World History: Module 4 Review

(4.02)What Is a City-State?

A city-state is a sovereign state, also described as a type of small independent country, that usually consists of a single city and its dependent territories. Historically, this included cities such as Rome, Athens, Carthage, and the Italian city-states during the Renaissance.

(4.01) The Great or Western Schism 1378-1417

A dispute over taxes between the French king and the pope in Rome fractured the Church. King Philip of France, established in Avignon, France, named Clement V as pope. Of course, there was also a pope, named Boniface, in Rome. Thus, there were two rival popes: a pope and an anti-pope. For most of the 14th century, the Great Schism divided the Church. Some medieval Christians believed that the Great Schism angered God. They believed God sent the plague to punish the Church and its flock. This period really divided the Church along national lines.

(4.06) Early Spanish Conquistador Encounters with Native Americans

After learning that the Aztecs dominated the region, he gained support from the Tlaxcala Indians and other native tribes, who had been at constant war with the Aztecs. Soon he headed for the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, located in the interior of Mexico.

(4.03) Middle Class

Along with humanism came an expansion of the middle class. This was mostly because of the decline of the feudal system, where people were slotted into certain roles within the social structure without the ability to ever change their circumstances. As the city-states of Italy became stronger, and instead of rulers who had power simply because they were born as nobles, a class of wealthy merchants took control of the city-states. This created a new independence from the old class structures. People could hope to rise in status regardless of their birth. This made it possible for artists like Giotto (a shepherd boy) and da Vinci (born to an unwed peasant woman) to become renowned and valued. The wealth of the city-states also fostered the patronage system, where wealthy merchants acted as patrons.

(4.01) Danse Macabre

Another reaction to the Black Plague was the production of art. Danse Macabre, also known as the Dance of Death, were paintings prompted by the Black Plague. The paintings showed Death leading people to their grave. These paintings usually included four people from all different stations in life ranging from kings to children, all in the form of skeletons. The significance of these painting was to show that life was fragile and death unites everyone.

(4.03) Spain

Another writer journeyed from Spain to Italy in 1569. Miguel de Cervantes was only twenty-two when he was exposed to humanism and other Renaissance ideas. Cervantes would go on to write the novel Don Quixote de la Mancha. It was about an idealistic man who believes he is a knight and goes on a quest. But he is often deceived by what he sees. The book was a bridge between the medieval romance tale and the modern novel. It was influenced by the humanistic idea that people in their reality were just as important as one-dimensional symbolic characters.

(4.01) Mutation

As often happens with rampant infectious diseases, the bacteria that caused bubonic plague in people soon mutated (their genetic make-up changed). The new disease strain, called pneumonic plague, did not cause buboes. Instead, the mutated plague affected the lungs. The lung infection acted very quickly; a person could feel fine in the morning and be dead of pneumonic plague by that night.

(4.07) How Did the African Slave Trade Emerge?

As you have learned, Europeans realized that Africans were more resistant to disease and, because of this, better workers on their colonial plantations and mines than Native Americans. To obtain enslaved Africans, European powers started the Atlantic slave trade with domains in West Africa. In the early 1500s, the Spanish and Portuguese began this trade to supply workers for their sugar plantations in the Americas. By the early 1600s, the Netherlands, France, and England also became involved with this trade. These countries made huge profits from the Atlantic slave trade.

(4.05) Chinese Exploration

Between the years 1405 and 1433, seven major naval expeditions sailed around the vast Indian Ocean to India, Africa, and Arabia. However, upon the death of Zhu Di, the new leadership in China decided to scale back these voyages. The reasons for this scaling back are still debated, but it was likely an economic decision.

(4.05) Trade

But the early Spanish and Portuguese explorers were not simply looking for new people and places to exploit or convert. They had a much more practical reason for looking abroad. They wanted to open up new trade routes. In search of Asian luxury items like silks, spices, jewels, and porcelains, traders tried to find ways to bypass Muslim territories so they could trade directly with Asia. The Italian city-states controlled trade with Asia, and this fueled their growth. Spain and Portugal wanted to find a way to get around Italy's control. Since they lacked knowledge in navigation, they looked to explorers to achieve this.

