World History Module 7
The lack of a cohesive empire across Mesoamerica was probably due in part to the large number of rulers jostling for power and difficult geography.
Mayan cities were located in diverse environments ranging from rainforest to highlands, which made governing over multiple cities difficult.
Starting in the third century BCE, Mayan people settled in the fertile highlands of current day Guatemala.
One major city, Kaminaljuyú, was located near what is now Guatemala City; it boasted impressive temples and access to trade routes into central Mexico. In the fourth century CE, however, Teotihuacán colonized the Kaminaljuyú.
Early societies in the Andes, in what is today Peru and Bolivia, faced geographical hurdles just as the Maya did.
The towering Andes mountains and coastal deserts made unification difficult, but snow runoff from the mountains trickled into a network of rivers, facilitating agriculture. The Moche civilization on the northern coast of Peru developed a successful irrigation system and harvested maize, cotton, beans, and squash.
The city's reach is also evident in documents from the Mayan city of Tikal recording the arrival of the Teotihuacán military in 378 CE.
These writings also suggest that Teotihuacán became involved in the local government. This pattern echoes other examples in the early Americas where leaders sought to build states in order to control resources and create cohesive societies.
Teotihuacán
Translates to mean "Place of the gods." The first major city in Mesoamerica. Falls in 800 AD.
Kaminaljuyú
a Pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization that was primarily occupied from 1500 BC to AD 1200.
Andean kingdoms sought to control trade and imports such as
seafood from the coast and potatoes and quinoa from the high plains. Kingdoms situated their large cities at lower elevations in order to gain access to trade routes and imports more easily. Although they were not successful in creating expansive empires, early states in Mesoamerica and the Andes did build states with centralized governments; areas with irrigation for crops; roadways for travel and trade to bring wealth back to the capitals; and armies to defend and enlarge their territories. We don't know the full reach of power of cities like Teotihuacán, but we can conclude that their success must have been the result of a centralized government and technology.
Despite the Aztec having military might, the Incans had a
unified government that controlled 800,000 square kilometers. In comparison, the Aztec controlled 135,000 square kilometers. The Incan government was composed of local administrators, also known as karakas,who controlled an Ayllu, a collection of families who lived in an area. The Karakas reported to regional leaders-Tokrikoq. The Tokrikoq reported to one of the four governors of the Incan Empire, each ruling a quarter of the empire. The Incan Governors reported to the Incan Emperor.
Moche Civilization
(Also known as the Mochica) flourished along the northern coast and valleys of ancient Peru, in particular, in the Chicama and Trujilo, Valleys, between 1 CE and 800 CE
What made Teotihuacán so powerful?
Despite many unanswered questions about this city, we know that its growth and feats of urban planning wouldn't have been possible without a powerful centralized government. The intricate urban grid and the massive temples must have required a coordinated effort and significant funds.
We also know that there was trade between Teotihuacán and other societies.
For example, tools made of obsidian—a black, shiny material made of volcanic glass—were found in Mayan territory. Similarly, Teotihuacán-style pottery has been found throughout Mesoamerica. This serves as evidence of Teotihuacán's reach and expansion in the region.
The Incan and Aztec were two of the most prominent native tribes in Latin America.
The Incans lived in the Andes Mountains and the Aztecs in Mexico. As a result of their surroundings,they adapted their cities and lifestyles to fit the terrain. To adapt to weather conditions, both the Aztec and Incan used unknown masonry techniques to build massive structures that could withstand earthquakes and other natural disasters. The Incan and Aztec implemented mathematics to calculate measurements and record data to instruct laborers on making cuts and how much stone or other materials needed
Wari Civilization
The Wari were a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the south-central Andes and coastal area of modern-day Peru, from about 500 to 1000 AD. Wari, as the former capital city was called, is located 11 km north-east of the modern city of Ayacucho, Peru.
The city was named Teotihuacán by the Aztecs who discovered it after its collapse.
The name translates roughly to "city of the gods." Unfortunately, no written records or art depicting specific rulers survive from Teotihuacán itself. We do know, through other archeological methods, that the city center wielded enormous power between 300 and 600 CE. Teotihuacán likely housed 200,000 people in the city itself, governed the surrounding 10,000 square miles directly, and used its armies to colonize other regions as far as 600 miles away. Northeast of Mexico City, surrounded by lakes, the ruins of a once-massive city still inspire awe. A four-mile-long avenue runs through the remains of a complex grid pattern of apartments, colorful murals, a pyramid that's over 700 feet tall and 700 feet wide, and another pyramid that once housed the remains of 200 people, possibly as tributes to accompany a wealthy leader into the afterlife.
The Incan implemented
a road system that stretched 40,000 kilometers throughout their empire, allowing travel throughout the empire. The Inca devised terrace farming to grow crops to support their growing empire. In terrace farming, farmers would plant crops on terraces. Incan farms used terraces with irrigation pipes running through them. The Inca cut stones into shapes that fit together so flush that they held themselves in place. Instead of a writing system, the Incan used the quipu, an instrument composed of a horizontal string or piece of wood with other strings attached. The strings' variations and colors represent farming, dates, and stories.
Before the collapse of their civilization, the Mayans
engaged in frivolous building projects, over-farming, and unnecessary wars. These activities could account for the depletion of Sapodilla Wood, which the Mayans used for buildings and weaponry. The Mayans had become more empirical and began using siege-warfare and fortifications, which depleted the wood supply considerably, causing builders to use lower quality wood. This depletion indicated that the Mayans were not good stewards of their resources and overused other resources. Seige warfare on both sides had caused farmers to move to heavily populated areas for protection from invaders. They abandoned safe farming practices and used inferior farming techniques that depleted the soil. Lack of food due to drought and overpopulation can lead to infighting to decide who gets what portions of food. This is likely what happened, as the three factors of over-population, war, and drought each contributed to a collapse that probably could have been delayed if not avoided.
Three main factors could have led to the collapse of the Mayans:
overpopulation, warfare, and drought. Before its decline, the Mayan population is estimated to have been around 22 million people. Mayan cities had a population density of 1800 to 2600 people per square mile. Compared to Savannah, Georgia's fifth-largest city at a population density of 1,403 people per square mile, the Mayans were very densely concentrated. This massive concentration of people put much strain on the Mayans' agricultural resources and, in a time of drought, would not be easy to maintain with Mayan technology.
Farther east, the Wari in the northern highlands used the mountains themselves as a means of
tiered agriculture; they irrigated the hillsides using the melted snow that flowed down from the mountains. Evidence also shows the Wari kingdom developed city planning and roadways that connected its major city to trade routes.
The Maya, a group of people who inhabited Mesoamerica after the Olmec, lived in
what is today southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador. Complex Maya societies—including city-states—arose throughout these different areas, and local lords struggled with one another for power and access to trade routes and goods. Surviving artwork from the time suggests that these rulers held considerable power in their own kingdoms and were possibly seen as divine.
