World History Test 4

o Brownshirts -

members of an early Nazi paramilitary organization, the Sturmabteilung or SA ('assault division'). The Brownshirts, recruited from various rough elements of society, were founded by Hitler in 1921. Outfitted in brown uniforms reminiscent of Mussolini's Blackshirts, they figured prominently in organized marches and rallies. Their violent intimidation of political opponents and of Jews played a key role in Hitler's rise to power. From 1931, the organization was led by Röhm, who was too ambitious. Hitler, concerned with their loyalty, had more than 70 members of the SA executed by the SS in the 'Night of the Long Knives'.

o Communist Manifesto -

primary source of the social and economic doctrine of communism. It was written as Das Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei in 1848 by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels to provide a political program that would establish a common tactic for the working class movement. The manuscript was adopted by them German Socialist League of the Just as its manifesto. It proposed that all history had hitherto been a development of class struggles, and asserted that the industrialized proletariat would eventually establish a classless society safeguarded by social ownership. It links socialism directly with communism and set out measures by which the latter could be achieved. It had no immediate impact and Marx suggested it should be shelved when the revolutions of 1848 failed. Nevertheless, it continued to influence worldwide Communist movements throughout the 20th century.

Napoleon II (full name, Joseph-François-Charles Bonaparte)(1811-1832

son of Napoleon I and titular king of Rome (Roi de Rome). He was named as successor on the abdication of his father (1814), but the Allies refused to accept him. He lived at the court of Vienna from 1814 to 1832.

o Gestapo

the Nazi secret police or Geheime Staatspolizei. In 1933 Hermann Goering reorganized the Prussian plane close political police as the Gestapo. In 1934 control of the force passed to Himmler, who had restructured the police in the other German states, and headed the SS, or Schutzstaffel. The Gestapo was effectively absorbed into the SS and in 1939 was merged with the SD, or Sicherheitsdienst (Security Service), the intelligence branch of the SS, in a Reich Security Central Office under Reinhard Heydrich. The powers of these organizations were vast: any person suspected of disloyalty to the regime could be summarily executed. The SS and the Gestapo control the concentration camps and set up similar agencies in every occupied country.

o Weimar Republic (1919-33

the Republic of Germany formed after the end of World War I. On November 9, 1918 a republic was proclaimed in Berlin under the moderate socialist Friedrich Ebert. An elected national assembly met in January 1919 in the city of Weimar and agreed on a constitution. Ebert was elected first president (1919-25), succeeded by Hindenburg (1925-34). The new Republic had almost at once to face the Versailles peace settlement, involving the loss of continental territory and of all overseas colonies and the likelihood of a vast reparations debt, the terms being so unpopular as to provoke a brief right wing revolt, the Kapp putsch. The country was unable to meet reparation costs, and the mark collapsed, whereupon France and Belgium occupied the Ruhr in 1923, while in Bavaria right wing extremists (including Hitler and Ludendorff) unsuccessfully tried to restore the monarchy. Gustav Stresemann succeeded in restoring confidence and in persuading the US to act as mediator. The Dawes plan adjusted reparation payments, and France withdrew from the Ruhr. It was followed in 1929 by the Young plan. Discontented financial and industrial groups in the German national party allied with Hitler's Nazi party to form a powerful opposition. As unemployment developed, support for this alliance grew, perceived as the only alternative to Communism. In the presidential elections of 1932 Hitler gained some 13 million votes, exploiting he anti-Communist fears and anti-Semitic prejudice, although Hindenburg was himself reelected. In 1933 he was persuaded to accept Hitler as Chancellor. Shortly after the Reichstag fire, Hitler declared a state of emergency on February 28, 1933 and, on Hindenburg's death in 1934, made himself president and proclaimed the third Reich. o Westphalia, Treaty of (1648) - the treaty signed at Münster and Osnabrück, which brought the Thirty Years War to conclusion. By its terms, the Habsburgs acknowledged the independence of Switzerland and the separation of the United Provinces from the Spanish Netherlands, France secured undefined rights in Alsace and retain the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, Sweden acquired West Pomerania and the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, and Brandenburg acquired East Pomerania and the succession to the archbishopric of Magdeburg. The full sovereignty of the German states was recognized, thus marking the failure of the holy Roman Emperor to turn Germany into a Catholic monarchy.

• polis

the ancient Greek city-state. It may have first emerged in the eighth century B.C. as reaction to the rule of the early kings. There were several hundred of them in ancient Greece, many very small. Each consisted of a single walled town surrounded by countryside, which might include villages. At its center was the citadel and the agora (the marketplace). In the Athenian democracy, which exemplified the policy in the highest form, power lay only in the hands of the citizen body, from which, for instance, women, resident foreigners, and slaves were excluded. Freedom, self-reliance, and autonomy with the ideals of the polis. But these aspirations were responsible for the innumerable wars between the Greek poleis. Even temporary unity in the face of a foreign invader, whether Persian or Macedonian, was very hard to achieve. The rise of the Hellenistic kingdoms at the end of the fourth century B.C. limited the power of the polis.

Jacobin Club -

the most famous of the political clubs of the French Revolution. It had its origins in the Club Breton which was established after the opening of the States-General in 1789, and acquired its new name from its headquarters in an old Jacobin (Dominican) monastery in Paris. Its membership grew steadily and its carefully prepared policies had great influence in the National Assembly. By August 1791 it had numerous affiliated clubs and branches throughout the country. Its high subscription can find its membership to professional men who, at first, or not distinguished by extreme views. In 1792, however, Robespierre had seized control and the moderates were expelled. The club became the focus of the Reign of Terror the following year, and in June was instrumental in the overthrow of the Girondins. Its success was based on sound organization and the support of the Sans-Culottes. It was closed after the fall of Robespierre and several attempts to reopen it were finally suppressed in 1799.

dauphin

the title of the heir to the French throne. Dauphiné was a province in southeast France. It was conquered by the Romans, Burgundians, and Franks. Once a fief of the Holy Roman Empire, it passed to the kingdom of Arles, and, in 1029 to the counts of D'Albon who, from 1133, took the title of Dauphin of Vienne. By 1282, it had acquired its regional name and it was sold to the future Charles V of France in 1346. Thereafter heirs to the French throne assumed the title of dauphin.

Name this word: "(Arabic *, 'exodus', 'migration', or 'breaking of ties') (662 AD) - Muhammad's secret departure from Mecca in 622, accompanied by Abu Bakr, to live among the people of Yathrib, later called Medina, and thus founding the first Muslim community. Under the second kaliph, Umar, this key event in the history of Islam was chosen as the starting point for the Muslim calendar."

"Hegira"

French Foreign Legion

- a French volunteer armed force consisting chiefly of foreigners. In 1831 Louis Philippe organized a light infantry legion in Algeria as the régiment étranger, a foreign Legion. It's fun in numerous 19th century wars and in both world wars. The following Algeria's independence in 1962 the Legion was transferred to France. No questions are asked about the origin or passed to the recruits, whose oath binds them absolutely to the regiment whose unofficial motto is legio patria nostra ('the legion is our fatherland').

Name this person: "(c. 573-634) - a first caliph of Islam (632-34). He was one of the earliest converts to Islam and a close companion of the Prophet Mohammed, who married his daughter Aisha. When he succeeded to Mohammed's position as temporal leader of the Muslim community, this pious and gentle man was chiefly concerned with reaffirming the allegiance of those Arabian tribes who had withdrawn it at the time of the Prophet's death. These 'wars of apostasy' initiated the Arab conquests."

Abu Bakr

Name this pharoh: "(14th century B.C.) - Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty (1379-1362 B.C.). The husband of Nefertiti, he came to the throne as Amenhotep IV, and after six years introduced the monotheistic solar cult of Aten, the Sun disc, with the King sol intermediary, changing his name to *. The capital of Egypt was moved from Thebes to his newly built city of * (now Tel el-Amarna). He was succeeded by his son-in-law, Tutankhamen, who abandoned the new religion early in his reign."

Akhenaten

Who was the second Canadian PM?

Alexander Mackenzie

Name this leader: "(1770-1818) - first President of Haiti, serving from 1806 until his death in 1818. One of the founding fathers of Haiti, along with Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, and his rival Henri Christophe."

Alexander Petion

Name this ancient city: "the capital of the ancient Khmer kingdom in northwest Cambodia, famous for its temples, especially * Wat (early 12th century) and * Thom, decorated with the release of sculptures. Abandoned in 1443, the site was overgrown with jungle when it was rediscovered in 1860."

Angkor

Name this king: "King of the Huns (434-53). From his base in Hungary he ravaged vast areas between the Rhine in the Caspian Sea between 445 and 450, inflicting great devastation on the Eastern Roman Empire. * then invaded the Western Empire but was defeated by the joint forces of the Roman army and the Visigoths at Châlons in 451. He and his army with the terror of Europe during his lifetime, and he earned the nickname 'Scourge of God'."

Attila the Hun

Name this empire: "(1806-67) - those territories and people from whom the Habsburg emperors in Vienna demanded allegiance. Following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, Emperor Francis II continued to rule as Francis I (1804-35), Emperor of Austria and of the hereditary Habsburg lands of Bohemia, Hungarian, Croatia and Transylvania, Galicia (once a province of Poland), and much of northern Italy (Venetia and Lombardy). He ruled by means of a large bureaucracy, a loyal army, the Roman Catholic Church, and an elaborate police force. His chief Minister was Chancellor Metternich. Nationalist feelings were emerging, and during the reign of his successor Ferdinand I (1835-48), liberal agitation for reform developed. In the NL is becoming rapidly industrialized and in 1848, at a time of economic depression, writes in the capital led to Metternich's resignation. The emperor abolished censorship and promised a constitution. This, published in April, was not democratic enough for radical leaders, who organized a popular protest in May of 1848. The emperor fled to Innsbruck and later abdicated. His 18 year old nephew Francis Joseph succeeded. There were movements for independence among all the peoples of the Empire, including the Hungarians led by Kossuth, the Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, Romanians, and Italians. A Pan-Slav conference met in 1848 in Prague. But the opposition to the government in Vienna was divided and the prime minister, Felix Schwarzenberg, and Francis Joseph were able to regain control. The army crush the reform movements in fraud and Vienna and with the help of Russia, subjugated Budapest. Alexander Bach, the new Minister of the Interior, greatly strengthen the centralized bureaucracy, and the Empire regained some stability, until its defeat by France and Piedmont at Magenta and Solferino, which ended Austrian rule in Italy. In an effort to appease nationalist feeling the emperor proposed a new federal constitution, but it came too late and after a further defeat at Sadowa he agreed to the Ausgleich Compromise of 1867 and the creation of Austria-Hungary."

Austrian Empire

Name this empire: "The 'Dual Monarch', established by the Austrian Emperor Francis Joseph after Austria's defeat by Prussia in 1866 in which Austria and Hungary became autonomous states under a common sovereign. The dualist system came under increasing pressure from the other subject nations, including Croatians, Serbs, Slovaks, Romanians, and Czechs, and failure to resolve these nationalistic aspirations is one of the causes of World War I. After their victory the Allies gave support to the emergent nations, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire was dissolved by the Versailles peace settlement in 1919."

Austro-Hungarian Empire (Austria-Hungary)

Name this civilization: "an ancient city in Mesopotamia, first prominent under Hammurabi who made it capital of the Kingdom of Babylonia. The city, now in ruins, lay on the Euphrates River 88 km south of present-day Baghdad and was noted for its luxury, its fortifications, and particularly for the Hanging Gardens, which were one of the Seven Wonders of the World."

Babylon

Name this name: "m the ancient name for southern Mesopotamia (earlier called Sumer), which first became a political entity when an Amorite dynasty united Sumer and Akkad in the first half of the second millennium B.C. At this period its power extended over Assyria and part of Syria. After 1530 B.C., first the Hittites and other invaders, the Kassites, dominated the land, and it became part of the Assyrian Empire. With the latter's declining Babylonia again became prominent under the Chaldeans (625-538 B.C.), only to fall to Cyrus the Great, whose entry into Babylon ended its power forever."

Babylonia

Name this Battle (1817) - "battle fought during the Chilean War of Independence. The Army of the Andes of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata led by General Captain José de San Martín and assisted by Bernard O'Higgins defeated the Spanish force led by Rafael Maroto. It was a defeat for the Captaincy General of Chile, the royalist government established after the division of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Maroto escaped and the remaining royalist troops left Chile and retreated to Lima by ship. Interim governor Francisco Ruiz-Tagle presided at an assembly, which designated San Martín as governor, but he turned down the offer and requested a new assembly, which made O'Higgins Supreme Director of Chile. This marks the beginning of the "Patria Nueva" period in Chile's history."

Battle of Chacabuco

Name this leader (1778-1842) - "Chilean revolutionary leader and statesman, head of state from 1817-23. The son of a Spanish officer of Irish origin, he was educated in England, where he first became involved in nationalist politics. On his return to Chile he led the independence movement and with the help of José de San Martin, liberator of Argentina, led the army, which triumphed over Spanish forces in 1817, paving the way for Chilean independence the following year. For the next six years he was head of state (supreme Director) of Chile, but then fell from power and lived in exile in Peru for the remainder of his life."

Bernardo O'Higgins

Name this leader: "Egyptian diplomat and politician. Secretary-general of the United Nations from 1992 to 1996. He served as Egyptian Minister of State for foreign affairs from 1971 to 1991."

Boutros-Ghali,

Who was the fifth Canadian PM?

Brian Mulroney

Name this king: "Danish king of England (1017-35), Denmark (1018-1035), and Norway (1028-1035). After Edmund Ironside's murder in 1016, * became king of England, ending a prolonged struggle for the throne. As king, he presided over a period of relative peace. He is most commonly remembered for demonstrating to his fawning courtiers that, contrary to their expectations, he was unable to command the tide to stop rising."

Canute

(1887-1975) - Chinese statesman and general, President of China (1928-31; 1943-49) and President of Taiwan (1950-75). A prominent general in the army of Sun Yat-sen, in 1925 he became leader of the Kuomintang when Sun Yat-sen died, and launched a military campaign to unite China. In the 1930s he concentrated more on defeating the Chinese Communists and unresisting the invading Japanese, but he proved unable to establish order and was defeated by the communists after the end of World War II. Forced to abandon mainland China in 1949, he set up a separate Nationalist Chinese State in Taiwan.

Chairman Mao

Name these meetings: "two councils of the Christian Church, which took place in the city of * (now Iznik, Turkey). The First Council in 325 was summoned by the Roman Emperor Constantine and issued a statement of orthodoxy against Arianism (the belief that Jesus Christ was not divine, but merely an exceptional human being), later known as the 'Nicene Creed'. The Second Council in 787 was called by the Byzantine Empress Irene to end the Iconoclastic controversy."

Councils of Nicaea

Name this agreement: "(1995) - the peace agreement, negotiated in *, Ohio and signed in Paris in 1995, that marked the end of the 3-year war in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The accord stated that the country would remain a single state within its existing borders but would comprise a Muslim-Croat federation and a Serb republic. A rotating tripartite presidency was established."

Dayton Accord

Name this Communist

Doniel Szeghy

Name this British monarch: "He was the eldest son of Richard, Duke of York, and so had a clear hereditary right to the throne by descent from Edward III. He gained the throne at the age of 19 with the help of his cousin Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, while the Lancastrians hesitated after their victory of St. Albans, and he then defeated them at Towton. His marriage to Elizabeth Woodville and alliance with Burgundy alienated Warwick, who in October 14 70 invaded England from France and secured Henry VI's nominal restoration, but Edward won back the throne by victories at Barnet and Tewkesbury (1471). Thereafter he was a strong ruler and promoter of English commerce, but his dissolute lifestyle probably cause his early death, which left England with a 12-year-old king, Edward V."

Edward IV

Name this British monarch: "The eldest son of Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville. His short reign (3 months) was little more than a power struggle between the Woodvilles and his paternal uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester. In June of that year, Richard assumed royal dignity as Richard III, and it was some time between then and August of the same year that Edward and his brother were murdered in the Tower of London, probably at the instigation of Richard."

Edward V

Name this British monarch: "He was the son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour. During his minority effect of power was exercised by Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset until 1549, and subsequently by John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. He favored the Protestant religion, endorsing Archbishop Cranmer's English Prayer Books. Contemporaries noted his studious, unemotional nature and a callous street reminiscent of his father. Always a sickly child, he died of tuberculosis at age 16."

Edward VI

Name this British monarch: "daughter of George VI and Queen of the United Kingdom since 1952. She has always shown a strong personal commitment to the Commonwealth, and is one of the most traveled 20th-century monarchs, having made extensive overseas tours and many public appearances at home. She and her husband "Prince" Philip Mountbatten have traveled the globe representing British interests. Marital failures by her sons Charles (the Prince of Wales) and Andrew have plagued her 45 reign."

Elizabeth II

Josephine (born Marie Josephine Rose Tascher de la Pagerie) (1763-1814

Empress of France (1796-1809). Born in the West Indies, she was married to the Viscount de Beauharnais before marrying Napoleon in 1796. Their marriage proved childless and Josephine was divorced by Napoleon in 1809.