(4.01) The spread of the Black Death

By the 14th century, extensive and profitable trade routes wended their way from Asia to Europe (and back again). Unfortunately, not all black rats stayed on their Asian farms; many stowed away on trading ships. Literally every ship that plied the seas along this trade route was infested with rats. The rats would board the ships by scurrying along ropes when the ship was in harbor.

(4.06) The Early Portuguese Encounter with Native Americans

Cabral took this route because he wanted to avoid the Gulf of Guinea, a trouble spot for sailors along the western African coast. Also, the Portuguese wanted Cabral to investigate their lands in South America.

(4.03) How Did Elements of Classical, Byzantine, Islamic, and Western European Culture Influence Renaissance Art, Architecture, and Literature?

Classical influences are especially apparent in Renaissance architecture. Recall that in ancient Greek and Rome, many of the buildings featured stately columns. These columns, referred to as "orders," were called Doric, Ionian, and Corinthian, depending on their shapes and styles. Many Renaissance structures also included these columns. In addition, Classical architecture emphasized symmetry. Ancient Greeks and Romans wanted their buildings to mimic the orderliness and balance of nature, their society, and even the human body. Renaissance architects used similar ideas in designing their structures.

(4.02) The Kingdom of Naples

Coastal Naples was an important area for trade in southern Italy, but it was less urban than some of the northern city-states.

(4.03) Copernicus and the universe

Copernicus created this view of the universe, with Earth and other planets revolving around the sun. It may seem strange to us now that people would think of the Earth at the center of the universe, but is it really that far-fetched? Look at how the sun appears to move across the sky. In many ways, it is quite logical to think of the Earth standing still while the other heavenly bodies move around us.

(4.05) How Do We Get There?

During the Age of Exploration, some of the most important technological advances were related to shipbuilding and navigating across a vast and uncharted ocean. In a relatively short period of time, Europeans went from using medieval ships that were relatively useless for long voyages to fast, advanced ships that could circle the world.

(4.03) Who Else Was Writing at This Time? And How Were They Influenced by the Renaissance?

During the Renaissance period in Italy, Niccolo Machiavelli of Florence wrote his most famous book, The Prince. Machiavelli was a humanist, like Petrarch before him. But instead of looking into the past to understand the present, Machiavelli's book looked at his world with a truthful eye. While Machiavelli believed in democracy, The Prince actually shows the common political theory that "the end justifies the means." Politicians of his time felt that it didn't matter how they achieved their goals, as long as they got what they wanted. Machiavelli dedicated The Prince to Lorenzo de Medici because his book reflected the practices of the ruling family.

(4.03) Humanism

During the Renaissance, which means "rebirth," humanism placed new value on the individual rather than the framework of the Church. It demonstrated that the human race had huge potential and that human beings could achieve great things in the world, rather than focusing on just the greater glory of God. This application of reason toward the study of man and the natural world is sometimes referred to as secular humanism. Humanists believed that ideas, art, and inventions were valuable in themselves, not just for the glorification of God, and that there could be less emphasis on religion. Humanism allowed artists to paint portraits of secular, non-religious people and places. Writers could write literature in the vernacular of the people and not just in Latin. Other Renaissance thinkers were able to create inventions and building projects that benefited people and made everyday life easier.

(4.03) How Did Art Change as a Result of the Renaissance?

During the medieval era, pictures were painted in a flat, rigid, unrealistic style. The art of using perspective, which makes it possible for an artist to create a feeling of three dimensions on a two-dimensional canvas, had been lost.

(4.04) What Was the Reformation?

Each December, the editors of Time choose a "Person of the Year" for the magazine's cover. This choice identifies the individual who has, in the opinion of the editors, had the greatest impact on the United States or on the world as a whole. In 2011, the honor did not go to a specific person. Instead, it went to "The Protester." Throughout the world, protesters called on powerful people to "walk the walk." They wanted the powerful to live up to ideals of justice and integrity.

