuel Richardson's Pamela and Henry Fielding --> story and characters presented in realistic social context with everyday problems -satire was perfected (Jonathan Swift and Voltaire) -birth of romantic poetry (William Wordsworth and Friedrich von Schiller) --> ROMANTICISM
What were the advantages of the long bow over the crossbow?
-greater striking power -longer range -more rapid speed of fire
What were the long-term causes of the Reformation?
-growth in the power of the secular king and the decrease in the power of the pope -popular discontent with empty church rituals -movement towards more personal ways of communicating with God -fiscal crisis in the church led to corruption and abuses of power
What was the role of the sultan in the Ottoman Empire?
-head of the empire -issued all laws -made all major decisions -had many advisors
What technological advances during the High middle Ages enabled increased productivity, population growth and growth in towns?
-heavier plow (carruca) -horse collar -weapons for people on horseback (axes, pikes, lances, two-edged swords) -three-field system of farming
What were the consequences of the Crusades?
-helped renew interest in the ancient world -expanded trade routes -marked the souring of relations between Europe and the Byzantine Empire (attack and sacking of Constantinople) -cultural diffusion and questioning of old ways of thinking
What advantages did African slave labor present to the colonizing Europeans?
-immunity to mosquitoes in the Americans -farming skills -didn't know the land (little opportunity to flee)
What were the effects of European exploration in Africa?
-increase in trade of gold, ivory and pepper -Africans kidnapped and sold into slavery -construction of forts and castles -corruption and decay of Benin -European influence on S.Africa and Mozambique -European weapons changed balance of power
What happened during the reign of Henry II?
-increased number of criminal cases tried in the king's court -expanded the power of royal courts and the king's power -common law began to replace law codes that varied from place to place
What was mercantilism?
-increasing power of the state through economic regulations -keeping balance of trade; selling more than it buys
What were some abuses of power in medieval church?
-indulgences (money for forgiveness of sins) -simony (sale of church positions) -nepotism (control by a particular family) -pluralism (more than one position at a time) -in-celibacy (church officials getting married and having children) -dispensations (payments released a petitioner from requirements of canon law)
How was Iran architecture shaped by diverse building traditions?
-influence from different ethnic groups -Seljuk ideas (11-12th centuries) large vaulted spaces , brick patterns as decoration, public buildings organized around open spaces (midans), domed chambers in mosques -use of iwan (vast vaulted space open at one end) - for public audiences with rulers
How did the lives of women improve under Mughal rule?
-men in government relied on wives for advice -aristocratic women learned to read and write -worked and received salaries, allowed to own land
What were some of the contributions to Western Civilization made by the Roman Catholic Church during the Lower Middle Ages?
-monasticism and monasteries -integration of the church in the feudal system -Romanesque architectural style
What did the philosophes believe?
-need to develop universal, cross-cultural, shared expressions of human action and thought ---> basic goodness will come out and the world will be a better place
What eroded the effectiveness of the Jannisary Corps?
-nepotism --> political infighting -became a threat to the sultan (killed one in a riot to reform practices within their ranks) *rules left behind *blocked reforms
How did the Medieval three field system work?
-one with grains in the fall and harvested in summer -one with grains and vegetables in the spring and harvested in the fall -one fallow *crop rotation kept the soil from being exhausted
What was the role of the church in the European feudal system?
-owned about 1/3 of the land in Western Europe tax-free -referred to as "the First Estate" in France -enormous wealth and power -demanded tithe -peasants had to pay Peter's Pence (1 penny per person)
What characterized Gothic architecture?
-pointed arches -high narrow vaults -thinner walls than Romanesque -flying buttresses -elaborate, ornate, airier interiors -stained glass windows -sponsored artists and sculptors to decorte
What did the Magna Carta say?
-protected liberties of nobles and outline of rights for the ordinary people -no new taxes without consent from the Great Council -no taking property without paying for it -no selling, refusal or delay of justice -jury of peers -king had to obey the law
What were the cultural achievements of the Qing dynasty?
-protection of ancient Chinese literature -proliferation of books (woodblock printing) -traditional opera, drama, literature and artistic techniques reached new heights -landscape painting
What was the role of monks during the Middle Ages?
-protectors of learning (could read and write) -copied books and compiled illuminated manuscripts -preserved books and texts from ancient Rome and Greece -missionaries to the "barbarians" spread the religion
What did Isma'il claimed about his origins?
-related to Ali, the Sassanian kings, Safi al-Din and the 12th hidden imam *diverse claims of authority to cover all bases -claimed to be pious, a saint, with semi-divine status and powers
What are some common political developments throughout the African continent?
-rise of empires and nation/states -European exploration disastrous for the continent
What was the Romanesque architectural style?
-rounded arches, barrel vaults, thick walls, buildings with dark, simplistic interiors and small windows, usually at the top of a wall
What were Martin Luther's criticisms of the church?
-sale of indulgences -only the Bible had authority to determine correct practices and beliefs
What were the roles of the monasteries in the Middle Ages?
-schools for the elite -inns, hospitals, places of refuge during war -reservoirs for agricultural and horticultural skills (collection and development of medicines)
What characterized Renaissance art?