Name this British monarch: "Was the son of King Edgar, and succeeded his half brother Edward the Martyr as King, who had been murdered on instructions from Ethelred's mother Alfrida. He was suspected by many of complicity in Edward's murder. This in our spacious beginning to the rain was compounded by further blunders which earned Ethelred the title 'Unready', meaning devoid of counsel. Unable to defend the country against Danish and Norse invaders, he resorted to purchasing peace (five times). His attempts in 1002 to massacre all the Danes in his kingdom was answered in 1013 by the invasion of the King of Denmark, Sven I, who ruled England until his death in 1014, when Ethelred was restored. He died in London as Canute was preparing a new siege."

Ethelred the Unready

Name this person: "(known as 'Evita') (1919-52) - Argentinian politician. After pursuing a successful career as a radio actress in the 1930s and 1940s, she married Juan Peron and became de facto Minister of health and of labor. Idolized by the poor, she organized female workers, secured the vote for women, and earmarked substantial government funds for social welfare. She was nominated for the vice presidency in 1951, but forced by the army to withdraw. She died the following year from cancer."

Eva Perón

Name this movement: "A guerilla rebel movement in Colombia that employs military and terrorist tactics. They claim to be an army of peasant Marxist-Leninists with a political platform of agrarianism and anti-imperialism. * is funded by kidnap and ransom plots, illegal mining, extortion, and the production and distribution of illegal drugs."

FARC

(1863-1914) - Archduke of Austria and heir presumptive to Emperor Francis Joseph. He aimed to transform Austria-Hungary into a triple monarchy to include a Slavic kingdom. He was opposed by the Hungarians, who refused to make concessions to Slavs, and my extreme Slav nationalists (including Serbs), who saw no future for the emergent nations within the Empire. On June 28, 1914, while on an inspection tour at Serajevo, he and his wife were assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist. The subsequent ultimatum by Austria to Serbia led directly to the outbreak of World War I.

Francis Ferdinand

Charles Martel (c.688-741)(French, martel, 'hammer' - Charles the Hammer

Frankish leader. He was the illegitimate son of Pepin II, and served as 'Mayor of the Palace' under Merovingian rule (the Mayor of the Palace was the de facto ruler of the Franks). He gained control of the Austrasian province and defeated the Neustrian mayor. Burgundy and Aquitaine were also acquired. This put him in control of all three Frankish kingdoms (Austrasia, Neustria, and Burgundy). His greatest achievement, and the one which made him a traditional French here, was his defeat of the Muslim forces between Poitiers and Tours in the Battle of Tours in 732, which signaled the end of the northward expansion of the Umayyad expansion, which had conquered Iberia.

Talleyrand (full name Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord)(1754-1838

French statesman. Foreign Minister under the Directory from 1797, he was involved in the coup that brought Napoleon to power, and held the same position under the new leader (1799-1807). He then resigned office and engaged in secret negotiations to have Napoleon deposed. Talleyrand became head of the new government after the fall of Napoleon in 1814, and recalled Louis XVIII to the throne. He was later instrumental in the overthrow of Charles X and the accession of Louis Philippe in 1830.

Richelieu, Armand (1585-1642

French cardinal and statesman. From 1624 to 1642 he was chief minister of Louis XIII, dominating French government. He destroyed the power base of the Huguenots in the late 1620s and set out to undermine the Habsburg Empire by supporting the Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years War, involving France from 1635. In the same year, Richelieu was also responsible for establishing the Académie Française.

Lesseps, Ferdinand (1805-94

French diplomat. While in the consular service in Egypt he became aware of plans to link the Mediterranean and the Red Sea by means of a canal, and from 1854 onwards devoted himself to the project. Work began in 1859 and the Suez Canal was opened 10 years later. In 1881 he embarked on the building of the Panama Canal, but had not anticipated the difficulties of this a very different enterprise; the project was abandoned in 1889. The canal is not opened until 1914, after completion by US engineers.

Chanel, Gabrielle (nicknamed 'Coco') (1883-1971

French fashion designer and founder of the Chanel brand. Her signature scent, Chanel No. 5, has become an iconic product. Karl Lagerfeld is currently the creative director of the Chanel fashion house. Chanel popularized the 'little black dress' for women.

Montcalm, Louis, Marquis de (1712-59

French general. He defended Québec against British troops under General Wolfe, but was defeated and mortally wounded in the battle on the Plains of Abraham.

Joan of Arc, St. (known as 'the Maid of Orleans') (c. 1412-31

French national heroine. Inspired by 'voices' of St. Catherine and St. Margaret, she led the French armies against the English in the hundred years war, relieving besieged Orleans (1429) and ensuring that Charles VII could be crowned in previously occupied Reims. Captured by the Burgundians in 1430, she was handed over to the English, convicted of heresy, and burned at the stake in Rouen. She was canonized in 1920.

Marie Antoinette (1755-93

French queen, wife of Louis XVI. A daughter of Maria Theresa and the Emperor Francis I, she married the future Louis XVI of France in 1770, becoming queen four years later. She became a focus for opposition to reform and won widespread unpopularity through her extravagant lifestyle. Like her husband she was imprisoned during the French Revolution and eventually executed.

Marat, Jean Paul (1743-93

French revolutionary and journalist. The founder of a radical newspaper, he became prominent during the French Revolution as a theory lent a critic of the moderate Girondists and was instrumental (with Danton and Robespierre) in their fall from power in 1793. Suffering from a skin disease, he spent much of his time in later life in his bath, where he was murdered by the Girondist Charlotte Corday. This was used as a pretext by Robespierre and the Jacobins to purge their Girondist rivals.

Chirac, Jacques (1932-

French statesmen, prime minister from 1974-76 and 1986-88, and President since 1995. He was elected mayor of Paris in 1977, a position he held for 18 years. The founder and leader of the right wing RPR (Rally for the Republic) Party, Chirac headed the right's coalition in the National Assembly during the socialist government of 1981-86. When his coalition was victorious in the 1986 national assembly elections, he was appointed prime minister by the Socialist President François Mitterrand. After an unsuccessful bid for the presidency in 1988, Chirac was elected to succeed Mitterrand as president in 1995.

Name this British monarch: "Emperor of India until 1947. He succeeded his brother, Edward VIII, after the Abdication Crisis. His preference for Lord Halifax rather than Winston Churchill as prime minister in 1940 had no effect, but he strongly supported Churchill throughout World War II. Likewise he gave his support to Clement Atlee and his government (1945-50) in the policy of granting Indian independence. He and his wife Elizabeth will be remembered for sustaining public or outdoor and the German bombing offensive of British cities. He was succeeded by his elder daughter, Elizabeth II."

George VI

o Rommel, Erwin (known as 'the Desert Fox') (1891-1944

German Field Marshal. Rommel was posted to North Africa in 1941 after the collapse of the Italian offenses, and, as commander of the Afrika Korps, he deployed a series of surprise maneuvers and succeeded in capturing Tobruk (1942). After being defeated by Montgomery at El Alamein (1942), he was ordered home the following year to serve as Inspector of Coastal Defenses. He was forced to commit suicide after being implicated in the officer's conspiracy against Hitler in 1944.

• Eichmann, (Karl) Adolf (1906-62

German administrator. He managed the deportation of Jews to ghettos and extermination camps as part of the "final solution" during the Holocaust, in which 6 million Jews perished. He went into hiding in Argentina and was captured by Israeli Mossad agents in Argentina in 1960. He was tried for war crimes in a widely publicized trial in Jerusalem, Israel, and executed by hanging in 1962. Hanna Arendt coined the phrase "the banality of evil" to describe Eichmann in her book, Eichmann in Jerusalem.

o Richthofen, Manfred von (known as 'the Red Baron') (1882-1918

German fighter pilot. In World War I he initially fought in the cavalry, but transferred to the flying Corps, joining a fighter squadron in 1915 and flying a distinctive bright red aircraft. He was eventually shot down, probably by Allied infantrymen, after destroying 80 Allied planes.

o Hitler, Adolf (1889-1945

German dictator. He was born in Austria, the son of Alois Hitler and his wife Klara Poelzl. He volunteered for the Bavarian army at the start of WWI, becoming a corporal. After demobilization he joined a small nationalist group, the German Workers' Party, which later became the National Socialist German Workers (or Nazi) Party. In Vienna, he had imbibed the prevailing anti-Semitism and this, with tirades against the Versailles Peace Settlement and against Marxism, he used as a basis for his oratory in winning over a Germany humiliated by defeat. In 1921 he became leader of the Nazis and in 1923 staged an abortive uprising, the Munich 'beer-hall putsch'. During the months shared in prison with Rudolph Hess he dictated Mein Kampf, a political manifesto in which he spelt out Germany's need to rearm, strive for economic self-sufficiency, suppress trade unionism and communism, and exterminate its Jewish minority. The Great Depression beginning in 1929 brought him a flood of adherents. After the failure of three successive Chancellors, President Hindenburg reluctantly appointed Hitler head of the government in 1933. As a result of the Reichstag fire, Hitler established his one-party dictatorship, and the following year eliminated his rivals in the Night of the Long Knives. On the death of Hindenburg he assumed the title of President and 'Führer of the German Reich'. He began rearmament in contravention of the Versailles Treaty, reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936, and took the first steps in his intended expansion of the Third Reich: the Anschluss with Austria in 1938 and the piecemeal acquisition of Czechoslovakia, beginning with the Sudetenland. He concluded the Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact with Stalin in order to invade Poland, but broke this when he attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941. His invasion of Poland had precipitated WWII. Against the advice of his military experts he pursued 'intuitive' tactics and at first won massive victories; in 1941 he took direct military control of the armed forces. As the tide of war turned against him, he intensified the mass assassination that culminated in the Jewish Holocaust. He escaped the July Plot to kill him, and undertook a vicious purge of all involved. In 1945, as the Soviet army entered Berlin, he went through a marriage ceremony with his mistress, Eva Braun, with whom he committed suicide.

o Hindenburg, Paul von (1847-1934

German general and statesman. He fought at the Battle of Sadowa (Königgratz) and in the Franco-Prussian war (1870-71) and retired in 1911. He was recalled to active service at the outbreak of World War I and crushed the Russians at Tannenberg in East Prussia (1914). In 1916 he became chief of the General staff. After the failure of Germany's offenses in 1918, he advised the need to sue for peace. After the war he came to tolerate the Weimar Republic and in 1925 was elected as president in succession to Ebert. Reelected in 1932, he did not oppose the rise of Hitler, but appointed him as chancellor in January 1933 on the advice of Franz von Papen.

o Himmler, Heinrich (1900-45

German leader and chief of the SS from 1929-45 and of the Gestapo from 1936-45. He established and oversaw the program of systematic genocide of more than 6 million Jews and other disfavored groups between 1941 and 1945. He was captured by British forces in 1945, and committed suicide by swallowing a cyanide capsule.

o Marx, Karl (1818-83

German political philosopher and economist, resident in England from 1849. The founder of modern communism, he collaborated with angles in the writing of the Communist Manifesto (1848). Thereafter Mark spent much of his time enlarging the theory of his pamphlet into a series of books, the most important being the three volume Das Kapital. The first volume of this appeared in 1867 and the remainder was completed by angles and published after Marx's death.

o Bismarck, Otto von (1815-98

German statesman known as the 'Iron Chancellor'. As Minister-president and foreign minister of Prussia from 1862, Bismarck was the driving force behind the unification of Germany, orchestrating wars with Denmark (1864), Austria j(1866), and France (1870-71) in order to achieve this end. As chancellor of the new German Empire (1871- 90), he passed legislation intended to break the influence of the Catholic Church at home and consolidated Germany's position as a European power by creating a system of alliances. Bismarck was forced to resign in 1890 after a policy disagreement with Wilhelm II.

o Goths -

Germanic tribes that overran the Western Roman Empire. Originally from the Baltic area, by the 3rd century A.D. they had migrated to the northern Black Sea and the lower Danube. The eastern group on the Black Sea were known as Ostrogoths, the western settlers on the Danube in Dacia were known as Visigoths.

Name this expansion: (1958)- "Chinese drive for industrial and agricultural expansion through backyard industries in the countryside and increased production quotas to be reached by the People's devotion to patriotic and socialist ideals. Massive increases in the quantity of production were announced, but quality and distribution posed serious problems. In agriculture, communes became almost a universal, but disastrous harvests resulting in famine with an estimated 13 million victims, together with poor products discredited the *. Its most important advocate, Mao Zedong, took a back seat until the late 1960's. The Cultural Revolution can be seen partly as his attempt to reintroduce radical policies."

Great Leap Forward

• Thucydides (c.455-c.400 B.C.)

Greek historian. He is remembered for his History of the Peloponnesian War, an account of a conflict in which he fought on the Athenian side. The work covers events up to about 411 and presents an analysis of the origins and course of the war, based on painstaking inquiry into what actually happened and including the reconstruction of political speeches of such figures as Pericles, whom he greatly admired.

Aristotle (384-322 BC)

Greek philosopher and scientist. A pupil of Plato and tutor to Alexander the Great, in 335 B.C. he founded a school and library, called the Lyceum, outside Athens. His surviving written words constitute a vast system of analysis, including logic, physical science, zoology, psychology, metaphysics, ethics, politics, and rhetoric. He established the inductive method of reasoning and proposed a system for the classification of plants and animals.

What dynasty was King George III?

Hanover

What dynasty was King George IV?

Hanover

What dynasty was King William IV?

Hanover

Name this British monarch: "*'s sister Edith was married to Edward the Confessor. Exiled after an abortive attempt to intimidate the king, Harold and his father, the Earl Godwin of Wessex, returned in 1052 to dominate political affairs in England. Harold succeeded Edward the Confessor in 1066, despite the Norman claim that Edward had designated Duke William of Normandy as his heir and that Harold had recognized William's right. Harold's brother Tostig, the Earl of Northumbria, who had been dispossessed of his earldom, raided the southeast coast before joining the invasion by Harald Hardrada of Norway in northern England. Harold defeated them at Stamford Bridge and then marched 250 miles south to meet William's invasion at the Battle of Hastings, where he died when an arrow pierced his eye."

Harold II

Name this British monarch: "He was the only legitimate son of John of Gaunt, and would have inherited a vast estates on his father's death (in 1399) had Richard II not banished him. He retaliated by invading England and forcing Richard to yield both the estates and the crown of England. Henry's position as King was not a strong one. He needed the support of the Church (which caused him to be a persecutor of Lollards), the nobility (who dominated his councils), and the House of Commons (which resented his frequent requests for money). Until 1408 he had to deal with the rebellions of Owen Glendower and the Percys, and for the remaining five years of his short life he was in poor health."

Henry IV

Name this British monarch: "Eldest son of Henry IV. He was a skillful military leader, with experience gained in campaigning against Owen Glendower, and took advantage of French weakness by claiming the French crown (1413) and then invading France (1415), where he won the magnificent victory at Agincourt. In 1417 he invaded France again, and again fortune favored him. He is able to conclude the very favorable Treaty of Troyes (1420), by which he was to succeed to the French crown at Charles VI's death and meantime to marry Charles's daughter, Katherine of Valois. However, he died only 15 months later. He was a popular hero, as celebrated in Shakespeare's play Henry V, and restored civil order in England in addition to his French campaigns."

Henry V

Name this British monarch: "The son of Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort. Through his mother he was an illegitimate descendant of John of Gaunt and so had a tenuous claim to the throne, but rivals' deaths in the War of the Roses strengthened his position as the Lancastrian claimant and enabled him to oust Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, ending the War of the Roses. He established the Tudor dynasty on firm foundations. He married his children to foreign royalty while he built up the crown's financial resources so that he was not dependent on Parliament and was able to leave a considerable fortune to his son, Henry VIII."

Henry VII

Name this British monarch: "The son of Tudor founder Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. He succeeded to the throne at age 18 and began his reign by executing Dudley and Empson, two of his father's financial officers. From 1513 to 1529 Thomas Wolsey managed affairs of state and diplomacy while Henry played the part of the Renaissance prince, preferring hunting and dancing to government. He brought England into both the Renaissance and the Reformation. Henry patronized the philosopher Erasmus, the painter Hans Holbein the Younger, and the writer Thomas More. Originally a supporter of the Catholic Church--the Pope had named him "Defender of the Faith"--he named himself head of the Church of England in 1533 so that he could divorce Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn. From 1525 he turned against his wife Catherine of Aragon because of her failure to provide him with male heirs. The pope's refusal to annul his marriage led to England's break with the Roman Catholic Church. With the assistance of Thomas Cromwell and a compliant, anticlerical Parliament, legislation was passed to sever the English Church from papal jurisdiction and Henry became Supreme Head of the English Church (1534). Rejecting the decisions of the Pope, Parliament validated the marriage between Henry and Anne with the Act of Succession 1534. Included in the Act was, most notably, a clause repudiating "any foreign authority, prince or potentate". All adults were required to acknowledge the Act's provisions by oath; those who refused to do so were liable to imprisonment for life. He exploited the dissolution of the monasteries for his own profit and used the revenues from the dissolution to pay for his military campaigns of the 1540s. Little was achieved by his expensive wars with France and Scotland, but a powerful English navy was created. His attempts to capitalize on the struggles of Francis I of France and Charles V of Spain severely undermined the English economy. But he remained conservative in doctrine, believing in Catholicism without the pope and retaining the title "Defender of the Faith" granted him by the pope in 1521 for his treatise against Luther. Henry executed top ministers who crossed him, including Thomas Cromwell and Thomas More. Opposition to Henry's religious policies was quickly suppressed. The most prominent resisters included John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester and Sir Thomas More, Henry's former Lord Chancellor - both of whom refused to take the oath and were subsequently convicted of high treason and beheaded at Tyburn in 1535. He married six times, but only his third wife, Jane Seymour, bore him a son, the sickly Edward VI. His wives, in order, were Catherine of Aragon (marriage annulled), Anne Boleyn (marriage annulled and she was executed), Jane Seymour (died while married), Anne of Cleves (marriage annulled), Catherine Howard (marriage annulled and she was executed), and Catherine Parr (Henry VIII died while married to her)."