(4.03) Moving North

Eventually the artistic innovations of the Renaissance began to filter northward as artists in other parts of Europe were exposed to the styles of the Italian artists. Albrecht Durer of Germany, who worked in the early 1500s, was the first northern artist to be directly influenced by the Italian painters. He was known for his woodcuts, engravings, and his ability to correctly portray the proportions of the human body. Jan Van Eyck, a Flemish painter working in the early to mid 1400s, was known as the first master of oil painting. He was especially known for his ability to portray light and reflections in his paintings. El Greco, who was born in Greece but eventually moved to Venice in 1567 and then Spain, was known for his innovative layouts and the bright use of color in his paintings. Velazquez was another artist from Spain who painted in the early 1600s and had been influenced by Venetian artists. He was known for his lifelike portraits and became an official portrait painter for the king of Spain.

(4.05) Ferdinand Magellan

Ferdinand Magellan followed in da Gama's path, sailing to India from Portugal in 1513 to trade Portuguese goods for Indian spices. Magellan had a theory that India could be reached by sailing west, instead of south and then east. He presented his plan to the Spanish, who agreed to fund his westward expedition.

(4.02) The Republic of Florence

Florence was a shining example of an Italian city-state during the Renaissance. It was a center for art, culture, and banking.

(4.06) What Is the Columbian Exchange?

From the moment Europeans first set foot in the Americas, certain animals, plants, and diseases began to cross the Atlantic. This transfer is called the Columbian Exchange. The Columbian Exchange is one of the biggest ecological events in human history.

(4.03) Moveable type

Have you ever heard the statement "Mind your P's and Q's"? Have you ever wondered where this came from? Well, it comes from the invention of movable type. For a printer, it was important to keep the "p's" and "q's" separate so that they wouldn't get confused. An early printing press is shown above. Notice how one man pulls a printed piece of paper from the press, as another man uses two mallet-like tools to press ink into it. In the background, two other people set the type.

(4.05) God,Gold,Glory

Historians often summarize the motivations for exploration by Europeans at this time by using the shorthand "God, Gold, and Glory." Consider what we already learned about "push/pull factors." How would you describe these three motivations? Are they push factors, pull factors, or both?

(4.03) England

However, Italy was not the only place where literature was flourishing during the Renaissance. In England between 1589 and 1613, William Shakespeare was writing his plays. Shakespeare was influenced by humanism. Because of this, he was able to fully explore his characters' emotions. He could make them human, with human failings, even when they were monarchs or other important people. He was also influenced by Greek and Roman stories in his plays, often borrowing subject matter from them.

(4.04) Who Led the Reformation?

Imagine that you are a member of a non-profit organization that provides food to homeless citizens. You believe in what you're doing and you see the difference your group is making in the community. Over time, however, you learn that the group's leaders are corrupt. They take the money that the group raises to buy food to feed the homeless and, instead, use the money for personal gain. What would you do? How might you deal with the corrupt leaders? In the early 1500s, Martin Luther, a German monk, was faced with similar questions. How did Luther respond? With a hammer and a nail. Luther created a list of complaints about the Catholic Church and its practices and nailed those complaints to the door of a German church. His actions launched what is officially known as the Reformation.

(4.06) Early French Encounter with Native Americans

In 1603, a Frenchman named Samuel de Champlain accompanied an expedition to what is now called the St. Lawrence River. He wrote a report of this journey that was published in France. Five years later, Champlain led a group of 32 colonists to found the colony of Quebec in present-day Canada. After establishing the colony, the settlers were hit with a severe winter. As a result, only Champlain and eight others survived.

(4.06) Early British Encounter with Native Americans

In 1606, the English king granted a charter for the organization of the Virginia Company of London. The purpose of the company was to establish a colony in North America. The colonists would locate gold and silver deposits. Once mined, these deposits would provide profits to the investors in the company. Also, the Virginia Company wanted the settlers to find a river route to the Pacific Ocean for trade with Asia.

(4.04) The counter reformation

In addition to the Council of Trent, the Catholic Church took significant steps to spread Catholic doctrine and to fend off what it regarded as dangerous attacks. In 1534, Pope Paul III granted permission to a Spanish priest, Ignatius of Loyola, to organize a new society, or order, in the priesthood. This group was known as the Society of Jesus, and the priests who joined it were called Jesuits.

(4.07) Is That What Slavery Looks Like?

In the triangular slave trade, the route from West Africa to the Caribbean along which enslaved Africans were transported is called the Middle Passage. The captains of the slave ships used two methods to load the slaves: loose packing and tight packing. With the first approach, fewer slaves were loaded onto ships with the hope that such packing would reduce losses resulting from disease and death among their cargo.