-secular themes, portraits -perspective, oil paints, chiaroscuro -detailed background -realistic -geometrically precise
What were the cultural effects of the slave trade?
-shortages of men -women thrust into male roles -increase of polygamy -introduction of Christianity and Islam
Why did Portugal lead the Age of Exploration?
-situated near the coast of Africa -trade relations with Muslims -support of royal family (Henry the Navigator)
How was the Ottoman slave system different?
-slaves could be educated and trained -could accumulate money and power
How was slavery within African societies different from that of the Atlantic slave trade?
-slaves taken in times of war, allowed to marry and have children and treated well within the household
What was the Byzantine Empire?
-smaller Eastern Roman Empire made up of the eastern Balkans and Asia Minor -lasted until 1453 -Greek and Christian state -Eastern Orthodox Church
How did the economy do under Qianlong?
-so well, tax collection was cancelled four times -agricultural production increased (food surplus) -
What were some European motives for exploration and colonization?
-source of raw materials -socioeconomic opportunities -markets -Renaissance curiosity -European racism -missionary activity -places to dump problem members of society -nationalism and competition
What was the triangular trade?
-system of selling and trading slaves
What were the main philosophe beliefs?
-toleration (all ideas equally valid and people should have the freedom to express themselves) -freedom (free speech, press and freedom of religion) -skepticism (everything is open to questioning and criticism) -reason (applied to everything and to correct society) -enlightened despotism (ruler should rule because he can bring enlightenment) -optimism (science brings progress) -education (Locke; leads to a perfect society, paradise of reason) -equality (Locke's Tabula Rasa/blank slate - all people are equal)
What were the problems brought on by Justinian's accomplishments in conquering the Eastern Roman Empire?
-too much territory to protect -too much money spent -renewed threat to the frontiers -rise of Islam (most serious threat)
Who was Ivan the Terrible?
-took title of czar -able administrator and modernized the legal code -renewed trade with western Europe -opened Siberia for Russian settlement -oprichniki (civil servants) arrested boyads and gave land to Ivan's supporters -violent, unpredictable temper - cruel (murdered his own son) *Russia prospered under him
What were the effects of the Age of Exploration?
-transfer of horses to America (transformation of Native American culture) -European life expectancy increased (new nutrients added to their diet) and population soared -growth of foreign trade -Columbian Exchange (food, resources and animals exchanged, as did weapons, people and disease) -war -European settlement displaced tribes -genocide - Atlantic Slave Trade & slavery
What caused the Age of Exploration?
-trying to find an easier and faster route to India to eliminate the taxes and middle men and make their own deals in Asia, transporting goods themselves -Renaissance ignited adventurism -Reformation infused missionary spirit to find new souls to convert -political centralization --> government had more control of resources to allow for traders to expand their markets -Commercial revolution - eager for more markets for products and financing for expeditions -need for raw materials and markets for finished goods (mercantilism)
What was the new "elite culture" like during the Enlightnment?
-use of French -cosmopolitanism -travel around the continent (visit cultural centers and cities, ancient monuments of antiquity; cities became tourist spots) -amenities of streetlights, public transportation, public places for spread of ideas (coffeehouses and theaters) -meetings in salons and academies
What was the Article of the Barons?
06/15/1215 @ Runnymede - basis of the Magna Carta signed by King John; final version accepted on June 19
What basic rights did townspeople throughout Europe gain during the Middle Ages?
1. Freedom - free if lived in a town 1 year 1 day (even if escaped from manor) 2. Exemption - free from having to work on the manor 3. Town Justice - used courts from the town 4. Commercial privileges - could sell goods freely in the town market and charge tolls to outsiders wishing to sell there
Even though Janissaires could even aspire to become chief vizier and accumulate wealth and properties, what were the three rules they had that changed over time?
1. couldn't marry 2. couldn't have an outside job 3. couldn't pass down property to their sons (it went to the Sultan)
What was the Schism?
1054 - separation of Eastern Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church
What were the Crusades?
11th-14th centuries A series of military expeditions to take back the Holy Land under Pope Urban II *Appeal by Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus for help (threat of the Seljuk Turks) * Call to the Crusade at Clermont, France - large army of volunteers motivated by religious zeal and more *more than two centuries *reflected widespread devotion to the church and the pope
When was the Bible translated to Russian?
1649 - three monks
What was the Opium war?
1839-1842 Britain wanted to distribute opium on Chinese soil -Chinese fell to gun-powdered steamboats used to attack the Grand Canal
What was the ranking system set up by Akbar for each official in the state?
33 grades of ranks - from commanders of 10 to 10,000 men
What was the new form of electing the Holy Roman Emperor devised by Charles IV?
7 electors - 3 bishops and four German princes *pope removed from the process *made the electors almost completely independent rulers (backfired)
What did Martin Luther nailed to the door of a church in Wittenberg?
95 Theses - sought to reform the church, not divide it
Who was Sinan?
A Janissary architect -magnificent mosques and palaces, bridges and other buildings
What was chivalry?
A code of ethics that knights were supposed to uphold -defend the church and defenseless people -treat captives as honored guests -fight only for glory, not materials rewards
What was the name of the grant of land made to a vassal?
A fief
What was the Diet of Worms?