Henry VIII

Name these "human fossilized bones found at Trinil on the Solo River in *. Originally classified as Pithecanthropus erectus ('erect ape-man'), these remains are now included within the species Homo erectus. Their date is uncertain but it's probably 750,000-500,000 years ago."

Java Man

Who was the seventh Canadian PM?

Jean Chrétien

Name this revolutionary: "(1758-1806) - a leader of the Haitian Revolution and first ruler of an independent Haiti. Initially regarded as governor-general, * later named himself Emperor Jacques I of Haiti (1804-1806). He is regarded as a founding father of Haiti. The Haitian national anthem is named in his honor."

Jean-Jacques Dessalines

Name this leader: "Chinese Communist politician, President of the People's Republic of China from 1993, Chairman of the Central military commission from 1990, and General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party from 1992. * studied as an engineer, worked in several factories, including an automobile plant in Moscow, and served as a diplomat before being appointed a member of the Politburo in 1967. An economic reformer, but conservative on questions of internal reform, he was appointed General Secretary of the Communist Party after his predecessor, the liberal Zhao Ziyang, had lost favor following the massacre of pro-democracy protesters in Tiananmen Square in 1989."

Jiang Zemin

Which Chinese dynasty ruled from 1126-1234?

Jin (or Chin)

Who was the fourth Canadian PM?

Joe Clark

Name this man: "(1939- ) - Australian Liberal statesman, prime minister from 1996. He was elected an MP in 1974 and held several posts in the cabinet, including Federal Treasurer from 1977-83. He was leader of the Liberal party in opposition (1985-89) and from 1995 to 1996 before becoming prime minister of a coalition government."

John Howard

(1778-1850) - Argentinian soldier and statesman. Having assisted in the liberation of his country from Spanish rule in 1812-13, he went on to aid Bernardo O'Higgins in the liberation of Chile from 1817-1818. He was also involved in gaining Peruvian independence, becoming Protector of Peru in 1821; he resigned a year later after differences with the other great liberator Simón Bolivar.

José San Martín

Name this person: (1895-1974) - Argentinian soldier and statesman, president from 1946-55 and 1973-74. He participated in the military coup organized by pro-fascist army officers in 1943, and was elected president in 1946, when he assumed dictatorial powers. He won popular support with his program of social reform, but, after the death of his second wife, Eva Peron, the faltering economy and his conflict with the Roman Catholic Church led to his removal in exile in 1955. Following a resurgence by the Peronist Party in the early 1970s, Peron returned to power in 1973, but died in office.

Juan Peron

Who is the tenth Canadian PM?

Justin Trudeau

Name this battle: "(1274 B.C.) - a battle between the forces of the Egyptian Empire under Ramses II and the Hittite Empire under Muwatalli II at the city of Kadesh on the Orontes River, near the modern Syrian-Lebanese border. It is the earliest battle in recorded history for which details of tactics and formations are known. It is believed to be the largest chariot battle ever fought, involving between 5,000 and 6,000 chariots in total. As a result of the multiple * inscriptions, it is the best documented battle in all of ancient history. Accounts claim either an Egyptian victory or a draw. The Hittite army was ultimately forced to retreat, but the Egyptians were unsuccessful in capturing the walled city of Kadesh."

Kadesh

Name this place: "the religious center of ancient Thebes, situated on the east bank of the Nile, where the great temple of Amun was constructed. This complex of buildings, the work of some 2000 years, includes the Hypostle Hall with 134 columns each 24 m (79 feet) high. It was begun by Ramses I and completed by Seti I and Ramses II. a road lined with statues of sphinxes linked the site to nearby Luxor."

Karnak

Name this: "an ancient kingdom in southeast Asia, which reached the peak of its power in the 11th century, ruling over the entire Mekong valley from the capital at Angkor, and was destroyed by Siamese conquests in the 12th and 14th centuries."

Khemer

Name this political movement: "Cambodian Communist movement. Form to resist the right wing, US backed regime of Lon Nol after the latter's military coup in 1970, the *, with Vietnamese assistance, first dominated the countryside and captured the capital Phnom Penh (1975). Under Pol Pot it began a bloody purge, liquidating nearly the entire professional elite as well as most of the government officials and Buddhist monks. The majority of the urban population was relocated on worksites in the countryside where large numbers perished. The regime was responsible for an estimated 2 million deaths in Cambodia (Kampuchea), and for the dislocation of the country's infrastructure. Frontier disputes with Vietnam provoke an invasion by the latter in 1978 which led to the overthrow of the Khmer Rouge regime, although its forces have continued a guerrilla war against the Vietnamese backed Heng Samrin regime from bases in Thailand. As the Party of Democratic Kampuchea, with its former leader Pol Pot still influential, it agreed to join the UN backed supreme national Council, following the peace agreement of October 1991. However, the * refused to participate in multiparty elections in 1993 and has continued to wage a guerrilla war against the elected government."

Khemer Rouge

Name this leader: "Canadian Progressive Conservative politician, the first female Prime Minister of Canada (1993). She replaced Mulroney in 1993, but the Progressive Conservatives were defeated in October 1993. * lost her seat and resigned as party leader."

Kim Campbell

Who was the sixnth Canadian PM?

Kim Campbell

Name this monarch: "(1930-1993) - king of Belgium from 1951-93. He was the elder son of Leopold III. He assumed his father's powers when Hitler deported Leopold III following D-Day. Leopold III was reinstated after the war, but abdicated in 1951 over accusations of being a Nazi collaborator. Baudouin was the last Belgian king to be sovereign of the Congo. Upon his death, the crown passed to his younger brother, Albert II."

King Baudouin

Name this King: "(c.630-562 B.C.) - king of Babylon from 605-562 B.C. He rebuilt the city with massive fortification walls, a huge temple, and a ziggurat (a rectangular tiered tower), and extended his rule over ancient Palestine and neighboring countries. In 586 B.C. he captured and destroyed Jerusalem and deported many Israelites from Palestine to battle on (the Babylonian captivity, which lasted until 539 B.C.E."

King Nebuchadnezzar

o Frederick I (or Frederick Barbarossa, 'Redbeard') (c.1123-1190

King of Germany and Holy Roman emperor (1152-90). He made a sustained attempt to subdue Italy and the papacy, but was eventually defeated at the Battle of Legnano in 1176. He was drowned in Asia Minor while on his way to the Third Crusade.

Leonidas (died 480 B.C.

King of Sparta. He won immortal fame when he commanded a Greek force against the invading Persian army at the Pass of Thermopylae. He held the pass long enough to make possible the naval operation at Artemisium (Greek-Persian Wars). When counterattacked he remained behind with 300 Spartans and 700 Thespians, and died fighting, an action which allowed his allies to escape.

Clovis (465-511

King of the Franks (481-511). He succeeded his father Childeric as king of the Salian Franks, and extended Merovingian rule to Gaul and Germany after victories at Soissons and Cologne. After his conversion to Christianity, he championed orthodoxy against the Arian Visigoths, finally defeating them in the battle of Poitiers in 507. He made Paris his capital.

Charlemagne (Latin Carolus Magnus, Charles the Great) (742-814

King of the Franks from 768-814, and Holy Roman emperor (as Charles I) from 800-814. He created an empire by conquering and Christianizing the Saxons, Lombards, and Avars, and restoring areas of a lead to the pope. His coronation by Pope Leo III in Rome on Christmas Day, 800, is taken as having inaugurated the Holy Roman Empire. He gave government new moral drive and religious responsibility, and encouraged commerce and agriculture. A well-educated man, he promoted the arts in education and under Alcuin says principal court at Aachen became a major center of learning. The political cohesion of his empire did not last, but the influence of his scholars persisted in the Carolingian renaissance.

What dynasty was King Henry IV?

Lancaster

What dynasty was King Henry V?

Lancaster

What dynasty was King Henry VI?

Lancaster

Name this person: "A probably mythical Chinese philosopher, long honored in China is the founder of Taoism. He is said to have beaten Confucius, repeatedly his junior, in debate. The Dao Te Ching, which dates from about the third century B.C. (about 300 years after Confucius), was attributed to him. The Dao is defined as the source of all being, in which life and death are the same. Taoists seek unity with the Dao through 'unmotivated action', allowing events to take their natural course. Taoists later claimed he was in an immortal who left China for India, where he converted the Buddha to Taoism."

Lao-tzu

Name this emperor: "(1640-1705) - Holy Roman Emperor (1658-1705). His long reign saw a major revival of Habsburg power, particularly after the Ottoman attack on Vienna in 1683 he was repulsed by an army led by King John III (Sobieski) of Poland. The subsequent Eastern campaigns brought the reconquest of Hungary, confirmed by the Peace of Carlowitz (1699). Increasing resentment and leave the 14th's intervention in German affairs also allowed him to reestablish imperial leadership in Germany, an important factor to the coalitions which inflicted heavy defeats on France between 1689 and 1713. After the removal of the Ottoman threat Vienna became a major European capital."

Leopold I

Name this event: the epic withdrawal of the Chinese Communists from southeastern to northwestern China. By 1934 the Jiangxi Soviet was close to collapse after repeated attacks by the Kuomintang army. In October a force of 100,000 evacuated the area. Mao Zedong took over the leadership of the march in January 1935. For nine months of travel through mountainous terrain cut by several major rivers. In October Mao and 6000 survivors reached Yan'an, having marched 9600 km (6000 miles). Other groups arrived later, in all about 20,000 surviving the journey. The march established Mao as the effective leader of the Chinese Communist Party, a position he consolidated in his 10 years in Yan'an.

Long March

Name this leader : "Chinese statesman, chairman of the Communist Party of the Chinese People's Republic (1949-76) and head of State (1949-59). After studying Marxism is a student he was among the founders of the Chinese communist party in 1921, becoming its effective leader following the Long March (the withdrawal of the Communists from southeast to northwest China, 1934-35). He eventually defeated both the occupying Japanese and rival Kuomintang Nationalist forces to form the People's Republic of China, becoming its first head of state in 1949. Although he initially adopted the Soviet communist model, falling Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalin in 1956 * began to introduce his own measures, central to which were the concepts of permanent revolution, the importance of the peasantry, and agricultural collectivization. A brief period of freedom of expression (the hundred flowers) ended with the introduction of the economically disastrous great leap forward (1958-60). * resigned as head of state in 1959 to retain his position as chairman of the Communist Party, and as such remained China's most powerful politician. He was the instigator of the Cultural Revolution (1966-68), which is intended to effect a return to revolutionary beliefs; during this time he became the focus of a powerful personality cult, which lasted until his death."

Mao

Name this Royal: "(1717-80) - Archduchess of Austria, queen of Hungary and Bohemia (1740-80). The daughter of the Emperor Charles VI, * married the future emperor Francis I in 1736 and succeeded to the Habsburg dominions in 1745 virtue of the pragmatic sanction (by which her father made provision for her to succeed him). For a session triggered the war of the Austrian succession (1740-48), during which Silesia was lost to Prussia. She attempted but failed to regain Silesia from the Prussians in the Seven Years War (1756-63). After the death of Francis I in 1765 she ruled in conjunction with her son, the Emperor Joseph II."

Maria Theresa

Ney, Michel (1769-1815

Marshal of France. The most famous and popular of Napoleon's generals, he served Napoleon in the brilliant campaigns in 1794 and 1795, commanded the army of the Rhine (1799), and conquered the Tyrol. His support was decisive in Napoleon's victory at Friedland (1807). In the retreat from Moscow (1812) he commanded the defense of the grande armée against the Russians and was created Prince of Moscow by Napoleon in 1813. After the Battle of Leipzig he urged Napoleon to abdicate in 1814. He agreed to take the oath of allegiance to the restored monarchy, but, when sent to check Napoleon's advance (1815) during the Hundred Days, he joined him instead, fighting heroically at Waterloo, after which he was tried for treason and shot.

Name this man: "(1500-64) - Portuguese columnist and leader of an exploratory expedition to southern Brazil in 1531-33. In 1532 he established the first permanent Portuguese colony in Brazil at Sao Vicente (near present-day Santos), where he introduced sugar cane. In his efforts to expel French intruders and to find precious metals to explore the coast south from Rio de Janeiro to the Rio de la Plata. In 1534 he was granted the hereditary captaincy of Sao Vicente but he never returned to Brazil, and later served as Governor of India and as a member of the Council of State in Lisbon."

Martin Sousa

Name this city: ancient city of Egypt, whose ruins are situated on the Nile about 15 km south of Cairo. Is thought to have been founded as the capital of the old Kingdom of Egypt in about 3100 B.C. by King Menes, the ruler of the Egyptian dynasty, who united the former kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. Associated with the god Ptah, it remains one of Egypt's principal cities even after Thebes was made capital of the New Kingdom in about 1570 B.C. It is the site of the pyramids of Giza and Saqqara and the great sphinx and also happens to be the capital of Tennessee.

Memphis

Name this civilization: "an ancient region of southwest Asia in present day Iraq, lying between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Its alluvial planes were the site of the ancient civilizations of Akkad, Sumer, Babylonia, and Assyria, now lying within Iraq."

Mesopotaimia

Which Chinese dynasty ruled from 1368-1644?

Ming

Name this King: "(1466-1520) - Aztec emperor (1502-20). The last ruler of the Aztec Empire in Mexico, he was defeated and imprisoned by the Spanish conquistadors under Cortez in 1519. * was killed while trying to pacify some of his former subjects during the Aztec uprising against his captors."

Montezuma II

Name this event: "A cultural renaissance that began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Egypt, then later moving to Ottoman-ruled Arabic-speaking regions including Lebanon, Syria and others. It is often regarded as a period of intellectual modernization and reform."

Nahda

o Lebensraum (German, 'living-space'

Nazi political doctrine claiming a need to acquire more territory in order to accommodate the expanding German nation. First introduced as a political concept in the 1870s, the concept was given patriotic significance by Hitler and Goebbels. The corollary to 'Lebensraum' was the 'Drang nach Osten' (German, 'drive to the East'), which claimed large areas of eastern Europe for the Third Reich to enable the so-called Nazi master race to subjugate and colonize the Slavic peoples.

Name this person: "(14th century B.C.) - wife and queen of Akhenaten, Pharaoh of Egypt. She was a devoted worshipper of the Sun god Aten, whose cult was the only one permitted by her husband. She fell from favor, and was supplanted by one of her six daughters. She is known to posterity through inscriptions, reliefs, and above all a fine limestone bust which was found in ancient Akhenaten (modern Tell el-Amarna)."

Nefretiti

Name this line: "a vaguely located demarcation line used by the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China for their claims of the major part of the South China Sea. The contested area in the South China Sea includes the Spratly Islands and the Paracel Islands, and encompasses the area of the Chinese land reclamation project known as the Great Wall of Sand in the Spratly Islands (China dredged sand and piled it onto some coral reefs, after which they were concreted to form permanent structures)."

Nine-Dash Line

Name this ancient city: "Located on the east bank of the Tigris River, opposite the modern city of Mosul in northern Iraq. It was the oldest city of the ancient Assyrian empire and its capital during the reign of Sennacherib until it was destroyed by a coalition of Babylonians and Medes in 612 B.C. A famous archaeological site, it was first excavated by the French in 1820 and later by the British; it is noted for its monumental Neo-Assyrian palace, library, and statuary as well as for its crucial sequence of prehistoric pottery."

Nineveh

What dynasty was King Henry I?

Norman

What dynasty was King Stephen?

Norman

What dynasty was King William II?

Norman

What dynasty was King William the Conqueror?

Norman

Name these people: "- the people who live chiefly in Egypt and the Sudan, between the first and fourth cataracts of the River Nile. Their recorded history begins with raids by Egyptians c.2613 B.C. when their country was called Kush. Then a Nubian dynasty ruling at a Napata from circa 920 B.C. conquered all Egypt. The * Shabaka ruled as King of Kush and Egypt with Thebes as his capital but Assyrians forced Taharka, his successor, to withdraw (680-669 B.C.). After several further struggles, the * drew back to Nabata, and c.530 B.C. their capital moved to Meroe. The dynasty continued until 350A.D, when Aezanas of Axum destroyed it; its 300 pyramids remain. Nubia was converted to Christianity in 540A.D3 Christian kingdoms emerged, but in 652A.D and Egyptian army conquered that at Dongola, granting peace for an annual tribute of slaves, and at the end of the 13th century Mamelukes took the north. The southern kingdom survived until the 16th century, when the Funj kingdom of Sennar absorbed it."