(4.07)Does Slavery Still Exist?

In today's world there are more than 30 million slaves. It seems hard to imagine! Yet slavery can be found in almost every country in the world. In fact, in the United States, there are more than 100,000 slaves, and about 17,000 new victims are transported across U.S. borders each year. The modern slave trade is often referred to as human trafficking. As in years past, today's slaves are forced to do work with no pay. Human trafficking is highly lucrative, and traffickers often make huge profits.

(4.03) How Did the Renaissance Begin, and What Changes Did It Bring?

It may seem like the Renaissance took place a very long time ago and couldn't possibly have anything to do with your life today. But there are things around you every day that are a result of the Renaissance, things like the columns and arches at the entrance to your school or even the book you read in the library. We even call someone talented in many areas a "Renaissance Man" or "Renaissance Woman." The way we think about individuality and individual expression is also a product of the Renaissance. As you can see, the elements of the Renaissance are all around you.

(4.05) Who Were These Explorers, and Where Did They Go?

It's true that a considerable amount of exploration was made by the Portuguese and Spanish during this time. However, these were not the only exploration efforts made. Other Europeans were also eager to get into the game. The Dutch and the English both launched expeditions in the 15th and 16th centuries. Not long after these voyages, the Russians launched their own series of explorations. They traveled through Siberia establishing outposts and ultimately reached the Pacific Ocean. Even the Chinese were making discoveries at this time.

(4.02) What Caused the Rise of Italy's City-States?

Italy is a boot-shaped land that stretches for 700 miles from the mountains of the Alps to the Mediterranean Sea. This location made Italy a natural travel route between Europe, northern Africa, and the Far East. As a result, several Italian cities became important centers for trade, banking, and other kinds of commerce.

(4.01) How Did the Black Death Affect Individuals?

Like many diseases, the plague begins with a fever. After one or two days, lymph glands under the arms and in other parts of the body begin to swell. The fever rises, and the swellings, called buboes, become huge and start to turn black, causing terrible pain. As the fever continues to rise, the brain is affected and the ailing person becomes delirious and disoriented. Usually, death arrives after about five excruciating days.

(4.02) Why Was Venice the First City-State?

Located on the Adriatic Sea in the northeast of Italy's "boot," it was in the best position for trade with the East. As early as 1000 CE, Venice had already developed a strong economy by carrying goods by ship between Europe and the Byzantine Empire. During the Crusades, Venetian ships carried Crusaders east and brought back riches from those countries. Many Venetian merchants became very rich. It was a city concerned with trade and money making, but also a place where people from all over the world mingled, both European Christians and those who practiced Islam. In this way, ideas and influences from many cultures of the world made their way into Europe and helped fuel the Renaissance.

(4.03)Perspective

Look at how this image shows perspective. Can you see how this two-dimensional image creates the illusion of three dimensions?

(4.01) Sinners

Many medieval Christians believed that the Black Death was God's way of punishing them for their sinfulness. Many people repented from displeasing God and acting against Christian principles. They believed if they truly repented, God would spare them, and they would not die of the plague.

(4.02)What About Milan and Naples?

Milan, a city located on the plains in the northern part of Italy, gained a reputation as the most aggressive of the Italian city-states. It was ruled by the Visconti family, and then the Sforza family. While they were strong and often cruel rulers, they formed Milan into one of the most powerful and wealthy of the city-states.

(4.02) The Duchy of Milan

Milan, ruled by the Sforza family, was one of the most aggressive and wealthiest city-states conquering much of northern Italy.

(4.05) Is There More to Find?

On July 20, 1969, humans first set foot on the Moon. The American astronauts who stepped onto the Moon's surface were not looking for riches. They were there because humans have an unquenchable desire to explore the new and the unknown. Once we knew we were able to study the Moon, we set our sights on other, previously unattainable parts of the universe.

(4.05) Mercantilism

Once the Spanish had conquered all of Spain, two related things happened. One, there was a resurgence of nationalism springing from the fact that Christian armies had united the country under the united Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. And two, there was a surplus of well-trained soldiers with years of experience but with nothing else left to conquer in Spain. Not surprisingly, the energy and spirit of conquest was transferred to the exploration of new places. Indeed, the kingdom of Castile encouraged this transfer. They hoped to benefit from the wealth this exploration would bring. The acquisition and accumulation of wealth was extremely important, particularly because of the mercantile system of economics that dominated Europe at this time. Spain had to act quickly and boldly to match the power and wealth that the Italian city-states had gained through trade.