A meeting between Martin Luther and the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V in which he was asked to recant and was condemned again -break with the pope was permanent
What was the Thirty Years War?
A religious war between Catholics and Calvinists -great destruction in Germany (-1/3 of population)
What was the ghulam?
A slave army similar to the Janissaries set up under the reign of Shah Abbas (Safavid)
Who was Hildegard of Bingen?
Abbess of a religious house in Germany -contributor to Gregorian chant -vision, gained fame as a mystic and prophetess and was consulted by important people
Who ruled monasteries?
Abbots (nuns had abbesses)
What made it possible for the Russians to conquer the native tribes of Siberia?
Advanced firearm tech
What battle during the Hundred Years' War devastated the French?
Agincourt - death of 1.5K nobles fought in mud (heavy rain)
What was serfdom?
Agreement between lords and serfs in which the lords provided justice and protection and the serfs provided labor for a fixed amount of time each year
What was the Concordat of Worms?
Agreement to end the conflict over lay investiture -bishop elected by church officials would then pay homage to the king as his lord and the king would give him the symbols of earthly office - the symbols of spiritual office were given by the church
Who was the first to announce that the New World wasn't Asia, but a new continent?
Amerigo Vespucci
What was a mansab?
An official appointment of rank that required officers of state to provide a number of fighters when and if needed
Who were the Safavids and who laid the foundation for the empire?
Ardabil Iran - Sufi order (post-Mongol invasion) Founded by Safi al-Din, a Sufi mystic
Who were the zamindars?
Aristocratic landholders that collected 1/3 of farmers' annual harvest
How did Mughal culture reflect syncretism?
Art reflected mix of Persian and Indian themes, as did the architecture (domes, geometric patterns and marble)
Why were Ottoman goods of high quality?
Artisan guilds regulated membership and set standards of production
What was the approach to rule acquired by the Ottoman Empire after Constantinople became its capital city?
Assimilation, toleration and accommodation -"Peoples of the Book" Christians and Jews could practice their religion --> organized into millets (separate legal court; allowed to rule itself under its own system of personal laws and regulate internal economic, social and legal affairs) -Non-Muslims didn't have to serve the military -Had to pay taxes (Muslims didn't)
What was the difference between the Atlantic slave trade and the Eastern slave trade?
Atlantic - sought men Eastern - sought women
What was music like during the Enlightenment?
Away from organ and choral music to lighter, more elegant work (Hayden, Mozart, Beethoven) -symphony
Who founded the Mughal Empire?
Babur, son of Tamerlane (Timur) - descendant of Genghis Khan *took hold of Delhi after the Battle of Panipat
Where did the Ottomans get their slaves?
Balkans and Caucuses
Who passed the southernmost tip of Africa?
Bartolomeu Dias (Cape of Good Hope)
What was the hamam and its importance?
Bathhouse -ideas could be exchanged and alliances forged -women used it to arrange marriages, heal rifts between families and conduct business
Where did the first European university appeared?
Bologna, Italy
In the Ming dynasty, what was the social standing of merchants?
Bottom of society - produced nothing; profited from others' work -supported foreigners and engaged in robbery * (perception)
What was the devshirme?
Boy tax - boys taken from Christian villages and moved to various parts of the Ottoman empire to work in a variety of fields *every 5 years *boys 8-20
Who was Yaroslav the Wise?
Built many churches and introduced Russia's first law code "Pravda Russkia"
What was the capital of the early Ottoman Empire, captured by Osman?
Bursa
What was simony?
Buying high positions within the church hierarchy
How did the tsar rule in imperial Russia e.g. Peter I?
By decree (ukase) *government officials and nobles acted under government authority, but there was no representative body
How were Ottoman subjects divided?
By occupation -askeri (peasants) farmed land on lease by the government -artisans organized into craft guilds -merchants -pastorals (divided into clans led by a bey, hereditary chief)
What was Ivan IV's secret police like?
Called the oprichniki -6K men dressed in black and on black horses -punished anyone who spoke against the tsar or his policies
What technological advancement was crucial to French success in the Hundred Years' War?
Cannon
Who was Catherine II?
Catherine the Great - most renowned and the longest-ruling female leader of Russia -Russia's golden age -continued Peter I's westernization -three partition of Poland, annexation of Crimea and war with Turkey -came to power following a coup d'état, at the end of the Seven Years' War, shortly after which her husband, Peter III, was assassinated -relied on her noble favorites (Grigory Orlov and Grigory Potemkin) -Russian Empire was expanding rapidly by conquest and diplomacy. -started to colonize Alaska -Manifesto on Freedom of the Nobility, issued under Peter III and confirmed by Catherine, freed Russian nobles from compulsory military or state service -presided over the age of the Russian Enlightenment, when the Smolny Institute, the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe, was established
What was the Ming attitude towards families?
Central institution of society -sons preferred over daughters -women in the home -patriarchal family -Confucian filial piety applied to the patriarch and the emperor -all male ancestors worshiped
How did the Ming attempt to prop up the economy?
Changing paper money into a "single-whip" system based on silver currency *inflation when American silver flooded the market
Who was the chief Qazi?
Chief judge that supervised other judges
Who were the Cistercians?