Nubians

Name this person: "(1957-2009 ) - leader and founder of the Al Qaeda terrorist network. Born in Saudi Arabia, he inherited a fortune from his father's construction business, which is used to further his militant Islamic politics. In the late 1980s his guerrilla organization helped thwart Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, making him a hero to many Muslims. His followers then carried out a series of attacks on overseas US targets. However, it was the terrorist outrage of September 11, 2001 that brought him worldwide notoriety and made him the prime target of the US war on terrorism. Although he is thought to have survived the US attack on Al Qaeda's command center in Afghanistan, his present whereabouts are unknown."

Osama Bin Laden

Name this method of banishment: "Athens. At a stated meeting each year, the Athenian assembly voted on whether it wanted an * that year. If the vote was affirmative, an * was held to two months later. Every citizen who so wished then wrote a name on a shard of pottery ('ostrakon'), and provided that at least 6000 valid 'ostraka' were counted, the man with the most against him had to leave Attica for 10 years, though he was allowed to enjoy any income from his properties air while absent. A vote to * often functioned as a sort of general election, constituting a vote of confidence for the policies of the most powerful rival of the man thus named. Such trials of political strength were most notable in the *s of Themistocles (c.471), Cimon (c.462), and Pericles' rival Thucydides (443). * was not resorted to after 417 or 416.

Ostracism

Name this massacre: "(1937) - massacre of Haitians living in the Dominican Republic. The Dominican army carried out the massacre on the direct orders of the Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo, killing over 12,000 people, and as many as 35,000. The name parsley massacre stems from the use of the word perejil, Spanish for parsley, as a shibboleth that Trujillo had his soldiers apply to Haitian migrants. Dominican soldiers would hold up a sprig of parsley to someone and ask what it was, how the person pronounced parsley (perejil) determined their fate."

Parsley Massacre

Who was the eighth Canadian PM?

Paul Martin

Name these "numerous remains of Homo erectus pekinensis (originally Sinanthropus pekinensis) found at Zhoukoudian near * (now Beijing) in China since 1927. The term is often used for all Homo erectus fossils from China."

Peking Man

• *Sicinnus

Persian slave of the Athenian general Themistocles known for his actions as a negotiator between Themistocles and the Persian ruler Xerxes during the Battle of Salamis. Sicinnus brought a message to Xerxes that falsely claimed that Themistocles was on the Persians' side. The message told Xerxes that the Greeks were in near panic, and that if he wanted to prevent them from escaping, the Persian fleet should block the escape route on the southwestern side of Salamis. This lured the Persians into the narrow straits of Salamis, where their numerical superiority was negated.

What were the kings of Egypt called?

Pharoh

Who was the third Canadian PM?

Pierre Trudeau

Name these "supposed fossil remains 'discovered' by Charles Dawson in 1908-13 in gravels in the hamlet of * in East Sussex, England. The association of a modern sloping skull, apelike jaw, and extinct animal bones provided just the missing link in human evolution being keenly sought at the time. It was not until 1953 that 'Eoanthropus dawsoni' was shown by scientific tests to be a forgery."

Piltdown Man

Name this ancient Greek city-state.: "It may have first emerged in the eighth century B.C. as a reaction to the rule of the early kings. There were several hundred of them in ancient Greece, many very small. Each consisted of a single walled town surrounded by countryside, which might include villages. At its center was the citadel and the agora (the marketplace). In the Athenian democracy, which exemplified the policy in the highest form, power lay only in the hands of the citizen body, from which, for instance, women, resident foreigners, and slaves were excluded. Freedom, self-reliance, and autonomy with the ideals of the polis. But these aspirations were responsible for the innumerable wars between the Greek poleis. Even temporary unity in the face of a foreign invader, whether Persian or Macedonian, was very hard to achieve. The rise of the Hellenistic kingdoms at the end of the fourth century B.C. limited the power of the polis."

Polis

What Chinese dynasty ruled from 221-206 B.C.?

Qin

Which Chinese dynasty ruled from 1644-1912?

Qing (or Ch'ing)

Medici, Catherine de (1519-89

Queen of France. A wife of Henry II of France, Catherine ruled as regent (1560-74) during the minority reigns of her three sons, Francis II (reigned 1559- 60), Charles IX (reigned 1560-74), and Henry III (reigned 1574-89). She proved unable or unwilling to control the confused situation during the French wars of religion, and it was on her instigation that Huguenots were killed in the massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572).

Name this leader: "(ruled c.1304-1237 B.C.) - Pharaoh of Egypt. When * acceded to the throne Egypt was at war with the Hittites. In the fifth year of his reign of * thought the Hittites exit -- where he manages to extricate himself from a perilous situation. In the 21st year of his reign in the two powers concluded a peace treaty and * married a Hittite princess. He also undertook campaigns against the Libyans. His reign, which marked a high point in ancient Egyptian history, was one of considerable prosperity and he oversaw substantial building program, which included two temples cut out the cliffs at Abu Simbel, the completion of his father Seti I's hypostyle hall at Karnak, and the temple at Abydos."

Ramses II

Name this event: "(1937) - the sacking of the city of Nanking (Nanjing) by Japanese troops in 1937 during the Sino-Japanese war. Between 40000 and 300,000 civilians were slaughtered."

Rape of Nanking

Name this leader: "(1918-81) - Egyptian statesman, and President from 1970-81. He broke with the foreign policies of his predecessor President Nasser, for example by dismissing the Soviet military mission to Egypt, removing the ban on political parties, and introducing measures to decentralize Egypt's political structure and diversify the economy. He later worked to achieve peace in the Middle East, visiting Israel (1977), and attending talks with Prime Minister Begin at Camp David in 1978, the year they shared the Nobel Peace Prize. Also in that year he founded the national Democratic Party, with himself as leader. He was assassinated by members of the Islamic Jihad."

Sadat

What dynasty was King Edward the Confessor?

Saxon

What dynasty was King Egbert?

Saxon

What dynasty was King Ethelbald?

Saxon

What dynasty was King Ethelbert?

Saxon

What dynasty was King Ethelred I?

Saxon

What dynasty was King Ethelred II?

Saxon

What dynasty was King Ethelwulf?

Saxon

What dynasty was King Harold I?

Saxon

What dynasty was King Harold II?

Saxon

Name this leader: "(reigned 1290-1279 BC) - pharaoh of Egypt who was the son of Ramses I (the founding pharaoh of the New Kingdom 19th dynasty) and father of Ramses II (Ramses the Great). His name means "of Set," referring to the god Set."

Seti

Name this war: "(1866) - also known as the Austro-Prussian War, and in Germany as the German War. A war fought in 1866 between the German Confederation under the leadership of the Austrian Empire and its German allies on one side and the Kingdom of Prussia with its German allies on the other that resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states. Prussia had also allied with the Kingdom of Italy, linking this conflict to the Third Independence War of Italian unification. The major result of the war was a shift in power among the German states away from Austrian and towards Prussian hegemony, and impetus towards the unification of all of the northern German states in a Kleindeutsches Reich that excluded the German Austria. It saw the abolition of the German Confederation and its partial replacement by a North German Confederation that excluded Austria and the other South German states. The war also resulted in the Italian annexation of the Austrian province of Venetia."

Seven Week's War

Name this ideology: "The Islamic legal system. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. The term * comes from the Arabic language term *, which means a body of moral and religious law derived from religious prophecy, as opposed to human legislation. * deals with many topics, including crime, politics, and economics, as well as personal matters such as sexual intercourse, hygiene, diet, prayer, everyday etiquette and fasting. Adherence to * has served as one of the distinguishing characteristics of the Muslim faith historically. In its strictest and most historically coherent definition, * is considered in Islam as the infallible law of God."

Shariah

Name this TRAITOR: "Persian slave of the Athenian general Themistocles known for his actions as a negotiator between Themistocles and the Persian ruler Xerxes during the Battle of Salamis. Sicinnus brought a message to Xerxes that falsely claimed that Themistocles was on the Persians' side. The message told Xerxes that the Greeks were in near panic, and that if he wanted to prevent them from escaping, the Persian fleet should block the escape route on the southwestern side of Salamis. This lured the Persians into the narrow straits of Salamis, where their numerical superiority was negated."

Sicinnus

Name this leader: "(1815-91) - Canadian statesman and first Prime Minister of Canada. Elected a Tory member of the House of assembly of United Canada in 1844, he was the leading figure in bringing about Confederation (1867) of the provinces of British North Canada as the Dominion of Canada after the passage of the British North America Act. He became the first Prime Minister (1867-73) of the new Dominion of Canada. During his years in office, which continued from 1878 to 1891, Canada expanded territorially and experienced growth in its economy, its internal communications, and its sense of national purpose.

Sir John A. Macdonald

Who was the first prime minister of Canada?

Sir John A. Macdonald

Who was the first Canadian PM?

Sir John MacDonald

Name this war: "also known as the 100 Hour War, it was a brief war fought between El Salvador and Honduras in 1969. Existing tensions between the two countries coincided with rioting during a 1970 FIFA World Cup qualifier. The war began on 14 July 1969, when the Salvadoran military launched an attack against Honduras. The Organization of American States (OAS) negotiated a cease-fire on the night of 18 July (hence "100 Hour War"), which took full effect on 20 July. Salvadoran troops were withdrawn in early August."

Soccer War

Name this Greek: "(c.630-c.560 B.C.) - Athenian statesman and lawgiver. One of the seven sages listed by Plato, he is notable for his economic, constitutional, and legal reforms, begun in about 594. He revised the existing code of laws established by Draco, making them less severe; for example, he abolished the punishment of slavery for debt and reserved the death penalty for murder. His division of the citizens into four classes based on wealth rather than birth with the corresponding division of political responsibility laid the foundations of Athenian democracy."

Solon

Name this dynasty: "A dynasty sandwiched in between Tang and Yuan periods. During the * Dynasty art and literature flourished and paper money was invented."

Song

Which Chinese dynasty ruled from 960-1279?

Song

• Lysander (died 395 B.C.)

Spartan general. He commanded the Spartan fleet that defeated the Athenian navy in 405 BC. Lysander captured Athens in 404, so bringing the Peloponnesian war to an end.

Who was the ninth Canadian PM?

Stephen Harper

Name this British monarch: "Fourth and youngest son of William the Conqueror. When his brother William II died, Henry seized the treasury at Winchester and was crowned while his elder brother Robert was still on Crusade. Although Robert received the duchy of Normandy and an annual pension as compensation, Henry invaded Normandy 1106 and imprisoned Robert at Cardiff Castle until his death in 1134. He clashed with Anselm over his claim to appoint bishops. He improved royal administration, particularly the exchequer, and extended and clarified the judicial systems. His law code, the Leges Henrici Primi, embodied much that had survived from Anglo-Saxon law. Unfortunately the drowning death of his only illegitimate son William while journeying to England from Normandy led to the accession of Henry's nephew Stephen and a period of anarchy and civil war between Stephen and Henry's daughter, Matilda. Stephen 1135-1154 Norman Grandson"

Steven I

What dynasty was King Charles I?

Stuart

What dynasty was King Charles II?

Stuart

What dynasty was King James I?

Stuart

What dynasty was King James II?

Stuart

What dynasty was Queen Anne?

Stuart

Name this dynasty: "A period noted for territorial conquest and great wealth. It is often regarded as the Golden Age of Chinese poetry and art."

Tang

Which Chinese dynasty ruled from 618-907?

Tang

Name this dynasty: "The 3rd Muslim dynasty or caliphate. [These people] overthrew the Umayyads in 750. This dynasty of caliphs ruled in Baghdad from 750 until 1258, claiming descent from Abbas, uncle of the prophet Muhammad. During the Abbasid dynasty, a Fatimid claimed the title of Caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Their power ended with the fall of Baghdad to the Tartars in 1258."

The Abbasid Dynasty

Name these people: "[A]n indigenous people of northern and northwestern Africa, occupying the mountains and deserts here since prehistoric times. Traditionally they speak these languages, although most literate [of these people] also speak Arabic. They are Sunni Muslims, and their local tribal groups are often led by a hereditary religious leader. The[se] peoples include several distinct groups: settled farmers living in the Atlas Mountains, transhumance farmers (who move their livestock seasonally from region to region), and the nomadic Tuareg of the Sahara. The various groups cooperated to resist the Romans and the Arab conquest, and they have transformed Islam to suit their own tastes. They supported the Umayyads in Spain, and the Fatimids in Morocco, and then set up several dynasties of their own."

The Berbers

Name this dynasty: "A dynasty of Central Asian slave origin which ruled in Egypt and Syria from about 1250-1517. The dynasty was eventually subjugated by the Ottoman Empire in 1517. * or slave soldiers were a distinctive feature of Islamic armies from the 9th century. Captured in childhood, they were trained in every branch of warfare and had an exacting academic education. * generals elected one of their own to be sultan upon the death of the sultan al-Salih in 1250, which was the beginning of the * dynasty. The period of * rule is sometimes called the 'Shadow Caliphate", as surviving members of the Abassid dynasty were installed as caliphs with little authority at Cairo."

The Mamluk Dynasty

Name these people: "A member of a Muslim people of mixed Berber and Arab dissent, inhabiting northwest Africa and the southern Spain from the eighth to the 15th centuries. Their name is derived from a Greek word (Mauros) for the inhabitants of ancient and Mauretania. The[ir] period in Spain was the zenith of Islamic culture, especially in architecture. The Alhambra (in Granada) and the Great Mosque in Córdoba are among their most celebrated creations."

The Moors

Name this agreement: "an agreement to accept the existence of both Lutheranism and Catholicism in Germany, decided in 1555 by the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire at Augsburg, in southern Germany. Although the agreement had many flaws and satisfied neither side completely, it averted serious religious conflict within the Empire for over 50 years."

The Peace of Augsburg

Name this dynasty: "1st Muslim dynasty or caliphate, formed after the death of Muhammad in 632. The * dynasty lasted from 632-661, and included Abu Bakr, the first successor to Muhammad."

The Rashidun Dynasty

Name this agreement: "(1842) - a treaty between Britain and China that ended the First Opium War. The first Unequal Treaty, ceded Hong Kong to Britain, broke the Chinese monopoly on trade, and opened the Treaty ports of Xiamen (Amoy), Guangzhou (Canton), Fuzhou (Foochow), Ningbo (Ningpo), and Shanghai to foreign trade. Further treaties extended trade and residence privileges to other nations and set up a framework for Western economic expansion in China."

Treaty of Nanjing (Nanking)

Name this leader: "(1891-1961) - nicknamed 'El Jefe', he was the Dominican leader/dictator from 1930-1961. His regime was responsible for the deaths of as many as 50,000 people, and his tenure is considered one of the bloodiest ever in the Americas. LBJ accused JFK and the CIA of being behind the assassination of Trujillo in 1961."

Trujillo

What dynasty was King Edward VI?

Tudor

What dynasty was King Henry VII?

Tudor

What dynasty was King Henry VIII?

Tudor

What dynasty was Lady Jane Grey?

Tudor

What dynasty was Queen Elizabeth I?

Tudor

What dynasty was Queen Mary I?

Tudor

Name this conflict: "(1740-48) - a complicated European conflict in which the key issues were the right of Maria Teresa of Austria to succeed to the lands of her father, Emperor Charles VI, and the right of her husband Francis of Lorraine to succeed to the imperial title. Francis's claims, in spite of the Pragmatic Sanction, were disputed by Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, supported by Frederick II of Prussia and Louis XV of France. Additionally, Philip V of pain and Maria Teresa were in dispute over who should have control of Italy, and Britain was challenging France and Spain's domination of the Mediterranean (War of Jenkins' Ear), and fighting for control of India and America (King George's war). After the death of Charles VI in 1740 war was precipitated by Frederick II of Prussia, who seized Silesia. The war began badly for Austria: the French seized prod, a Spanish army landed in North Italy, Charles Albert was elected Holy Roman Emperor, and Silesia was ceded by treaty to Frederick II in 1742. Britain now supported Austria by organizing the so-called Pragmatic Army (Britain, Austria, Hannover, and Hesse) and under the personal command of George II it defeated the French at Dettingen in 1743. Savoy joined Austria and Britain (Treaty of Worms, 1743) and the tide of the war began to turn in Austria's favor. In 1744-45 Frederick II reentered the war, determined to retain Silesia. Meanwhile Charles Albert died and Francis was elected holy Roman Emperor in exchange for the return of the lands of Bavaria to the Elector's heir. Frederick II won a series of victories against Austria, and the Treaty of Dresden (1745) confirmed his possession of Silesia. The struggle between France and Britain intensified. The French supported the Jacobite invasion of Britain (the Forty-five) and in India the French captured the British town of Madras (1746). The British won major victories at sea: off Cape Finisterre, Spain, and Belle-Ile, France in 1747. I1748 all participants were ready for peace, which was concluded by the Treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle. The war had been a long and costly effort by Maria Teresa to keep her Habsburg inheritance intact and in this he largely succeeded. But Austria was weakened and Prussia, which held Silesia, consolidated its position as a significant European power."