(4.03) Who Were Some of the Other Artists of the Renaissance?

Other famous artists of the Italian Renaissance included Michelangelo (1475-1564), who is very well known for his painting on the ceiling of Rome's Sistine Chapel, Donatello(1386-1466), known for his sculptures, and Titian (1490-1576), a painter known for his use of color.

(4.05) Prince Henry the Navigator

Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal is often credited with fueling an interest in exploration in Portugal. Despite the name, however, Henry himself was not an explorer. Rather, he is credited with funding expeditions and encouraging the development of navigation technologies.

(4.02) The Papal States

Rome was part of the Papal States during the Renaissance and was controlled by the Catholic Church and the pope.

(4.06) How Did the Columbian Exchange Transfer Diseases?

Sadly, there was a deadly element to the Columbian Exchange: disease. While some diseases traveled from the Americas to Europe, by far the most deadly traveled from Europe to the Americas. These diseases wiped out or greatly reduced the native populations throughout the New World. Native people had no previous exposure to the viruses, thus their immune systems lacked defenses against them. The most deadly of these diseases were typhus, measles, bubonic plague, malaria, and worst of all, smallpox.

(4.07) How Has Slavery Changed Throughout History?

Since ancient times, slavery has been practiced in most regions throughout the world. Scholars believe that slavery most likely started with farming. Why? People gained prisoners by capturing them during war and then decided to use them to help farm their land. These people were forced to do their work and usually were given no pay. The first records of slavery came from Sumeria in Mesopotamia from around 3500 BCE. The practice spread through Southwest Asia and eventually gained a foothold in ancient Greece and, later, ancient Rome. In addition, slavery was practiced in India, China, Meso- and South America, and parts of Africa.

(4.01) The Flagellants

Some Christians thought the Black Death signaled the "end of days" and they sought to do penance and purge themselves of their sins before the Last Judgment. Groups of half-naked, half-crazed people seeking repentance roamed the byways of Europe.

(4.03) Saint Mark's Cathedral

St. Mark's Basilica in Venice shows deep Byzantine influences, with its mosaic-tiled dome and gilded, decorative style.

(4.03) St. Peter's Ballistic

St. Peter's Basilica displays many Classical influences. The church features Corinthian columns in the front. Notice that if you split the church in two, it looks the same on either side. It was designed with the Classical idea of symmetry in mind.

(4.06) How Should the New World Be Governed?

The Age of Exploration was prompted by many events in Europe, including the rise of nationalism, the rise of capitalism, and the rise of the mercantile system. These three forces led to the creation of massive overseas empires. But the different empires were often established for different reasons. Because of this, they were often governed quite differently.

(4.04) The council of Trent

The Council of Trent lasted 18 years and took place under the reigns of five popes. The council's decisions formed the basis of the Counter-Reformation, sometimes called the Catholic Reformation. These decisions mixed traditional and reformist elements.

(4.01)The Decameron

The Decameron was a book of stories written between 1348 and 1358 by Boccaccio, an Italian writer. Boccaccio wrote that ten young people, seven women and three men, were fleeing Florence from the plague. During their journey, each one told 10 stories to total 100 stories. The stories entertained the group during their travels.

(4.05) Dutch Expedition to the East

The Dutch were eager to take advantage of the profits of exploration. In the late 16th century, several wealthy businessmen in Amsterdam began discussing the idea of financing a voyage to the East. Ultimately, they equipped four ships which sailed around Africa and reached Indonesia. The voyage proved very costly to the men, many of whom died. However, the pepper and nutmeg that they returned with managed to bring a profit for the financers.

(4.01) The Hundred Years War

The Hundred Years War was waged between England and France during the years of 1337-1453 CE. The war went on for years, and France and England were each sometimes victorious. This brought feelings of nationalism in England and France. Two nations that held their faith in the Church were now turning to their king. The Age of Faith, where everyone looked to the Church for help and guidance, was coming to an end. In addition, the Great Schism, along with all the deaths from the bubonic plague, made many doubt the Church.