Christian monks that lived strict lives, ate a simple diet and had only one robe -no decorations, more prayer and manual labor -took religion to the people outside the monastery -St. Bernard of Clairvaux
What were the three French estates?
Clergy, nobles and townspeople/peasants Meeting in 1302 began the Estates-General, the first French parliament
What were the three social classes during the High Middle Ages?
Clergy: in charge of spiritual matters to save souls Nobility: landowners whose job was to protect the subjects Third Estate: middle class, peasants, serfs, slaves
What was the difference between an open and a closed view of the universe?
Closed = no supernatural influence on human life Open = God, angels and devils part of human life
How did the Ming dynasty react to foreigners?
Closed China off; monitored foreigners closely -not encouraged to trade overseas ---> loss of technical superiority; couldn't compete with Europe
Who established the Frankish kingdom?
Clovis - first Germanic ruler to convert to Christianity Merovingians
What was the center of male public life in the Ottoman empire?
Coffee houses - trade news and gossip; entertainment by storytellers and musicians
How did Peter I build up the Russian army?
Conscription -25-year term of enlistment -flintlock pistols and bayonets, not old muskets and pikes -artillery improved -discipline enforced -standing army of 210 K
What was the largest city in Europe during the Middle Ages?
Constantinople - greatest center of commerce in the 12th century
What was the social structure of the Ottoman Empire?
Cosmopolitan, heterogeneous mix Many races, religions, ethnicities and languages
Who was John Hus?
Czech reformer denounced corruption in the clergy and excessive power of the pope -accused of heresy by the Council of Constance and burned at the stake
What did rationalists emphasize during the Enlightenment?
Deductive reasoning, mathematical logic Started with "self-evident truths"
What happened during the third Crusade?
Disaster In the end, Richard of England negotiated with Saladin so Christian pilgrims could get free access to Jerusalem
What new system of manufacturing emerge during the Middle Ages?
Domestic system - manufacturing in the worker's home
When did the Mughal Empire reach its apex?
During the rule of Akbar -period of peace -solidified the empire -policy of conquest and conciliation -religious toleration -took four wives (one from each of the major religions) -new religion (Din-i-ilahi) -appointed Hindu officials
What's an example of a limited liability company (LLC) used to finance explorations?
Dutch East India Company 21-year monopoly to carry out trade activities in Asia
Who was Justinian?
Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire -determine to unify the empire again - he did - lost after his death -codified Roman law (The Body of Civil Law or Justinian Code) --> basis for much of Europe's legal system
What did the Mughals import and export?
Export - opium, spices, indigo, textiles, silk and cotton Import - gold, silver, horses, ivory, wine and precious stones
Describe the power of the state clergy in the Safavid empire.
Extremely powerful -land control to create tax shelters that paid annuities and became a tremendous source of their power
What led to the dismantling of the Ottoman Empire, the emergence of Turkism and the formation of the Republic of Turkey?
Failure to get the people in the empire to think of themselves as "Ottoman" in a wake of increasing nationalism
What did Martin Luther believed would lead to salvation?
Faith - justification by faith alone
What political reforms were brought about by Shah Abbas?
Fed up with the Qizilbash, he made his own army made up of converted Christians -seized Qizilbash lands and used the money to fund his gunpowder army--> recapture of Baghdad and pacification of the eastern frontier -imperial bureaucracy
Who was the first to circumnavigate the globe?
Ferdinand Magellan
What was a common form of entertainment among the Mughals?
Fireworks
What's the Domesday Book?
First census taken in Europe since Roman times - included people, manors and farm animals Ordered by William of Normandy
What was the cradle of the Renaissance or rebirth?
Florence
What were the "new monarchies"?
France, England and Spain 15th century -reestablish centralized power of the monarchies
What two religious orders emerged in the 13th century that had a strong impact on the lives of ordinary people?
Franciscans and Dominicans Franciscans - St. Francis of Assisi --> absolute poverty, work and beg for food; lived among the people preaching repentance and aiding the poor - RETURN TO SIMPLICITY Dominicans - Spanish, Dominic de Guzman - wanted to defend the church from heresy
Which one of the many German states lasted?
Franks
What happened during the second Crusade?
French and German king united forces, but failed
What happened during the Hundred Years' War?
French tried to take back some territory in France that belong to the English and war started -French army at a disadvantage because it was heavily armed cavalry , while the English relied mostly on foot soldiers with pikes, heavy spears and long bows
What are the Middle Ages?
From the abdication of Romulus Augustulus (end of Western Roman Empire) to the Renaissance
What happened to the brightest 10% of the boys from the boy tax? What happened to the rest?
Given to the Palace School (the college) and trained for civil service and bureaucracy *Others sent to farms to toughen up and then trained as Janissaries
What explained individual motivation to participate in the Age of Exploration?
God, Gold and Glory -looking for converts -quest for material profit
What were the three G's that brought Europeans to Africa?
God, Government and Glory
What was the hierarchy of the Men of the Sword?
Grand Vizier Aga of Janissaries Imperial Barracks Pasha - honorary title granted to governors, generals and dignitaries, etc, similar to peerage or knighthood Sipahis Janissaries
What was the hierarchy of the Men of the Pen?