War of the Austrian Succession

Name this British monarch: "Second son of William the Conqueror and Matilda. His succession was challenged by some Norman barons led by his uncle, who preferred his elder brother Robert, Duke of Normandy. Robert's departure on the First Crusade gave William the opportunity to secure Normandy for himself. William's resistance to Anselm's appointment as Archbishop of Canterbury contributed to his unpopular image. His death from an arrow while hunting in the New Forest may have been arranged by his younger brother, who succeeded him as Henry I."

William II

What dynasty is Queen Elizabeth II?

Windsor

What dynasty was King Edward VIII?

Windsor

What dynasty was King George V?

Windsor

What dynasty was King George VI?

Windsor

Name this revolt: "(184-205) - also translated as the *, it was a peasant revolt in China against the Eastern Han dynasty. It broke out during the reign of Emperor Ling. The rebellion took its name from the color of the cloths that the rebels wore on their heads. It marked an important point in the history of Taoism due to the rebels' association with secret Taoist societies. The major cause was an agrarian crisis in which famine forced many farmers in the north to seek employment in the south, where large landowners exploited the labor surplus to amass large fortunes. At the same time, the Han central government was weakening internally due to the power of the landowners as well as the court eunuchs, who had formed a group known as the Ten Attendants who had the ear of Emperor Ling."

Yellow Turban/Scarves Rebellion

What dynasty was King Edward IV?

York

What dynasty was King Edward V?

York

What dynasty was King Richard III?

York

Name this dynasty : "A Mongol dynasty of emperors in China founded in 1271 by Kublai Khan. Described by Marco Polo, the elaborate court of the * Dynasty lasted until it was overthrown and replaced by the Ming Dynasty."

Yuan

Which Chinese dynasty ruled from 1280-1368?

Yuan

Name this person: "(1895-1961) - Albanian statesman and ruler, prime minister from 1922-24, President from 1925-28, and king from 1928-39. The leader of the reformist popular party, he headed a republican government as premier and later president, ultimately proclaiming himself King in 1928. His autocratic rule resulted in a period of relative political stability, but the close links he had cultivated with Italy from 1925 onwards led to increasing Italian domination of Albania, and when the country was invaded by Italy in 1939, he went into exile. He abdicated in 1946 after Albania became a communist state, and died in France."

Zog I

o Frisians -

a Germanic seafaring people. In Roman times they occupied northern Holland and northwest Germany. Apart from records of their revolts against Rome between 12 B.C. and 69 A.D., little is known about them. By the 4th century they were under Saxon domination. The Franks attempted to convert them to Christianity by force. They were part of the Carolingian empire, and in the 16th century became part of the Habsburg empire of Charles V. In 1579 they reluctantly joined the Union of Utrecht against Philip II. They continued their independent role in the new state, electing their own Statholder (or President) until 1747.

o Berlin Wall

a barrier between East and West Berlin. It was built by the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) in August 1961 in order to stem the flow of refugees from East Germany to the West (over 3 million had emigrated between 1945 and 1961). The Wall was heavily guarded, and many people were killed (especially in the 1960s) or wounded while attempting to cross. As a result of popular protests it was demolished in 1989.

Borodino, Battle of (1812

a battle fought between Russia and France, about 110 km west of Moscow. Here Kutuzov chose to take a stand against Napoleon's army. The Russian position was centered upon a well fortified hill. After 12 hours of fierce combat, a terrific artillery bombardment, and a decisive cavalry charge split the Russian forces. They were forced to withdraw in Napoleon, claiming victory, marched on an undefended Moscow. Over 80,000 men were lost in the most bloody battle of the Napoleonic wars.

Atlantis

a legendary island said to have been submerged following an earthquake nearly 12,000 years ago. Plato described * in a myth, leading some people just suggest it was the Minoan civilization on Crete, destroyed by the volcanic eruption of Thera (Santorini) in 1500 B.C.

o Blenheim, Battle of (1704

a major battle of the War of the Spanish Succession that took place in the Bavarian village of Blenheim on the north bank of the Danube. John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, commanded a British and Austrian army that defeated the French forces of Louis XIV.

o Worms, Diet of (1521

a meeting between Martin Luther and Charles V that took place in the city of Worms, on the river Rhine, in Germany. Luther committed himself to the cause of Protestant reform and on the last day of the Diet his teaching was formally condemned in the Edict of Worms.

Girondin -

a member of a French political party whose main exponents came from the Gironde region. The Girondins were closely associated with the two covens in the early days of the French Revolution. They held power at a critical time and were responsible for provoking the war is with France's enemies. The eventual failure of these wars led not only to the king's execution but also to the downfall of the party and the introduction of the Reign of Terror.

• Marathon, Battle of (490 B.C.)

a plain in eastern Attica, Greece, scene of a battle in 490 B.C. in which the Greeks under Miltiades defeated a much larger Persian army. The non-stop run of a courier named Pheidippides bringing the news to Athens has given the name to the race.

Name this year: "Sparta loses to Thebes in the Battle of Leuctra"

371 B.C.

Name this King: "(died 1750 B.C.) - the sixth king of the first dynasty of Babylonia (1792-1750 B.C.). He made Babylon the capital of Babylonia and extended the Babylonian empire. He became the first king of the Babylonian Empire, extending Babylon's control over Mesopotamia by winning a series of wars against neighboring kingdoms. He instituted one of the earliest known legal codes, which took the form of 282 case laws dealing with the economy and with family, criminal, and civil law. The set of laws is called *'s Code, one of the first written codes of law in recorded history. These laws were written on a stone tablet standing over six feet tall. Owing to his reputation in modern times as an ancient law-giver, *s portrait is in many government buildings throughout the world. Although his empire controlled all of Mesopotamia by the time of his death, his successors were unable to maintain his empire."

King Hammurabi

Louis Philippe I (1773-1850

King of France (1830-48). The son of the duc d'Orleans he, along with his father, renounced his titles and assumed the surname Égalité. On the restoration of Louis XVIII to the French throne he recovered his estates, and was elected king of the French, the 'citizen king', after the July revolution in 1830. During his reign and political corruption, judicial malpractices, and limited parliamentary franchise united liberals and extremists in the cry for reform. After 1840, series of disastrous foreign ventures and alliances with reactionary European monarchies alienated the liberal opinion on which his authority had been based. His rule ended in February 1848 when, after popular riots, he agreed to abdicate, and escaped to England as 'Mr. Smith'.

Louis XIV (1638-1715

King of France from 1643 to 1715; known as 'The Sun King'. On the death of his father, Louis XIII, in 1643, his mother, Anne of Austria, became Regent and Mazarin chief Minister. Louis survived the civil wars of the Fronde, was proclaimed of age in 1651, and married the Infanta Maria Theresa of Spain in 1660. He took over the government on Mazarin's death in 1661 and embarked on a long period of personal rule. Domestic policy was aimed at creating and maintaining a system of absolute rule: the king ruled unhampered by challenges from representative institutions but with the aid of ministers and councils subject to his will. The States-General was not summoned, the Parlement largely ignored, the great nobles were generally excluded from political office, and loyal bourgeois office holders were promoted. Colbert expanded the merchant marine and the navy, and encouraged manufacturing industries in trade, though he largely failed in his attempt to improve the tax system. In the provinces of the intendants established much firmer royal control. The French army became larger and more efficient; in his later years Louis was able to put between 300000 and 400,000 men into the field. The greatest victories came in the earlier years, when the generals Turenne and Conde were available to take command. Victories were won in the War of Devolution and the Dutch war, the French frontiers strengthened by a series of strategic territorial gains, reinforced by the fortification of Vauban. The Nine Years War and the War of the Spanish Succession saw France hard-pressed as Europe united to curb Louis' aggressive policies. After 1700 France suffered a series of crushing defeats. The country was seriously impoverished by the burden of taxation. Religious orthodoxy was strictly imposed, particularly after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) and the forced conversion of the Huguenots, at least 200,000 of whom illegally fled the country. Within the Catholic Church Jansenists, Quietists, and other deviants were also persecuted. On the positive side, the achievements of the rain in literature and the arts based on the court at Versailles have given it the name Le Grand Siècle. There was, however, a marketed decline in these fields during the later part of the rain, and at his death Louis XIV left a series of political, economic, and religious problems for his great grandson, Louis XV.

Charles X (1757-1836

King of France from 1824-30. As the Comte d'Artois, the dissolute and reactionary brother of Louis XVI, he was ordered to came to leave France in 1789 and became the leader of the exiled royalists. He returned to France in 1814 and during the reign of his next brother, Louis XVIII, led the ultra-royalist party. His proclamation to rule by divine right and his choice of ministers who did not reflect r Geordie's in parliament lead to unrest. The defeat of an unpopular ministry in June 1830 prompted him to issue the July Ordinances, which established rigid control of the press, dissolve the newly elected chamber, and restricted suffrage. These measures enraged the populace and he was forced, in the July Revolution, to abdicate. After the succession of Louis Phillippe, he returned to Britain.

o Frederick William I (1688-1740

King of Prussia from 1713-40. He was the son of Frederick I and was known as 'the royal drill-sergeant': he was a strict Calvinist, hardworking, violent tempered, and notorious for his ill-treatment of his son, Frederick II. He left a model administration, a large revenue, and an efficient and well-disciplined army.

Chinese Communist politician, prime minister of the People's Republic of China from 1988. * was born at Chengdu in Sechuan; his father, a writer, was executed in 1930 by Kuomintang for being a communist. * was looked after from 1939 by the wife of the veteran leader Zhou Enlai. After working as a hydroelectric engineer, he became minister of water resources and electricity. In 1982 he joined the Central Committee of the Communist Party, was appointed to the Politburo in 1995, and to the post of prime minister in 1988. Two years into his premiership, he adopted a hard-line towards the pro-democracy student movement, and presided over the tea and men Square massacre and subsequent mass arrests and executions.

Li Peng

What dynasty was King William III?

Orange

What dynasty was Queen Mary II?

Orange

What dynasty was King Edward I?

Plantagenet

Name this dynasty: "China's first imperial dynasty. It was founded by Prince Zheng, ruler of the Zhou vassal state of *. Unlike rival Chinese states, * used cavalry not chariots in battle and early adopted iron weaponry. It ensured a regular food supply by developing a system for land irrigation. Under Zheng, it overthrew the Eastern Zhou and conquered all Zhou's former vassal states. Zheng then took the title Huangdi nad is best known as Shi Huangdi (First Emperor). He died in 210 BC and his dynasty was overthrown four years later. From that time, though China was sometimes fragmented, the concept of a united empire prevailed. From * is derived the name 'China'."

Qin

Name this emperor: "founder of the * dynasty and first emperor of a unified China. He conquered the seven Warring States of China and formed a unified China in 221 BC. He invented the title 'emperor,' which would be used by Chinese rulers for the next two millennia. He also unified several state walls into a single Great Wall of China. He also had the Terracotta Army built, a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting his armies. They were later buried with him to protect him in his afterlife."

Qin Shi Huang

Name this British monarch: "He was the only son of Edward the Black Prince and the grandson of Edward III, whom he succeeded at the age of 10. In 1381 his Kurds helped prevent disaster in the Peasant's Revolt, but he then had to face a more direct threat to his power from a group of magnates called the Lords Appellant, led by his uncle Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester. During the session of the Merciless Parliament (1388) they had Richard's chief supporters executed or imprisoned and it was only in 1397 that he was able to strike back at them by punishing the Lords Apellant. His attempt to impose his personal rule upon England alienated support and enable Henry of Bolingbroke (Henry IV) to seize the throne with comparative ease in 1399. Richard abdicated and died a few months later in prison. He was a sensitive man but temperamentally unbalanced and incapable of firm rule."

Richard II

Name this artifact: "a piece of black basalt bearing inscriptions that provided the key to the deciphering of Egyptian hieroglyphics."

Rosetta Stone

What dynasty was King Edward VII?

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

What dynasty was Queen Victoria?

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

What dynasty was King Alfred the Great?

Saxon

Name this waterway: "a shipping canal 171 km (106 miles) long and without locks connecting the Mediterranean (at Port Said) with the Red Sea, constructed between 1859 and 1869 by Ferdinand de Lesseps. The canal, now important for Egypt's economy is providing the shortest route for international sea traffic traveling between Europe and Asia, came under British control after Britain acquired majority shares in it, at Disraelis instigation, in 1875; after 1888 Britain acted as guarantor of its neutral status. It was nationalized by Egypt in 1956 and an Anglo-French attempt at intervention was called off after international protest. It is been enlarged to take ships of almost any draught."

Suez Canal

corsair

a privateer of the Barbary Coast of North Africa, and especially Algiers. Piracy existed here in Roman times, but, after the Moorish expulsion from Spain, individuals (with connivance from the French king) began attacks on shipping. The corsairs weakened many of France's enemies.

Delian League (478-447 B.C.)

a voluntary alliance formed by the Greek city-states to seek revenge for losses suffered during the Greek-Persian wars. All members paid tribute in the form of ships or money, the latter being stored on the sacred island of Delos, the League's nominal base. At first, under the leadership of Athens, the League actively sought to drive Persian garrisons out of Europe and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor. Pericles encouraged the conversion of the alliance into the beginnings of the Athenian empire.

o Lützen, Battle of (1632

battle between Sweden (fighting for the Protestant Union) and the Holy Roman Empire. The Swedes were led by the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus (also called King Gustav II Adolf) and the Holy Roman Empire was led by General Wallenstein, and the battle was fought near Lützen, southwest of Leipzig in Saxony (present-day Germany). The battle was a Protestant\Swedish victory, but Gustavus Adolphus died in the battle. The Swedish army achieved the main goals of its campaign. The Imperial onslaught on Saxony was halted, Wallenstein chose to withdraw from Saxony into Bohemia for the winter, and Saxony continued in its alliance with the Swedes. A more long-lasting consequence of the battle was the death of the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus, leader of the Protestant forces. Without him to unify the German Protestants, their war effort lost direction. As a result, the Catholic Habsburgs were able to restore their balance and subsequently regain some of the losses Gustavus Adolphus had inflicted on them. His death also allowed the Catholic French to gain much firmer control of the anti-Habsburg alliance, forcing Sweden into a far less dominant role.

o Third Reich (1933-45

the period covering the Nazi regime in Germany.

Name this position: "formerly the central ruling office of Islam. The first * (Arabic, 'deputy of God' or 'successor of his Prophet') after the Prophet Muhammad's death in 632 was his father-in-law Abu Bakr. Bakr, followed by Umar, Uthman, and Ali are called the Rashidun (rightly guided) caliphs. When Ali died in 661 Shiite Muslims recognized his successors, the imams, as rightful possessors of the Prophet's authority, the rest of Islam accepting the Umayyad dynasty. They were overthrown in 750 by the Abbasids, but within two centuries they were virtually puppet rulers under Turkish control. Meanwhile, an Umayyad refugee had established an independent emirate in Spain in 756, which survived for 250 years, and in North Africa a Shiite * arose under the Fatimids, the imams of the Ismailis (909-1171). After the Mongols sacked Baghdad in 1258 the caliphate, now only a name, passed to the Mameluke rulers of Egypt and from the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517 the title was assumed by the Turkish sultans, until its abolition in 1924."

A Caliphate

• Solon (c.630-c.560 B.C.)

Athenian statesman and lawgiver. One of the seven sages listed by Plato, he is notable for his economic, constitutional, and legal reforms, begun in about 594. He revised the existing code of laws established by Draco, making them less severe; for example, he abolished the punishment of slavery for debt and reserved the death penalty for murder. His division of the citizens into four classes based on wealth rather than birth with the corresponding division of political responsibility laid the foundations of Athenian democracy.

Name this battle: "(1532) - the unexpected ambush and seizure of the Inca ruler Atahualpa by a small Spanish force led by Francisco Pizarro. The Spanish killed thousands of Atahualpa's counsellors, commanders and unarmed attendants in the great plaza of Cajamarca, and caused his armed host outside the town to flee. The capture of Atahualpa marked the opening stage of the conquest of the pre-Columbian Inca civilization of Peru"

Battle of Cajamarca

Name this battle: "(479 B.C.) - final land battle of the second Persian invasion of Greece. It took place near the city of Plataea in Boeotia, and was fought between an alliance of the Greek city-states (including Sparta, Athens, Corinth and Megara) commanded by Pausanias, and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I. After the defeat at the Battle of Salamis, Xerxes retreated with much of his army, leaving his general Mardonius to finish off the Greeks the following year. Mardonius was killed by the Greeks and much of the Persian army was trapped in its camp and slaughtered. The destruction of this army, and the remnants of the Persian navy on the same day at the Battle of Mycale, decisively ended the invasion."

Battle of Plataea

Name this emperor: "(742-814) - son of king Pepin III (Pepin the Short), * was King of the Franks (768-814) and Holy Roman emperor (as Charles I, from 800-814). He created an empire by conquering and Christianizing the Saxons, Lombards, and Avars, and restoring areas of Italy to the pope. His coronation by Pope Leo III in Rome on Christmas Day, 800, is taken as having inaugurated in for him the Holy Roman Empire. He gave government new moral drive and religious responsibility, and encouraged commerce and agriculture. A well-educated man, he promoted arts in education and under Alcuin his principal courts at Aachen became a major center of learning. The political cohesion of his empire did not last, but the influence of his scholars persisted in the Carolingian Renaissance. Today regarded as the founding father of both France and Germany and sometimes as the Father of Europe, as he was the first ruler of a Western Europe empire since the fall of the Roman Empire."