(4.05) Bartolomeu Dias

The Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias achieved a remarkable breakthrough when, in 1488, he guided his ship around what he dubbed the "Cape of Storms" (now called the Cape of Good Hope). Rounding the cape was a triumph, revealing that it was possible to take a sea route from Europe to India.

(4.05) Vasco da Gama

The Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama set sail from his native land in 1497. The men aboard his fleet of four ships sought a sea route from Europe to India, which was the hub of the spice trade. They sailed south and around today's Cape of Good Hope, and then northeast up the eastern coast of Africa and across the Indian Ocean.

(4.03) Advances in shipbuilding and technology

The Renaissance was also a time of advances in shipbuilding and manufacturing. At the height of its power as a powerful seafaring center, Venice's Arsenal was an early example of an assembly line, where a ship could be built and fully outfitted in as little as a day. The entrance to the Arsenal is shown above.

(4.03)What Changes Did the Renaissance Bring to Literature?

The Renaissance would also bring a change in literature. This was done with the rediscovery of old manuscripts from the classical Greek and Roman civilizations. As part of humanist study, scholars started seeking out the classic works of poetry, history, and even mathematics and legal writing. This gave Renaissance thinkers the opportunity to gain firsthand knowledge of what the classical writers said. Some writers even created new translations of classical writing. And still others were inspired to write new works in the classical style.

(4.04) Reformation and Counter-Reformation

The Roman Catholic Church responded quickly to specific acts of protest, such as those of Martin Luther. But it took the Church longer to organize a comprehensive response to the Reformation. In 1545, Pope Paul III called for an ecumenical council, or meeting, of all Church leaders at the Italian city of Trent.

(4.01) How Did the Black Death Arrive in Europe?

The bubonic plague, or Black Death, which killed about 50% of Europe's population in the mid-1300s, was one of the worst pandemics ever known. About 2,000 years ago black rats, which lived around farms, caught bubonic plague from other species of rats that were infested with plague-carrying fleas. Fleas carried the bacteria that caused the plague and transferred it to the rats. Rats were rampant during this time period. When the fleas found a warm-blooded animal, they jumped onto it, drank its blood, and transmitted the plague. When infected rats died, the fleas hopped off them and onto other rats—or nearby humans. Bubonic plague was usually fatal to any person who became infected.

(4.02) Why Were These Five City-States So Important?

The five Italian city-states grew and flourished at a time when Italy was moving away from the feudalism of the Middle Ages. They helped develop a more democratic system of government. The middle class was given a voice in society. A noble birthright was no longer the only criteria for an individual's importance.

(4.03) Did the Renaissance Also Influence Science and Technology?

The increased curiosity about ancient Greek and Roman writings brought a new interest in the writings of Greek mathematicians such as Euclid. Renaissance merchants also began using Arabic numerals for record-keeping accounts instead of unwieldy Roman numerals.

(4.05) Why Leave Home?

The motivations for the start of the exploration of the world by Europeans were no different. Take the case of Spain as an example. As you have already learned, the Christian kingdoms of Spain had been fighting to make Spain a Christian nation in what they called the Reconquista for nearly 500 years. By 1492, the armies of the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon had conquered the entire Iberian Peninsula. Having an abundance of well-trained men, it's no coincidence that this is the same year Christopher Columbus landed in the New World.

(4.01) Papal Decadence

The opulence and decadence of the papal court in Avignon were believed by many to have incurred God's wrath. Many believed the French pope's lavish lifestyle to be un-Christian. They believed the plague was God´s punishment of Christians for tolerating this situation.

(4.04) The wars of religion

The turmoil of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation began a time of conflict known as the Wars of Religion, which lasted over 100 years. While not every war was fought over religious differences, the Protestant-Catholic divide deeply influenced these conflicts.

(4.06) The First European Encounter with Native Americans

The voyage took longer than Columbus or any of his crew expected—33 days from the Canary Islands, a small island chain in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Morocco. Eventually, to the relief of Columbus, who was concerned that the crew might rebel and take over the ship, land was sighted. The Spanish fleet had reached an island in what is now called the Bahamas.

(4.06) Is There a Faster and Cheaper Route to China?