Grand Vizier Sublime Porte - central government Vali - governors of administrative divisions Defender
What was Emperor Justinian's crowning architectural achievement?
Hagia Sophia - Church of the Holy Wisdom
Who are the most famous conquistadores?
Hernan Cortes - Aztecs Francisco Pizarro - Inca
What was the only difference between the beliefs of the church and of the humanists?
Humanists believed that this life was important and should be enjoyed; the church felt people should focus on the afterlife
How were mansabdars paid?
In cash or with a jagir (temporary right to collect revenues)
What was the Mughal Empire?
Indian Empire ruled by a Muslim minority
During whose papacy did the Catholic church reach the height of its political power?
Innocent III -believed in papal supremacy -used interdicts (withholding sacraments) to exert pressure on rulers
Why did China suffer from pirate and smuggler attacks during the Ming dynasty?
Inoperable navy - no one to protect them
What was scholasticism?
Institutions created to explore ideas - universities Inspired by the Crusades due ancient texts that had been housed in the Muslim world making their way to Europe -Aristotle, Ptolemy, etc...
How did Akbar divide his reign?
Into provinces (subas), districts, towns and villages with their governing, tax-collecting, judicial, etc
Who began the political and religious Safavid Empire?
Isma'il (14 y/o) - aid of Turkish-speaking military tribes (kizilbash= red hats) and advisers took over Armenia and Azerbayjan -proclaimed shah in Tabriz
What was the conflict between the Safavid and the Ottoman empire?
Isma'il destroyed the Sunni in Baghdad Sultan at the time, Selim the Grim (Suleiman's father) ordered execution of all Shi'a in the Ottoman Empire
How did the slave trade affect trade in Africa?
It shifted existing trade routes, causing earlier, profitable trading patterns and routes to disappear
Who declared Russia free of Mongol rule?
Ivan III (the Great) - refused to pay tribute to the Mongols -declared himself tsar and focused on expanding Muscovy territory -married a Byzantine princess (connection to the Orthodox Church) -symbols of imperial rule (imperial eagle on coat of arms; genealogy tracing family origins to the Roman Caesars) -declared Moscow the Third Rome (center of Eastern Orthodox Church)
Who was Akbar's son and what mistake would he make?
Jahangir - allowed foreigners to begin trading
What was timar?
Land granted for life by the Ottoman sultans to the ruling class (timariot); not for inheritance -given to those committed to Islam and the Sultan, well-versed in Turkish and the culture of the Imperial Court
How was land ownership connected to the state in imperial Russia?
Landowners owed lifetime service to the state (military, civil or court) --> received land and serfs to work it
What was the Boxer Rebellion?
Launched by Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists -tried to rid China of "foreign devils" -rebellion was crushed
What was the Hanseatic League?
League of wealthy merchants called burghers that became politically powerful wanted to unite towns to control trade -economic alliance in northern Europe of guilds and trading cities who controlled trade
What was the method of teaching used in medieval universities?
Lecture - books weren't affordable before the printing press Professors read from the text and added their explanations No exam, just a final oral examination at the end of the period of study for the given degree
According to the philosophes, what would society stand to lose if it took up reason?
Lose: fanatical wars, persecution of "heretics", rule of absolute monarchs and aristocrats, general ignorance and backwardness, slavery, torture and cruel punishment
Who was the considered the greatest medieval French king?
Louis IX -deeply religious -justice for the people
What French king greatly encouraged the development of a strong state?
Louis XI - The Spider -used the taille (direct tax on land or property every year) --> regular source of income
What are the three periods of the Middle Ages?
Lower - 500-1000 CE High 1000-1250 CE Late 1250-1500
What were the main requirements to belong to the ruling class in the Ottoman empire?
Loyalty and devotion to the sultan and the state *a lot of mobility in the social structure
What was the chief virtue in feudal society?
Loyalty to one's lord
What was the role of aristocratic women during feudalism?
Manage the household when the lord was away -overseeing food supply and maintaining all supplies needed for smooth operation
Where the Qing from?
Manchuria -stayed as an ethnic elite and forbade interaction with the Chinese (illegal to learn Manchu language, intermarry or migrate to Manchuria)
How was Spain unified?
Marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon -policy of strict conformity to Catholicism -expelled Jews and Muslims from Spain -to be Spanish was to be Catholic
What were the three pillars of Ottoman government?
Men of the Sword - defined law and order, military, soldiers Men of the Pen - legal, economic, tax collectors, intellectuals, Kanun law (secular legal system used along religious law) Men of the Turban -courts, schools and mosques, Shari'a Law, religious scholars
What was the Hanseatic League?
Merchant league with trading rights -put pressure on enemies by stopping trade -wage war to win back trading rights
How did the Time of Troubles end?
Mikhail Romanov elected tsar in 1613 - beginning of the Romanov dynasty
Who were the Qizilbash (Kizilbash)?
Military force of the Safavid Empire until the reign of Shah Abbas - Shi'ites from the Eastern Ottoman Empire, of Turkish descent (wore red headgear with 12 folds --> known as "redheads")
How were the Janissaries eliminated?