Charlemagne

(1966-76) - "a decade of chaos and political upheaval in China with its roots in a factional dispute over the future of Chinese socialism. Oblique criticisms of Mao Zedong in the early 1960s prompted him to retaliate against this threat to his ideology-led position from more pragmatic and bureaucratic modernizers with ideas closer to the Soviet Union. Unable to do so in the Communist Party, he utilized discontented students and young workers as his Red Guards to attack local and central party officials, who were then replaced by his own supporters and often had army backing. Liu Shaoqi, State Chairman of China since 1959 and Mao's heir-apparent, lost his government and party posts and Lin Biao became the designated successor."

Cultural Revolution

Name this "act of rebellion by Bohemian Protestant nobles against Catholic Habsburg rule. The Defenestration of Prague was the ejection of two Imperial representatives and a secretary from a window of the Hradcany Castle in Prague. It precipitated the beginning of the Thirty Years War and, following the Habsburg victory at the Battle of White Mountain (1620), near Prague, the city underwent enforced Catholicization and Germanization. In 1635, during the Thirty Years War, the Peace of Prague reconciled the German princes to the Emperor."

Defenestration of Prague

Name this leader: "Chinese Communist statesman. He served as Vice-Premier and Vice- Chairman of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party from 1977-80. Discredited during the Cultural Revolution, he was reinstated in 1977, becoming the most prominent exponent of economic modernization, improving relations with the West, and taking a firm stance in relation to the Soviet Union. Despite the announcement of his retirement in 1989, he was regarded until the end of his life as the effective leader of China. In 1989 his orders led to the massacre of some 2000 pro-democracy demonstrators in Beijing's Tiananmen Square."

Deng Xiaoping

Name this British monarch: "King of Wessex. Won decisive victory that brought Mercian supremacy to an end. Annexed Kent, Essex, Surrey, and Sussex. Northumbria acknowledged his rule. His reign foreshadowed the supremacy that Wessex later secured over all England."

Egbert

Nostradamus (born Michel de Nostredame) (1503-66

French astrologer and physician. His predictions, in the form of rhymed quatrains, appeared in two collections (1555; 1558). Cryptic and apocalyptic in tone, they were given extensive credence at the French court, where Nostradamus was for a time personal physician to Charles IX. Condemned in 1781 by the Roman Catholic Inquisition, they are no longer taken seriously.

o Ribbentrop, Joachim (1893-1946

German Nazi politician. A close associate of Hitler, Ribbentrop served as Foreign Minister (1938-45). During his ministry, he signed the nonaggression pact with the Soviet Union (1939). He was convicted as a war criminal at the Nuremberg trials and hanged.

What Chinese dynasty ruled from 206 B.C.-200 A.D.?

Han

What dynasty was King Edward II?

Plantagenet

Name this road/path: "a pass in Greece, about 200 km northwest of Athens, originally narrow but now much widened by the recession of the sea. It was the scene of the heroic defense (480 B.C.) against the Persian army of Xerxes by 6000 Greeks including 300 Spartans under their commander Leonidas."

Thermopylae

Name this group: "(Arabic, 'the base') - the international terrorist network is thought to have carried out the attacks on America on September 11, 2001. It was founded in about 1991 by Osama bin Laden to wage an Islamic holy war against the US. A series of bomb attacks on US targets in Africa and the Middle East followed. In 1996 bin Laden transfers his operations from Sudan to Afghanistan, where he enjoyed the support of the Taliban regime. Following September 11, the US destroyed [this group's] Afghan operation in its so-called War on Terrorism. However, cells with [this group] links remain active around the world and have been held responsible for the bombings in Bali (2002), Saudi Arabia (2003), and Morocco (2003)."

al-Qaida

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (August 23-24, 1572

an event that marked a turning point in the French wars of religion. The Catholic Guise faction prevailed upon Catherine de Medici to authorize an assassination of about 200 of the principal Huguenot leaders. Parisian Catholic mobs used these killings as a pretext for large-scale butchery, until some 3000 Huguenots lay dead, and thousands more perished in the 12 provincial disturbances that followed.

*Lumière Brother (Auguste and Louis

first filmmakers in history. They patented the cinematograph, and their first film, Sortie de l'usine Lumière de Lyon, shot in 1894, is considered the first true motion picture.

Acropolis

the citadel of an ancient Greek city, most notably of Athens. The Athenian citadel was destroyed by the invading Persians in 480 B.C., but Pericles instituted a rebuilding program. The Parthenon, built from 440-432, was a Doric temple containing a gold and ivory statue of Athena. This was followed by the gateway or Propylaea, the temple of Athena Nike (commemorating victory over the Persians), and the Erectheum, which housed the shrines of various cults.

o *Seven Weeks' War (1866

also known as the Austro-Prussian War, and in Germany as the German War. A war fought in 1866 between the German Confederation under the leadership of the Austrian Empire and its German allies on one side and the Kingdom of Prussia with its German allies on the other that resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states. Prussia had also allied with the Kingdom of Italy, linking this conflict to the Third Independence War of Italian unification. The major result of the war was a shift in power among the German states away from Austrian and towards Prussian hegemony, and impetus towards the unification of all of the northern German states in a Kleindeutsches Reich that excluded the German Austria. It saw the abolition of the German Confederation and its partial replacement by a North German Confederation that excluded Austria and the other South German states. The war also resulted in the Italian annexation of the Austrian province of Venetia..

o Munich 'beer-hall' putsch (Nov. 8, 1923

an abortive rebellion by German Nazis. In a beer- hall in Munich a meeting of right wing politicians, who had gathered to denounce the Weimar Republic and to call for the restitution of the Bavarian monarchy, was interrupted by a group of Nazi party members led by Adolf Hitler. In a fierce speech Hitler won support for a plan to 'march on Berlin' and their install the right wing military leader General Ludendorff as dictator. With a unit of Brownshirts (SA), he kidnapped the leader of the Bavarian government and declared a revolution. The next day march on the center of Munich by some 3000 Nazis was met by police gunfire, 16 demonstrators and three policemen being killed in the riots that followed. Many were arrested. Ludendorff was released, but Hitler was sentenced to five years in prison, of which he served only nine months. During this period he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and manifesto Mein Kampf (1925) to his fellow prisoner, Rudolf Hess.

o Frankfurt, Treaty of (May 1871

an agreement that ended the Franco-Prussian War. France surrendered Strasburg, Alsace, and part of Lorraine, together with the great fortresses of Metz to Bismarck's Germany. An indemnity of 5 billion gold francs was imposed by Germany on France, and a German army of occupation was to remain until the indemnity had been paid. Bismarck's aim in this treaty was to ensure that France would be entirely cut off from the Rhine.

• Thrace

an ancient country lying west of Istanbul and the Black Sea and north of the Aegean, now part of modern day Turkey, Greece, and Bulgaria. It extended as far west as the Adriatic but the Thracians retreated eastwards between 13th and fifth centuries B.C. under pressure from the Illyrians and Macedonians. Conquered by Philip the second of Macedonia and 342 B.C. it later became a province of Rome. The region was ruled by the Ottoman Turks from the 15th century until the end of World War I, but in northern race was annexed by Bulgaria in 1885. In 1923 all of Thrace east of the Maritsa River was restored to Turkey.

Aquitaine

an ancient province of southwest France, comprising at some periods the whole country from the Loire to the Pyrenees. By the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine to Henry II in 1152 it became one of the English possessions in France. It was held by the English crown until 1453 when Charles VII took Bordeaux and united the region with France as the province of Aquitaine.

Committee of Public Safety

an emergency body set up in France in April 1793. It was the first effective executive government of the revolutionary period and governed France during the most critical year of the revolution. Its nine members (later 12) were chiefly drawn from the Jacobins and it contained some of the ablest man in France, dominated at first by Danton and then by Robespierre. It successfully defeated France's ex-colonel enemies but was largely responsible for the Reign of Terror, and its ruthless methods, in a time of growing economic distress, led to increasing opposition. In March 1794 an attempt to overthrow it, led by Hébert, was squashed, but four months later the reaction which overthrew Robespierre marked the end of the Committee's power. It was restricted to foreign affairs until its influence was finally ended in October 1795.

Helot

an inhabitant of ancient Greece forced into serfdom by conquering invaders. *s were used as agricultural laborers and in domestic service. The Messenians (a conquered people who became *s), subjected by Sparta, greatly outnumbered the Spartan citizens, and fear of their rebellion caused the city to keep them under ruthlessly tight military control.

Draco

7th century B.C. Athenian statesman and lawgiver. He prepared in 621 BC the first comprehensive written code of laws for Athens. Although their details are obscure, they apparently covered a number of offenses. The modern adjective "draconian" (excessively harsh) reflects the fact that penalties laid down in the code where extremely severe: stealing received the same punishment as murder - death. A 4th century B.C. politician quipped that * wrote his laws not in ink, but in blood. Most of the code was later repealed by Solon.

Name this kind of soldier: "A horseman of South America, often Indian or mestizo. Early in the 19th century the gauchos took part in the Spanish-South American wars of independence, and later were prominent on the Argentine pampas in the development of the cattle industry. By the late 19th century the past oral economy had given way to more intensive land cultivation in the fenced off estancias (estates), forcing many gauchos to become farmhands or peons."

A Gaucho

Name this kind of ship: "the principal warship of antiquity from the sixth to the late fourth century B.C. A type of galley with three banks of ores, it was lightly built for speed and maneuverability and unable to venture very far from land; each * carried a crew of some 200 men, the majority being rowers. They were probably seated three to a bench, the bench being angled so that each rower pulled a separate oar. A beak of metal and wood was set at the front of the galley, ramming being the principal aim of the steersman. Athens' fleet of * played a major part in the Greek victory at Salamis and was instrumental in controlling the Athenian Empire."

A Trireme

Name this leader: "(1822-92) - Canadian statesman. After the creation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867 he became leader of the liberal opposition in the first House of Commons. One of the dominant figures in Canada's early days of nationhood, * defeated the Conservatives under Sir John Macdonald to become the country's first Liberal Prime Minister (1873-78). During his term in office voting by ballot was introduced, the Canadian Supreme Court formed, and the territorial government of the Northwest Territories successfully organized."

Alexander Makenzie

Name this British monarch: "Famous for promoting learning, he was determined to translate all the books he considered important from Latin into Old English. He himself translated Pope Gregory I's Pastoral Care and The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius. He had other scholars begin the writing of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 980, the ultimate timeline of British history from its beginnings up to the end of the reign of King Stephen in 1154. Alfred's military resistance saved southwest England from Viking occupation. He negotiated the treaty giving the Danelaw to the Norsemen (886). A great reformer, he reorganized land-based garrisons, founded the English navy, issued a new code of laws, and introduced administrative and financial changes"

Alfred the Great

Name this leader(1908-73) - "as President of Chile (1970-73), he was the first avowed Marxist to win a Latin American presidency in a free election. Having bid for the office unsuccessfully on two previous occasions, * 1970 victory was brought about by a coalition of leftist parties. During his brief tenure he set the country on a socialist path, and incurring the antipathy of the Chilean military establishment. Under General Pinochet, a military coup (which enjoyed some indirect support from the US) overthrew him in 1973. * died in the fighting, and was given a state funeral in 1990."

Allende (Gossens), Salvador

Name this action: "(German , 'connection') - Hitler's annexation of Austria. The Germans second Empire did not include Austrian Germans, who remained in Austria-Hungary. In 1934 a coup by Austrian Nazis failed to achieve union with Germany. In February 1938 Hitler summoned Kurt von Schuschnigg, the Austrian chancellor, to Berchtesgaden and demanded the admission of Nazis into his cabinet. Schluschnigg attempted to call a plea to sites on Austrian independence, failed, and was forced to resign. German troops entered Vienna and on March 13, 1938 the * was proclaimed. The majority of Austrians welcomed the union. The ban on an *, laid down in the Versailles peace settlement and Treaty of St. Germain (1919), was reiterated when the Allied Powers recognize the second Austrian republic in 1946."

Anschluss

Name this ancient country: "What is now northern Iraq. It was originally centered on Ashur, a city-state on the west bank of the Tigris, which first became prominent expanded its borders in the 14th century B.C. From the 8th to the late 7th century B.C. Assyria was the dominant Near-Eastern power and created an empire which stretched from the Persian Gulf to Egypt. Its capital city was Nineveh near modern Mosul, Iraq. The state fell in 612 B.C., defeated by a coalition of Medes and Chaldeans."

Assyria

Name this leader: "(died 1533) - son of Huayna Capac and last ruler of the Inca empire. Ruling from 1525 in Quito (now in Ecuador), he defeated Huáscar, his half-brother and co-ruler in Cuzco, whom he killed after the Battle of Huancavelica in 1530. In 1532 he marched against Francisco Pizarro and remnants of the Huáscar faction. At Cajamarca he was drawn into an ambush, captured, and held for ransom. He ordered a room to be filled with gold and silver objects while another army secretly marched to free him, but was murdered when Pizarro learned of the plan. Shortly thereafter a Pizarro captured Cuzco and within a few years Spain ruled the lands of the Incas."

Athahualpa

Demosthenes (384-322 BC)

Athenian orator and statesman. He is regarded as the greatest of Greek orators. Leading speaker in the Athenian assembly, and leader of the popular party, * was the chief spokesman for military preparedness, attacking Philip of Macedon in a series of orations called the Philippics. * was at the forefront of the campaign to unite the Greek city-states militarily against Macedon. He denounced the Peace of Philocrates and its chief Athenian architect, Aeschines. The Athenian army, aligned with Thebes, was defeated by Philip at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 B.C. * delivered his greatest oration, "On the Crown" in his own defense against the accusations of Aeschines. He was exiled by a pro-Macedonian party, but was recalled to Athens after Alexander's death (323). He fled from Athens when the city was threatened in 322. He was condemned to death and took poison to avoid capture.

Name this leader (1915- ) - "Chilean general and statesman, and president from 1974-90. He became commander-in-chief of Chile's armed forces in 1973 and in the same year masterminded the military coup to overthrew President Allende. He imposed a repressive military dictatorship until forced to call elections in December 1989, giving way to a democratically elected president in 1990. His regime is been accused of some 3000 political murders and other abuses of human rights. While recovering from an operation in London in 1998, he was arrested pending extradition to Spain to answer murder charges. In spite of support from Lady Thatcher, the legal processes to affect his extradition were continuing in 1999, while his medical condition was deteriorating. At the time of his death in 2006, around 300 criminal charges in Chile were still pending against Pinochet for alleged human rights abuses and embezzlement during his rule."

Augusto Pinochet

Name this battle: "(480 B.C.) - a naval battle fought in the straits between mainland Greece and *, an island in the Saronic Gulf near Athens. This battle marked the high-point of the second Persian invasion of Greece, during the Greek-Persian wars. Themistocles, the Greek commander of an alliance of Greek city-states, lured the Persian fleet of Xerxes, the Persian king, into the narrow waters between the island of Salamis and the mainland. The outnumbered but nimbler and expertly handled Greek triremes took full advantage of the confusion engendered by the confined space and the huge number of Persian ships to win a victory that offset the earlier reverses at Thermopylae and Artemisium. After the battle, Xerxes retreated to Asia with much of his army, leaving the Persian commander Mardonius to complete the attempted conquest of Greece. The following year, the remainder of the Persian army was decisively beaten at the Battle of Plataea and the Persian navy was defeated at the Battle of Mycale. After these defeats, the Persians made no further attempts to conquer the Greek mainland."

Battle of Salamis

o *Wallenstein, Albrecht von (1583-1634

Bohemian military leader of the Catholic League during the Thirty Years' War. He eventually replaced the Count of Tilly as supreme commander of the Catholic League. He aided in the defeat of the Protestants at the Battle of White Mountain. He was good at recruiting and raising armies. He won a crushing defeat over the Protestants at the Battle of Dessau Bridge. For his successes, he became an Imperial count palatine. He became supreme field marshal of the Catholic League forces, but was dismissed after two years, as Ferdinand II had become wary of his ambition. Several Protestant victories over Catholic armies induced Ferdinand II to reinstate Wallenstein as supreme commander. He proceeded to defeat Gustavus Adolphus at Alte Veste and killed him at the Battle of Lützen. Dissatisfied with Emperor Ferdinand II's treatment of him, he considered allying with the Protestants. However, he was assassinated at Eger in Bohemia by one of the army's officials, with the emperor's approval.

Name this Rebellion (1899-1900) - "a popular anti-western movement in China. The Secret Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, which was opposed to foreign expansion and the Manchu court, claimed that by training (including ritual boxing) its members could become immune to bullets. The movement began in Shandon province and had its roots in rural poverty and unemployment, blamed partly on Western imports. It was pushed westwards and missionaries, Chinese Christians, and people handling foreign goods were attacked. The movement was backed by the Empress dowager Cixi and some provincial governors. In 1900 the Boxers besieged the foreign legations in Beijing for two months until they were relieved by an international force which occupied and looted the capital. Cixi and the emperor fled in disguise. The foreign powers launched punitive raids in Beijing region and negotiated heavy reparations in the Boxer Protocol (1901). The rising greatly increased foreign interference in China and further reduce the authority of the Qing dynasty."