Think about what you pay when you buy a video game from a store in your town. The manufacturer sold that game to a distributor at a low price. Then the distributor sold the game to a local chain store at a higher price and, after this, the chain store sold the game to you at an even higher price. If possible, wouldn't you rather buy the game straight from the manufacturer for the original low price? Back in the 15th and 16th centuries, the people of Europe also wanted to purchase products directly from the sources that produced the products.

(4.03)Chiaroscuro

This image shows the Caravaggio painting The Calling of St. Matthew. It was painted in 1599. Notice how the contrasts between light and dark create a dramatic scene, as well as add dimension to the figures. The technique is called chiaroscuro. It was first used in ancient Greek art but was fully developed during the Renaissance.

(4.03) Architecture

This is a photo of Brunelleschi's dome on the Santa Maria del Fiore Cathedral in Florence. Look at how the dome rises out of the central structure. It reflects both Classical and Islamic influences. Compare this to the flying buttresses that were used in the Gothic style.

(4.02) The Republic of Venice

Venice was a trading giant during the Renaissance due to its strategic location on the Adriatic Sea.

(4.02) What Made the City-States of Rome and Florence Important?

Venice was just one of five major city-states that flourished in Italy during the Renaissance. The other four included Rome, Florence, Milan, and Naples. At first, these city-states were largely governed by guilds of wealthy citizens, but later powerful individuals or families took control. These families often fought with each other over land and wealth.

(4.01) What Other Factors Impacted the European Population in the 14th Century?

Weather refers to the day-to-day changes in local meteorological conditions. One day it's raining, the next it's sunny. Climate refers to the overall meteorological conditions over a large region. For example, a desert has one type of climate, a rainforest another type of climate.

(4.03) How Was the Renaissance a Bridge to the Modern World?

What really ties all these innovations from different countries and cultures together is the way they foreshadow the modern world. As discussed at the beginning of this lesson, the Renaissance marks a period in European history where we see many new things and ideas emerge. Consider the art of the Middle Ages. It looks very simple and basic. The characters are cartoonish and roughly drawn, with none of the realistic features we're used to seeing in paintings today. The works of the Renaissance seem far more familiar to what we see every day.

(4.01) What Were the Effects of the Black Death?

When the Black Death finally ran its course, landowners had farms that were standing still because there were not enough workers to take care of them. Merchants and artisans lacked assistants. Shops whose owners had died needed to be reopened. In short, much of Europe's economy needed to be rebuilt. The social order also changed as these workers quickly realized the value of their labor. They demanded, and received, much higher pay than they had before the plague. Some demanded that landowners give them their own farms to work in exchange for tending the landowner's property as well.

(4.03) What Was Humanism, and Why Was It So Important?

When the Crusades began, Europe was in the stage we now call the Middle Ages. During this period, Europe had lost much of the scholarship developed in ancient Greece and Rome. But these ideas had not been lost to the world. Rather, the Islamic world had preserved them. As European warriors returned from the Crusades, they reintroduced these ideas to Europe.

(4.05) Russian Exploration of Siberia

When we think of Siberia, we often think of it in the wintertime. But Siberia is actually just as inhospitable during the summer. It's freezing cold during the winter, and hot and wet during the summer. Despite all this, between the late 1500s to the mid-1600s, Russians pushed eastward to open up Siberia. Russian explorers, who traveled either overland or on riverboats, generally conquered native peoples as they journeyed across the vast Siberian steppes, eventually reaching the Pacific Ocean.

(4.05) John Cabot

While many think of John Cabot as an English explorer, he was actually from Genoa in modern-day Italy, where he was known as Giovanni Caboto. He was, however, commissioned by England to explore areas for the crown. He and his son's explorations furthered the English interest in profiting from exploration. However, it was not until much later that the English took an active role in exploring areas to the east. Christopher Columbus, commissioned by Spain, was also from Genoa. Consider what you know about the rise of the Italian city-states.

(4.01) How Do Diseases Spread So Rapidly in Such a "Small World"?

You have probably heard the expression "It's a small world" to describe how much people have in common or how quickly ideas spread around the globe. This expression reminds us of how modern infectious diseases can sweep around the globe in a matter of weeks or even days. A global or very widespread occurrence of a disease is called a pandemic.