Military group funded by Sultan Mahmud II in 826 hunted them down and killed them "the Auspicious Incident"
What was the basis for Manchu power under the Qing?
Military strength and corrupt, ineffective Ming government -strong and effective leadership with concern for the people's welfare and the promotion of agriculture -kept Confucianism
How did female slavery work in the Ottoman Empire?
Most came from the Caucasus region -some brought to the Sultan's harem and would be educated in the hope to be married to an Ottoman official *very few were sexual partners to the sultan
How did the sultans of India differ from those of the Ottoman and Safavid empires?
Mughals ruled over a land of infidels and had to find a formula for Hindu-Muslim coexistence *emulated, to some degree, Ottoman tolerance
What was the role of music in almost all African societies?
Music for almost all occasions
What did Mehmed the Conqueror achieve?
Muslim defeat of the Byzantine Empire and capture of Constantinople -Constantinople made capital city
How was the next sultan chosen in the Ottoman empire?
Not by primogeniture, but by fratricide (ability to eliminate the others) OR those closest to the capital at the death of the ruler would win *by 1617 they would put siblings in a cage instead of killing them
How did Ivan the Great and his grandson, Ivan the Terrible, expand Russia eastward?
Offered peasants freedom from feudal lords if they settled east (had to do it themselves) --> peasant-soldiers called Cossacks (16th-18th centuries into Siberia and down to the Caspian Sea)
Who were the Raskolniki?
Old believers who refused to accept Western innovations o liturgy in the Russian Orthodox church (persecuted for it)
Under the Qing, what was the system of dual appointments?
One Manchu official and one Chinese - most work done by the Chinese appointee ; Manchu there to ensure loyalty
Under whose rule was the Ottoman empire formed?
Osman - a ghazi (warrior) grouped little princedoms (ouliks) under one state
Who was the best-known Saxon king of Germany?
Otto I - crowned emperor of the Romans (not used since Charlemagne)
What were the three Muslim Gunpowder Empires?
Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal
How did Shah Jahan reform the system of mansabs?
Paying the mansabdars 4 out of 12 months
What was the impact of calligraphy in the Safavid empire?
People turned towards the written words as a form of art (forbidden from painting people or animals - anything with a soul) -bits of the Qur'an or the Shahnameh (Book of Kings - epic poem)
What was the Time of Troubles?
Period of Russian history after the death of Ivan the Terrible 1604-1613 Pretenders (nobles - boyars) took the throne and were killed, one after another.
What was the style of poetry under the Safavid?
Persian-Hindi (made its way to India)
Why was the Spanish armada defeated?
Philip II sent it to convey troops from the Netherlands to England as part of a plan to make England Catholic -defeated due to superior naval tactics and a wind that made it impossible for the Spanish to accomplish their goal
What was the struggle between Pope Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France about?
Philip IV wanted to tax the clergy of France and the Pope said he couldn't do that without his consent, since the popes were supreme over church and state. -Philip called for the first meeting of the Estates General and charged the pope with heresy and selling jobs in the church. He sent troops to Italy to bring the pope in for trial - he escaped, but died soon after -Philip put a Frenchman in the papacy, Clement V and moved him to Avignon (Babylonian Captivity)
What was the Catholic Crusade?
Philip of Spain led Catholic attack against the Protestants
What was the name for the intellectuals of the Enlightenment?
Philosophes
What was scholasticism?
Philosophical and theological system Reconcile faith and reason - harmonize Christian teachings with Greek philosophy, particularly Aristotle *St. Thomas Aquinas - Summa Theologica
Whats humanism?
Philosophy that defined the Renaissance 1. admiration and emulation of ancient Greeks and Romans 2. Philosophy of enjoying life, instead of waiting for the next one 3. Glorification of humans and the belief that individuals can do anything 4. Belief that humans deserved to be the center of attention
In the system of devshirme, how did the Ottomans sorted through the boys to determine their capabilities?
Phrenology - examined bumps on the head
What happened to Persian poetry under the Safavids?
Poetry stagnated ghazal (lyric poem) lacked royal patronage
What did the Magna Carta consist of?
Preamble + 63 clauses 9 groups 1. Church - freedom 2. Statements of feudal law - for those holding lands directly from the crown 3.Similar rights for subtenants 4. Towns, trade and merchants 5. Reform of law and justice 6. Control of behavior of royal officials 7. Royal forests 8. Immediate issues requiring dismissal of foreign mercenaries 9. Security for the king's adherence to the charter - council of 25 barons had ultimate right to wage war
What was education like during the Ming dynasty?
Preparation for civil service exams --local education flourished and enabled rural and urban poor a chance to take the exams
Who was John Wycliffe?
Priest and teacher at Oxford -Church was immoral and had too much wealth; didn't believe in absolute power of the pope -the authority of the church should be replaced with that of the Bible (individual interpretation without church intervention) -promoted first translation of the Bible into English -accused of being a heretic, banned from teaching and forced to retire (no execution)
What was the Qing social hierarchy like?
Privileged classes (emperor, scholar bureaucrats and landowners), commoners (peasants, artisans and workers and merchants) and the lowest of the low (actors, beggars and prostitutes)
What is an example of Islamic laws under the Mughals that restricted women?