Boxer Rebellion

Name this pharohess: "last of the Ptolemies. She became co-ruler of Egypt with Ptolemy XIII in 51, was driven out and 48. She was restored by Julius Caesar and in 47 bore a son whom she said was his. In 46 they both accompanied him to Rome. After his assassination in 44 she returned to Egypt, and in 41 met Mark Antony at Tarsus. He spent the following winter with her in Alexandria and she in due course gave birth to twins. In 37 Antony acknowledged these children and restored the territories of Cyrene and elsewhere to her; she pledged Egypt's support to him. In 34 they formally announced the division of Alexander the Great's former empire between Cleopatra and her children. In 32 Octavian (Augustus) declared war on her and in the following year the Battle of Actium resulted in the collapse of her fortunes. In 30 she committed suicide as Egypt passed into Roman hands."

Clepatra VII

o Honecker, Erich (1912-94

East German communist statesman, serving as head of state from 1976 to 1989. He was appointed first secretary of the Socialist unity party in 1971, becoming effective leader of East Germany in 1973, and head of state (Chairman of the Council of State) three years later. His repressive regime was marked by a close allegiance to the Soviet Union. Honecker was ousted in 1989 after a series of pro-democracy demonstrations. In 1992 he was arrested but proceedings against him for manslaughter and embezzlement were later dropped because of his ill health.

Name this schism: "the schism between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Western (or Roman) Church, which became definitive in the year 1054. Tension between the two churches dated back at least to the division of the Roman Empire into an Eastern and a Western part, and the transferal of the capital city from Rome to Constantinople in the 4th century. An increasingly different mental outlook between the two Churches resulted from the occupation of the West by formerly barbarian invaders, while the East remained the heirs of the classical world. This was exacerbated when the popes turned for support to the Holy Roman Empire in the West rather than to the Byzantine Empire in the East, especially from the time of Charlemagne onwards. There were also doctrinal disputes and arguments over the nature of papal authority. Matters came to a head in 1054 when the two Churches, through their official representatives, excommunicated and anathematized (formally denounced) each other. The breach was deepened in 1024 when the 4th Crusade was diverted to Constantinople and sacked the city and a Latin (Western) Empire was established there for some time. Attempts were made to heal the schism, but these were effectively brought to an end when the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in 1453 and occupied almost all of the former Byzantine empire for many centuries. It is only in recent years that the dialogue between the two Churches to heal the schism has been effectively reopened."

East-West Schism

Name this British monarch: "He succeeded his father Henry III. He was married to Eleanor of Castile, then to Margaret of France. His reputation as a successful ruler rests on his military and legal skills, for which he was called "the English Justinian." His military achievements, motivated by a determination to extend royal power, included the defeat of Simon de Montfort, the conquest of Wales, the suppression of rebellions in Wales and Scotland, and the defense of his lands in Gascony against the French crown. His legal reforms covered such matters as feudal administration (Statute of Westminster), crown lands (Quo Warranto), and law and order (Statute of Winchester), and he summoned the Model Parliament in 1295. He died during a vain expedition to subdue the Scots and was succeeded by Edward II.

Edward I

Name this British monarch: "The fourth but eldest surviving son of Edward I and first Prince of Wales, he was notorious in his own lifetime for his inordinate affection for Piers Gaveston and for his unhappy marriage with Isabella of France. Gaveston dominated Edward by 1304 and helped alienate him from his barons; the barons, led by Edward's cousin, Thomas of Lancaster, hemmed Edward in by a set of Ordinances and had Gaveston killed in 1312. The king's prestige fell further when he was defeated by Robert I (the Bruce) at Bannockburn in 1314, and although he attempted to reassert his royal authority and annulled the Ordinances, his own wife and her lover, Roger Mortimer, imprisoned him in 1326 and finally had him murdered."

Edward II

Name this British monarch: "He succeeded his father, Edward II, though the throne was at first it is in little more than name, power remaining in the hands of his mother, Isabella of France, and her lover Roger Mortimer; but in 1330 Edward had Mortimer arrested and began his personal rule. He secured the Scottish frontier with ease, but went virtually bankrupt trying to buy up the allegiance of France's neighbors. In 1346 he sought to justify his claim to the French throne by the more direct means of leading a vast army to France, and victories at Crecy and Brittany made him effectively keying in France. The English by now or gaining a taste for foreign warfare and booty, and the truths of 1354 was ended by a fresh invasion of France two years later, crowned by the epic victory that Edward's son, Edward the Black Prince won at Poitiers. The rest of his long reign was less successful - failures in France ensued, and after the death of his wife Philippa of Hainault in 1369, his health and mind began to deteriorate; he fell under the influence of his mistress, Alice Perrers. Edward left his successor, Richard II, with a legacy of social discontent in England as well as the possession of vast tracts of France."

Edward III

Name this British monarch: "He was the son of Ethelred II (the Unready), and he succeeded King Canute's Danish heirs as king, temporarily reestablishing the West Saxon monarchy, although he favored the Normans, among whom he had been brought up. In 1045 he married the daughter of Earl Godwin of Wessex and six years later put down a rebellion by the earl. It will never be known for certain whether, as the Normans claimed, he promised the ground to Duke William before his death; the succession after his death of Harold, Earl Godwin's son, caused the Normans (under William the Conqueror) to take England by conquest. Edward was the founder of Westminster Abbey (1045), and had a great reputation for piety. He was canonized as a saint in 1161."

Edward the Confessor

o Frederick William (known as 'the Great Elector')(1620-88

Elector of Brandenburg from 1640- 88. His program of reconstruction and reorganization following the Thirty Years War, including the strengthening of the army and the development of the civil service, brought stability to his country and laid the basis for the expansion of Prussian power in the 18th century. In his foreign policy he sought to create a balance of power by the formation of shifting strategic alliances.

o Frederick I (1657-1713

Elector of Brandenburg from 1688, King of Prussia from 1701-13. He lacked the ability of his father, Frederick William, the Great Elector, and dissipated funds in display and extravagance. In 1700 he supported the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I in the War of the Spanish Succession and with his approval was able to proclaim himself king, taking his title from his territory of East Prussia. With his second wife Sophia Charlotte he developed Berlin and established the Academy of Science and the University of Halle.

Napoleon I (or Napoleon Bonaparte)(1769-1821

Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1814. Born in Ajaccio, he was a Corsican of Italian descent. By the age of 26 he was a general, and placed in supreme command of the campaign against Sardinia and Austria in Italy (1796-97). This provided him with some of his most spectacular victories of his military career and resulted in the creation of the French-controlled Cisalpine Republic in northern Italy. As a Jacobin, he was held in prison after the downfall of Robespierre (1794). He took part in the defense of Tuileries, driving the Parisian mob from the streets with a "whiff of grapeshot" from his artillery (1795). In 1796 he married Josephine de Beauharnais, whose failure to give him a son led to their divorce. In 1798 he led an army to Egypt, intending to create a French empire overseas and to threaten the British overland route to India. Nelson, by destroying the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile (1798), prevented this plan. Napoleon returned to France in 1799 and joined a conspiracy with Emmanuel Sièyes and overthrew the Directory and dissolved the First Republic. Elected First Consul for 10 years, he became the supreme ruler of France. During the next four years he began his reorganization of the French legal system, and education. He secured the cession of Louisiana from Spain in 1800, but fail to conquer Haiti. He abandoned his dream of empire overseas by selling Louisiana to the US in 1803. In 1804 Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French at Paris, and embarked on a series of campaigns known as the Napoleonic wars. In 1810 Napoleon married the Austrian princess Marie-Louise. Their only child, Joseph-François-Charles, crowned as the Roi de Rome, died at the age of 21. His ill-fated invasion of Russia in 1812, and the setbacks of the peninsular war (1807-14) all contributed to Napoleon's decline. Following his defeat in the Battle of Leipzig and the proclamation by Talleyrand of the deposition of the Emperor, he abdicated in 1814. After a brief exile on the album he returned, but defeat at the Battle of Waterloo (1815) ended his rule after only a hundred days. He spent the rest of his life in exile on St. Helena.

Napoleon III (known as Louis-Napoleon, full name Charles-Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte)(1808- 1873

Emperor of the French from 1852 until 1870. He was the third son of Hortense de Beauharnais, stepdaughter of Napoleon I, and Louis Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon I and King of Holland. After the fall of Napoleon I, Napoleon III began a long period of exile in Switzerland. On the death of Napoleon I's only son, the Roi de Rome (Napoleon II), in 1832, he became Bonapartist attended to the French throne and twice attempted to overthrow Louis Philippe, as a result of which he was deported. In 1840 he embarked upon the disastrous "Boulogne Conspiracy" to gather supporters. He was arrested and imprisoned in the fortress of Ham. He escaped to London in 1846 disguised as a mason by the name of "Badinguet", which thereafter became his new name. During the revolutions of 1848, he returned to France, and in December under the new constitution was elected president of the French Republic. In 1852, following a coup against parliament, he had himself accepted as Emperor of the French. Napoleon III took part in the Crimean war and presided over the Congress of Paris (1856). His "Liberal Empire" widened the powers of the legislative assembly. Underestimating Bismarck, he allowed the latter's belligerent EMS Telegram to provoke him into fighting the Franco-Prussian war, the outcome of which brought ruin into the Second Empire. He was captured by the Prussians and opposed, spending the rest of his life in exile in England.

Name this leader: "(1927- ) - Cuban revolutionary and statesman. Son of an immigrant sugar planter, he joined the Cuban People's party in 1947 and led a revolution in Santiago in 1953, for which he was imprisoned. His self defense at this trial, known by its concluding words, "History will absolve me", was to become his major policy statement at the time. Exiled in 1955 he went to Mexico and in 1956 landed on the Cuban coast with 82 men, including Che Guevera, but only 12 men survived the landing. He conducted successful guerrilla operations from the Sierra Maestra mountains and in 1958 lead a march on Havana. The ruthless and corrupt dictator, General Batista, fled, and on January 1, 1959 Castro proclaimed the Cuban revolution, ordering the arrest and execution of many of Batista's supporters. Castro declared himself prime minister and, unable to establish diplomatic or commercial agreements with the US, negotiated credit, arms, and food supplies of the former Soviet Union. He and expropriated for an industry and collectivized agriculture. The US canceled all trade agreements in 1960 and from 1961 Castor was openly aligned with the Soviet Union, are merging more and more strongly as a Marxist. The abortive US and Cuban invasion in April 1961 of the Bay of Pigs boosted his popularity, as if his successful survival of the Cuban missile crisis and not Tober, 1962 and of several assassination plots. A keen promoter a revolution in other Latin American countries and of liberation movements in Africa, he achieved considerable status in developing countries through his leadership of the Non-Aligned Movement. With the collapse of the Soviet Union and of Comecon in 1990, his government face severe problems. He introduced economic austerity measures in 1991 and some degree of liberalization of Cuba's economy."

Fidel Castro

Namde this person: "(1768-1835) - last Holy Roman Emperor. He dissolved the Holy Roman Empire after the decisive defeat at the hands of the First French Empire led by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz. In 1804, he had founded the Austrian Empire and became Francis I, the first Emperor of Austria, ruling from 1804 to 1835, so later he was named the one and only Doppelkaiser (double emperor) in history. For the two years between 1804 and 1806, Francis used the title and style by the Grace of God elected Roman Emperor, ever Augustus, hereditary Emperor of Austria and he was called the Emperor of both the Holy Roman Empire and Austria. The proxy marriage of state of his daughter Marie Louise of Austria to Napoleon in 1810 was arguably his severest personal defeat."

Francis II

Name this leader: "(known as 'Papa Doc')(1907-71) - Haitian statesman, and president from 1957 to 1971. * was trained as a physician, and served as director of the National Public Health Service (1946-48). He then served as Minister of public health and labor (1949-50). He then became leader of the opposition to President Magliore, becoming president in 1957. He proclaimed himself president for life in 1964. His regime was noted for being authoritarian and oppressive. Many of his opponents were either assassinated or forced into exile by his security force, known as the Tontons Macoutes. He was succeeded on his death by his son Jean-Claude Duvalier (known as 'Baby Doc'). The * regime ended in 1986 when a mass uprising forced Jean-Claude to flee the country."

François Duvalier

Name this emperor: "(1194-1250) - Holy Roman Emperor from 1220 to 1250. The grandson of Frederick I (Barbarossa), * was known as the Stupor Mundi ('Wonder of the World') because of the breadth of his power and his administrative, military, and intellectual abilities. He was crowned king of the Germans in 1215 and Holy Roman Empire and 1220, but his reign was dominated by a long and ultimately unsuccessful struggle for power with the papacy. In 1228 he led a successful crusade to Jerusalem, obtaining, in 1229, Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem for Christendom. Twice excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX, and opposed in Italy by the Lombard league, Frederick devolved a great deal of imperial power within Germany on the lay and clerical princes in an effort to maintain their support, and concentrated on building a power base in Sicily, a process completed by the Constitution of Melfi in 1231. He defeated the Lombard league at Cortenuova in 1237 and humiliated Gregory IXprior to the latter's death in 1241, but failed in his efforts to conciliate innocent before us who appealed to Germany to revolt at the Synod of Lyons in 1245. Frederick's position was crumbling in the face of revolt, papal propaganda, and military defeat when he died in 1250, leaving an impossible situation for his heirs to solve. Many scholars and artists of his court migrated to north Italian cities, becoming precursors of the Renaissance."

Frederick II

Clemenceau, Georges (1841-1929

French Prime Minister from 1906-09 and 1917-20. A radical politician and journalist, he persistently opposed the government during the early years of WWI, before becoming Premier and seeing France through to victory in 1918. He presided at the Versailles peace talks, where he pushed hard for a punitive settlement with Germany, but failed to obtain all that he demanded (notably the River Rhine as a frontier).

Calvin, John (1509-64

French Protestant theologian and a reformer. He began his theological career in France but was forced to flee to Basil in Switzerland after embracing Protestantism in the early 1530s. He attempted a read ordering of society on reformed Christian principles, with strong and sometimes ruthless control over the private lives of citizens. From 1541 he lived in Geneva, where he established the first Presbyterian government. Wrote Institutes of the Christian Religion as an introductory textbook on the Protestant creed and to dissuade French king Francis I from equating Huguenots like himself with the radical Anabaptists. He exerted an important influence on the development of Protestant thought; his theological system, Calvinism, was further developed by his followers, notably Theodore Beza (1519-1605).

Dreyfus, Alfred (1859-1935

French army officer of Jewish dissent. In 1894 he was falsely accused of providing military secrets to the Germans. His trial, imprisonment on Devil's Island, and eventual rehabilitation in 1906 caused a major political crisis in France, polarizing deep-set anti-militarists and anti-Semitic trends in a society still coming to terms with defeat and revolution in 1870-71. Notable among his supporters was the novelist Emile Zola, whose open letter, J'accuse, published in 1898, accused the judges at the trial of having convicted Dreyfus at the behest of the war office. Investigation proved that the papers on which Dreyfus had been convicted or forged by two French majors. The original conviction was set aside by civilian court in 1906, and Dreyfus was restored to rank in the army and given the Legion of Honor.

Champlain, Samuel de (1567-1635

French explorer and colonial statesman. He made his first voyage to Canada in 1603, and between 1604 and 1607 explored the eastern coast of North America. In 1608 he was sent to establish a settlement at Québec, where he developed alliances with the native peoples for trade and defense. He was appointed lieutenant governor in 1612. Much of his subsequent career was spent exploring the Canadian interior. After capture and imprisonment by the English (1629-32), he returned to Canada for a final spell as governor (1633- 35).

de Gaulle, Charles (1890-1970

French general and statesman, head of government (1944-46) and President (1959-69). De Gaulle served with distinction in the French army in WWI, was promoted to brigadier general in 1940 and took a post on the Cabinet. On the fall of France in 1940, he left for London where he organized and led the Free French Forces, a major resistance movement. He moved the resistance headquarters to Algiers in 1943, and became joint president in 1943 with Henri Giraud, then sole president later in 1943 of the shadow government French Committee of National Liberation, thus making him supreme commander of the French war effort outside metropolitan France. He returned to France after the liberation of Paris in 1944, and headed two successive provisional governments (1945-46) of the new French Republic. He retired in 1946, and then opposed the Fourth Republic from retirement (1946-58). He was the architect and president of the French Fifth Republic (1958-69).

Corday, Charlotte (1768-93

French noblewoman who murdered Marat. After a lonely childhood in Normandy she began to attend the meetings of the Girondins, where she heard of Marat as a tyrant and conceived the idea of assassinating him. She arrived in Paris in 1793 on the 13th of July murdered Marat in his bath. A plea of insanity was overruled and she was sentenced to death on the guillotine.

Robespierre, Maximilien (1758-94

French revolutionary. Robespierre was the leader of the radical Jacobins in the National Assembly and, as such, backed the execution of Louis XVI and implemented a successful purge of the moderate Girondistss (both 1793). Later the same year he consolidated his power with his election to the Committee of Public Safety (the revolutionary governing body 1793-94) and his appointment as president of the National Assembly. Robespierre was guillotined for his role in the Terror, although he had objected to the scale of the executions.