Purdah - isolation of women * living in a separate room or behind a curtain, or of dressing in all-enveloping clothes, in order to stay out of the sight of men or strangers.
What inspired African art?
Religion, kingship and personal beautification *becomes accessible to all in the 1500s-1900s
Who were some of the great Enlightenment thinkers?
Rene Descartes -"I think, therefore I am" Benedict de Spinoza -rational pantheism; God = nature; denied free will and ended up with impersonal, mechanical universe Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz -symbolic logic, calculus, invented calculating machine -mechanistic worldview -God as a hypothetical abstractin
What was the importance of gardens in the Mughal empire?
Represented the Islamic idea of paradise *popular charbagh gardens (four parts with a water feature in the center)
What were the two competing styles of the Enlightenment?
Rococo and Neo-classicism -Rococo: known as Late Baroque; art of the nobility; airy grace and refined pleasures, very pretty, bright and swirling pastel colors e.g. Rubenism; break away from Baroque past and emphasize light and airy movement Famous painters: Francois Boucher and Fragonard -Neoclassicism: favored line over color; drama, tension, emotion, content, imitation of the ancients Famous painter: Jacques Louis David
What happened during the fourth crusade?
Sacking of Constantinople
What were the cultural developments during the reign of Shah Abbas?
Safavid culture mixed the best of Ottoman, Persian and Arab worlds + Chinese artisans collaborated with Safavid artists *city of Isfahan (Shah Abbas' new capital) - mosques, palaces, marketplaces "Isfahan is half the world" - cultural explosion -cultural blend of worldly and artistic features of Persian civilization with Shi'ism
Who founded Christian monasticism?
Saint Benedict -founded a community of monks and set the rules (Benedictine rule) -emphasis on prayer and manual labor -communal life with other monks, not solitude
What was lay investiture?
Secular rulers chose nominees to church offices and gave them the symbols of their office -Pope Gregory VII fought this practice by issuing a decree -King Henry IV of Germany didn't like the opposition of the Pope
What happened at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514?
Selim and Isma'il face-off Ottomans destroyed the Safavid thanks to technological superiority *border created between Turkey and Iran *Isma'il claimed he still had God's blessing because he had saved him in battle and his rule remained intact "never smiled again"
Up to the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, how were the sons of a sultan trained for political life?
Sent to the provinces and given an area to rule -with advisers and mother's help
What was the Treaty of Tordesillas?
Settled dispute between Portugal and Spain by setting a line of demarcation
Who established the new imperial bazaar?
Shah Abbas -housed imperial manufacturing like wholesale silk and fine textiles, goldsmiths, silversmiths and jewelers
Who was Jahangir's son and what did he do?
Shah Jahan - tolerant of Hindus but wanted to quell future Hindu development - ordered new Hindu temples destroyed
What was the social structure like in the Safavid empire?
Shah, bureaucracy, landed classes, common people
What was the hierarchy of the Men of the Turban?
Shaykh al Islam (an honorific title used for outstanding scholars of the Islamic sciences) Suleymaniyya Mufti - religious scholars who issue influential legal opinions (fatwas) interpreting Sharia (Islamic law) qadi- a judge ruling in accordance with Islamic religious law (sharia), appointed by the ruler of a Muslim country. Qadis traditionally have jurisdiction over all legal matters involving Muslims.
What was the religion that Isma'il proclaimed as the official religion of the state? What was the religion of the majority of his subjects?
Shi'ism The majority were Sunni *enforced it violently, put people to death if they didn't convert or at least pretended to
Who was Pepin?
Son of Charles Martel AKA The Hammer (defeated Muslims at the Battle of Tours) - occupied the throne as a mayor of the palace- his son was Charlemagne
Who were empiricists? Mention some of the most famous ones.
Stressed inductive information (scientific method) John Locke -environment important in development -knowledge classified as according to reason, contrary to it or above it -reason and revelation complementary and from God David Hume -limitations of human reasoning; skeptic Voltaire -social critic, made fun of almost everything -popularized science (understanding of Newton's work) -hated religion because it was intolerant; should be a private matter Diderot -Encyclopedia (banned, but still distributed) Baron de Montesquieu -societies and political institutions can be studied scientifically -government checks and balances
Who headed provincial administrator in Akbar's system?
Subedar (holder of a suba - governors)
Under whom did Ottoman culture reach its zenith?
Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566) -money into public construction, learning institutions and the arts -literary and artistic achievements
What caused the emergence of craftspeople (specialization of labor) and the growth of towns and cities during feudalism?
Surplus *eventually led to trade, a banking system and middle class
In the system of devshirme, who were considered lucky?
Taken to Istanbul, converted to Islam, trained, educated and entered service as Janissaries
What was achieved during the first Crusade?
Taking of Jerusalem
What ended manorialism?
The Black Death
What was the Peace of Augsburg?
The German princes had the right to choose the religion of the state - settle dispute between Lutherans and Catholics (no provision for Calvinists)
What was the Inquisition?
The Holy Office - a court to find and try heretics *Dominicans ran it
What were the two divisions of the Ottoman military?
The Janissaries and the sipahi Sipahi were semi-feudal cavalry - officers paid in land and given the right to its revenues; had to provide a number of fighters *cavalry decreased in importance as gunpowder use increased
What was the Enlightenment's Republic of letters?
The Republic of Letters (Respublica literaria) is the long-distance intellectual community in the late 17th and 18th centuries in Europe and America. It fostered communication among the intellectuals of the Age of Enlightenment, or "philosophes" as they were called in France. *journals and newspapers circulated among the elite, though all classes and backgrounds could join
Who continued westernization of Russia?
The Romanovs -developed trade and manufacturing, practiced medicine, smoke tobacco, beard trimming, western clothing
Who was the valide-sultan?
The Sultan's mother -in charge of reproductive politics (decided on her son's sexual partners) -budget of the Harem and payments -in charge of training the next sultan
What were the Janissary Corps?
The Sultan's standing army -Balkan slaves gained through the boy tax *converted to Islam, learned Turkish
Who was Aurangzeb?
The most educated of the Mughal emperor and most conservative and intolerant -persecuted Hindus and put Islam above all other religions -his religious policies led to conflict within the empire (it was at its largest, but also its weakest)
What was Tanzimat?
The period of "restructuring" in the 19th century where the Ottoman empire sought to give minorities more freedom to keep them from breaking away - equal citizenship *didn't work
What tactic did the Ottomans use in continuing to expand and meld territories into the Ottoman Empire?
The slave system
What was the most highly regarded area of study in Medieval universities?
Theology
What was the Great Schism?
There were two popes, one in Rome and one in Avignon (1378-1417) -undermined the faith in the papacy and the Church *ended in Constance, Switzerland
How did the Ming isolate themselves from Chinese life?
They ruled through eunuch servants and administrators -inoperable navy -no shipping industry
How did pastoral societies in Africa become more complex between 1500-1900?
Three types of pastoral societies emerged: nomadic pastoralists, transhumance pastoralists and agro-pastolarists (mixed farmers) Pastoral nomads follow a seasonal migratory pattern that can vary from year to year, depending on the needs of the herd animals for water and fodder. No permanent settlements. Usually self-sufficient in terms of food and most other necessities. Transhumance pastoralists - follow a cyclical pattern of migrations that usually take them to cool highland valleys in the summer and warmer lowland valleys in the winter. Permanent houses in two locations. Often do small scale vegetable farming at their summer encampments. More likely to trade their animals in town markets for grain and other things that they do not produce themselves.
In terms of its rule, what was the Mughal empire known for?
Tolerance and syncretism (the amalgamation or attempted amalgamation of different religions, cultures, or schools of thought)
What played a great factor in the economic set-up of the Safavid Empire?
Trade - particularly the Silk Road Exported rugs, textiles and silk *Shah Abbas encouraged development of hand-woven Persian carpets
What was the Lombard League?
Trading centers of the Lombardy region of Italy joined together to defeat Frederick Barbarossa Settlement: Recognize Barbarossa as overlord, but the cities govern themselves
What was a turning point in Ottoman history?
Treaty of Karlowitz -give up Hungary and Transylvania -ushered in decline
What was the most popular vernacular literature in the 12th century?
Troubadour poetry Chanson de geste (heroic epic) - e.g. Song of Roland
Who was the first to cross the Isthmus of Panama?
Vasco Nunez de Balboa
Who was the first European to reach India by sea, linking Europe and Asia for the first time by ocean route?
Vasco da Gama
What was Henry II's problem with the Roman Catholic Church?
Wanted the power to punish clergymen in royal courts, but Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, claimed clerics could only be tried in their own court. -Thomas Becket assassinated by Henry's knights and people were outraged, so Henry II backed down
What was the War of the Roses?
War over England's throne York vs. Lancaster York - white rose Lancaster - red *Won by Henry Tudor of the house of Lancaster
How was Ottoman society a partial meritocracy?
What mattered was whether the person had talent - that gave preferential treatment *Jewish and Christian talent chosen, regardless of religion or connections
What happened at the Battle of Hastings and why is it important?
William of Normandy England and defeated King Harold -William was crowned king of England and made the nobles swear an oath of loyalty -merging of the Anglo-Saxon and French cultures -developed system of taxation and royal courts
Who were the ahadis?
Young men who didn't have mansabdars but were employed in the palace *chance to advnace and get a mansab through merit
What was the pomest'ia system?
a system of land tenure that originated in the Russian state in the 15th to 17th centuries, when the grand prince (after 1547, the grand duke), or tsar distributed land to the dvoriane (nobility or gentry) in exchange for service (primarily military service). -first large-scale distribution of pomest'ia was carried out by Grand Prince Ivan III in Novgorod * economically significant because it contributed to the development of newly acquired territories, particularly in the south * sociopolitical function was to ensure the material well-being of the dvorianstvo (nobility or gentry), the main social support of the state in its struggle against feudal fragmentation.
Briefly, describe the organization of the Christian church in the 4th century
parishes were led by priests--> group of parishes by a bishop (bishopric or diocese) --> bishoprics under the archbishop *bishop of Rome accepted as head of the church = Pope
What were the two main social groups in Ottoman society?
ruling class and subjects
Who were the patwari?
village accountants - maintained financial records *considered an agent of the people, not the government (changed under the British)