Abelard, Peter (1079-1142

French scholar, theologian, and philosopher. His independence of mind brought him in to frequent conflict with the authorities and led to his being twice condemned for heresy. He lectured in Paris until 1118. While in Paris, he began a tragic love affair with one of his pupils, Heloise, who is a niece of Fulbert, a canon of Notre Dame. Abelard was subsequently castrated. Abelard and then entered a monastery and made Heloise become a nun. Abelard continued his controversial teaching, applying reason to questions of faith, notably to the doctrine of the Trinity.

Pompidou, Georges (1911-74

French statesman. He served in the resistance movement in World War II and, from 1944, became an aide and advisor to Charles de Gaulle. While the latter was president, Pompidou held the post of prime minister (1962-68) and played an important part in setting up the Evian Agreements. The strikes and riots of 1968 prompted de Gaulle's resignation (1969) and Pompidou was elected president. And a swift and decisive policy change he devalued the franc, introduced a price freeze, and lifted France's veto on Britain's membership in the European Economic Community.

Tocqueville, Alexis (1805-59

French statesmen and political analyst. Sent to the US in 1831 to study its penal system, Tocqueville carried out a systematic survey of US political and social institutions, publishing the results in De la democratie en Amerique (1835 and 1840). The book immediately found a large readership and became one of the most influential political writings of the 19th century. It remains probably the greatest of all European commentaries on US politics and society.

Name this leader: "(1901-73) - Cuban statesman. He was President of Cuba (1933-44; 1952-58), having come to national prominence in 1933 when, as a sergeant in the army, he led a successful revolt against President Morales. He established a strong, efficient government, but increasingly used terrorist methods to achieve his aims. He amassed fortunes for himself and his associates, and the dictatorial excesses of his second term led to his overthrow in Castro's revolution in December 1958."

Fulgencio Batistá

o Goering, Hermann Wilhelm (or Göring) (1893-1946

German Nazi leader and politician. In 1934 he became commander of the German air force, and was responsible for the German rearmament program. Until 1936 Goering headed the Gestapo, which he had founded; from then until 1943 he directed the German economy. In that year he fell from favor, was deprived of all authority, and was finally dismissed in 1945 after unauthorized attempts to make peace with the Allies. Sentenced to death at the Nuremberg war trials, he committed suicide in his cell.

o Goebbels, (Paul) Joseph (or Göbbels) (1897-1945

German Nazi leader and politician. In 1933 he became Hitler's Minister of Propaganda, with control of the press, radio, and all aspects of culture. With a total disregard for the truth, he manipulated the media in order to further Nazi aims. A supporter of Hitler to alas, he committed suicide rather than surrender to the Allies.

o Luther, Martin (1483-1546

German Protestant theologian, the principal figure of the German Reformation. From 1508 he taught at the University of Wittenberg, latterly as a professor of Scripture (1512-46). He began to preach the doctrine of justification by faith rather than by works; his attack on the sale of indulgences with his 95 Theses (1517), a copy of which, according to tradition, he posted the same day on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg was followed by further attacks on papal authority, and in 1521 Luther was condemned and excommunicated at the Diet of Worms (Pope Leo X allowed Johann Tetzel to sell indulgences forgiving sin as a fundraiser for the renovation of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome). At a meeting with Swiss theologians at Marburg (1529) he opposed Zwingli and gave a defense of the doctrine of consubstantiation (the presence in the Eucharist of the real substances of the body and blood of Christ); the next year he gave his approval to Melanchthon's Augsburg Confession, which laid down the Lutheran position. His translation of the Bible into High German (1522-34) contributed significantly to the spread of this form of the language and to the development of German literature in the vernacular.

o *Schlieffen Plan -

German battle plan for the invasion of France and Belgium first proposed in 1905 by Field Marshal Alfred von Schlieffen. Schlieffen felt that it was a blueprint for a quick, winning offensive against the French Third Republic. Helmuth Moltke succeeded Schlieffen as Chief of the German General Staff in 1906, but was dismissed after the First Battle of the Marne in 1914. Many German historians claimed that Moltke's alterations to the Schlieffen Plan caused Germany to lose World War I.

o *Ludendorff, Erich (1865-1937

German general who was victor at the Battle of Liege and the Battle of Tannenberg during World War I. After World War I, he became a prominent nationalist leader and promoter of the "stab-in-the-back" myth, which posited that the German loss in WWI was caused by the betrayal of the German army by Marxists, Bolsheviks and Jews. He took part in the failed Beer Hall Putsch with Hitler in 1923. He developed the theory of "Total War."

o Hess, Rudolf (1894-1987

German politician. He was deputy leader of the Nazi party (1934-41) and a close friend of Hitler. In 1941, secretly and on his own initiative, he parachuted into Scotland to negotiate peace with Britain. He was in prison for the duration of the war, and after his conviction at the Nuremberg war trials was sentenced to life imprisonment in Spandau prison, where he died.

o Gutenberg, Johannes (c.1400-68

German printer who is remembered as the first in the West to print using movable type; he introduced typecasting using a matrix, and was the first to use a press. By 1455 he had produced what later became known as the Gutenberg Bible, the first book to be printed from movable type and the oldest book still extant in the West.

o Kohl, Helmut (1930-

German statesman, chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany (1982-90), and of Germany since 1990. He became chairman of the Christian Democratic Party in 1973, and was a leader of the opposition until 1982, becoming Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany when the ruling coalition collapsed. As chancellor he showed a strong commitment to NATO and to closer European Union within the European Community. In 1990 he presided over the reunification of the East and West Germany and was elected Chancellor of the united country later the same year. The longest-serving postwar German leader, he won a fourth term in 1994 but in 1998 he was defeated in elections by Gerhard Schröder.

Name this leader: "(1883-1954) - Brazilian statesman, and president from 1930-45, and 1951-54. Although defeated in the presidential elections of 1930, Vargas seized power in the ensuing revolution, overthrowing the Republican ruling is a virtual dictator for the next 15 years. He furthered Brazil's modernization by the introduction of fiscal, educational, electoral, and land reforms, but his regime was totalitarian and repressive. He was overthrown in a coup in 1945 the return to power after elections in 1951. After widespread calls for his resignation, he committed suicide."

Getulio Vargas

Name this border a defensive wall in northern China, extending over a total distance of 6700 km (4200 miles) from the Jiayuguan Pass in Gansu province to Shanhaiguan on the Yellow Sea north of Beijing. Its origin dates from c.210 B.C. when the country was unified under one ruler (Qin Shi Huang), and the northern walls of existing rival states were linked to form a continuous protection against nomad invaders. It was rebuilt in medieval times largely against the Mongols, and the present wall dates from the Ming Dynasty (1368-1544). Although principally a defensive wall it served also as a means of communication, and is said to be the only man-made feature that is visible from orbit in space.

Great Wall of China

• Mycenaean civilization (or Aegean civilization)

Greek culture that dominated mainland Greece from 1580 B.C. to about 1120 B.C., when the invading Dorians destroyed the citadels of Mycenae and Tiryns. Another important Peloponnesian center was Pylos, and a Mycenaean influence spread as far north as southern Thessaly. In about 1450 B.C. Mycenaeans seem to have conquered Knossos in Crete, and traders traveled widely to Asia Minor, Cyprus, and Syria. It seems that they also sacked Troy in around 1200 B.C., though the duration and scale of the expedition was doubtless exaggerated by the poet Homer and his epic, the Iliad. The finds from the early period bear witness to considerable wealth and a high artistic skill.

Name this dynasty: "The * dynasty is divided into two periods: Former, or Western,* (206 BC-8 AD) and the Later, or Eastern, Han (23-220 AD). The two periods were interrupted by the usurper Wang Mang. During the * dynasty, the territory was expanded, administration was in the hands of an organized civil service (with literary service exams), Confucianism was recognized as the state philosophy, and detailed historical records were kept. The introduction of Buddhism occurred during the reign of Liu Chuang. The arts flourished, and advances included the invention of paper. The * dynasty was succeeded by the breakup of the empire into the Three Kingdoms."

Han

What dynasty was King George I?

Hanover

What dynasty was King George II?

Hanover

Name this leader: " Czech dramatist and statesman, president of Czechoslovakia from 1989-92 and of the Czech Republic since 1993. Having written plays, such as The Garden Party (1963), which were critical of totalitarianism, in the 1970s he became the leading spokesman for charter 77 and other human rights groups and was twice imprisoned as a dissident. Shortly after his release in 1989 he found that the opposition group Civic forum and let a renewed campaign for political change; in December of that year he was elected president following the peaceful overthrow of communism (the Velvet Revolution). He remained as president of the Czech Republic after the partition of Czechoslovakia on January 1, 1993."

Havel

Name this British monarch: "He succeeded King Stephen, who by the Treaty of Winchester (1153) had recognized Henry as his heir. As the son of Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, Henry also inherited Normandy, Maine, Touraine, Brittany, and Anjou (this last title making him the first Angevin, House of Plantagenet, king of England). His marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152, the repudiated wife of Louis VII of France, brought Henry even greater estates in France so that his kingdom stretched from northern England down to the Pyrenees. These territorial gains were reinforced by the homage of Malcolm III of Scotland (1157) and by his recognition as overlord of Ireland (1171). Henry's immediate task of becoming king was to end the anarchy of Stephen's reign. He dealt firmly with barons who had built castles without permission, and undertook the confirmation of scutage (1157), an overhaul of military obligations in a review of feudal assessments, and the introduction of a law that his subjects should equip themselves for military service. While king he developed the common law and due process, but fought with Thomas à Becket over submission to the Pope; Henry had Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury, executed in 1170 but performed penance at Canterbury. Eleanor and his four sons conspired with French king Philip II against Henry on several occasions. Henry was later absolved of the murder of Becket by Pope Alexander III in 1172.

Henry II3

Name this British monarch: "He succeeded his father John at the age of nine. During his minority, until 1227, England was managed by William Marshal, the first Earl of Pembroke, and others. Henry's personal rule soon proved his general incompetence as king, his preoccupation with aesthetic pursuits, such as rebuilding the Westminster Abby, and his preference for foreign advisers and favorites. The barons rebelled and drafted a series of reforms. While appearing to accept these, Henry sought to recover its independence. The ensuing civil war (1264-67) led to the temporary control of England by one of his French favorites, de Montfort following his victory at Lewes in 1264. Although Henry recovered control after the battle of Evesham (1265), where de Montfort was killed, he became increasingly dependent upon his son, the future Edward I."

Henry III

Name this British monarch: "He inherited the Verona from his father Henry V when only nine months old. During his minority, the court was divided by a power struggle between Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, and the Beauforts, which led to the Wars of the Roses. A pious and withdrawn man, he suffered from insanity from 1453. His marriage to Margaret of Anjou brought him a son, Edward, in 1453, who displaced Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York as heir to the throne. Richard claimed it for himself in 1460 and when he was killed at Wakefield, his son Edward seized it in March 14 61 and was crowned Edward IV. Henry was later captured, and spent the rest of his life in the Tower of London apart from the brief period when Warwick restored him to the throne (1470-71), but Edward then defeated Warwick and re-imprisoned Henry. When Henry's son, Prince Edward was killed at Tewkesbury in 1471, Edward IV won back the throne and had Henry put to death."

Henry VI

Name this dynasty: "A dynasty that governed Manchuria, part of Mongolia, and much of northern China. It was founded by the Juchen, nomad Huntsman, who came from around the Amur and Sungari rivers. They were ancestors of the Manchus. When the Northern Song set out to overthrow the Liao, to whom they were tributary, they allied with the Juchen, hoping to play off one alien people against another. The latter, however, once having conquered the Liao, sacked the Song capital, Kaifeng, in 1126. The Song retreated south, establishing their new capital at Hangzhou. The Juchen were in time came to buy their Chinese subjects, who far outnumbered them. Their frontier with Southern Song was stabilized. * emperor's study of the Chinese classics and wrote poetry and Chinese. They are nomad figure was staffed by the sedentary life. By 1214 much of their territory, including Beijing, their central capital, was in Genghis Khan's hands. The dynasty survived, ruling from Kaifeng, until a final Mongol onslaught 20 years later."

Jin

Name this British monarch: "Son of Henry II. Though he tried to seize the crown from his brother Richard I while the latter was in Germany, Richard forgave John and made him his successor. He lost Normandy and most of his French possessions to Philip II of France by 1205. John was weak as a fighter, as French King Philip II routed him at Bouvines in 1214. His refusal to accept Steven Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury caused an interdict to be placed on England in 1208, and led to his own excommunication the following year. In 1215 John was forced to sign the Magna Carta by his barons at Runnymede, an event that marked the beginning of the development of the British constitution. When he ignored its provisions, civil war broke out (the first Barons' war) and he died on campaign."

John

Name this emperor: "I (482-565) - Byzantine emperor from 527-65. Throughout much of his reign his troops were engaged in a defensive struggle against Persia in the East and a successful war against the barbarians in the west. Believing that they had lost their initial vigor, he hoped to revive the old Roman empire. His general, Belisarius, crushed the Vandals in Africa in 533 and the Ostrogoths in Italy between 535 and 553, making Ravenna the center of government. His greater claim to fame lay in his domestic policy in which he was strongly influenced by his powerful wife, Theodora. He reformed provincial administration and in his Corpus Juris Civilis he codified 4652 Imperial ordinances (Codex), summarized the views of the best legal writers (Digest), and added a handbook for students (Institutes). A passionately Orthodox Christian, he fought pagans and heretics. His lasting memorial is the church called the Hagia Sophia (Greek, 'holy wisdom') in Constantinople, which was later converted to a mosque."

Justinian I

o *Ludwig II (1845-1886

King of Bavaria from 1864 until his death in 1886. He is sometimes called the Swan King or der Märchenkönig ("the Fairy Tale King"). He succeeded to the throne aged 18. Two years later Bavaria and Austria fought a war against Prussia, which they lost. However, in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 Bavaria sided with Prussia against France, and after the Prussian victory it became part of the new German Empire led by Prussia. Though Bavaria retained a degree of autonomy on some matters within the new German Reich, Ludwig increasingly withdrew from day-to-day affairs of state in favor of extravagant artistic and architectural projects. He commissioned the construction of two lavish palaces and Neuschwanstein Castle (which served as the inspiration for Disneyland's Sleeping Beauty Castle), and he was a devoted patron of the composer Richard Wagner. Ludwig spent all his royal revenues (although not state funds as is commonly thought) on these projects, borrowed extensively, and defied all attempts by his ministers to restrain him. This extravagance was used against him to declare him insane, an accusation which has since come under scrutiny. He is therefore sometimes known as Mad King Ludwig. He was deposed and succeeded by Otto, his younger brother.

Louis XV (1710-74

King of France (1715-74), a great grandson of Louis XIV. During his minority Philippe, duc d'Orleans was Regent, followed by Cardinal Fleury. After Fleury's death in 1743 Lewis decided to rule without a chief minister, but he proved to be a weak king who reduced the prestige of the French monarchy both at home and abroad. At the age of 15 Louis married Marie Leszczynska, daughter of the king of Poland, and France intervened in the war of Polish succession, gaining the duchy of Lorraine in 1766. In foreign affairs France was involved in almost continuous warfare; in the war of the Austrian succession, in alliance with Frederick the second of Prussia and to hostilities were concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle. The Seven Years War saw France and Austria fighting Prussia and Great Britain but with little success. The Treaty of Paris (1763) marked the loss of most of France's overseas territories. In domestic policy Louis XV was influenced by a succession of favorites and mistresses, including Madame Dave Pompidour and Madame du Barry, on whom he lavished enormous amounts of money. The extravagance of the court and the high cost of war absorbed all of France's resources, and efforts to rationalize the tax system failed. The Parlement of Paris secured the suppression of the Jesuits in 1764 but otherwise fail to achieve reforms. The members of the Parlement were banished and a compliant Parlement appointed in their place in 1771. The reign saw the aristocracy and the wealthy bourgeoisie prosper, though the country was close to bankruptcy. The king's failure to solve his financial affairs left in the solvent government for his successor, Louis XVI.

Louis XVIII (1755-1824

King of France (1795-1824). The brother of Louis XVI, he became titular regent after the death of the latter and 1793, and declared himself chain on the death in prison of the 10-year-old Louis XVII. Known as the comte de Provence, he had fled to Koblenz, and then to England, where he led the counterrevolutionary movement. His exile ended in 1814 and with the help of Talleyrand to return to the throne of France and issued a constitutional charter. He appointed Marshal Soult as his minister of war, the latter going onto a long political career. Many of Napoleon's reforms in the law, administration, church, and education were retained, but after the assassination (1820) of his nephew the duc de Berry, he replaced moderate ministers with the reactionary ones. Civil liberties were curbs, a trend which continued under his younger brother and successor, Charles X.

o Frederick II (or Frederick the Great)(1712-86

King of Prussia (1740-86). He was the son of King Frederick William I and Sophia Dorothea. He tried to escape from his father's control in 1730, but was arrested, tried to as a deserter, but eventually pardoned. He engaged in literary and social pursuits from 1732 until 1740. He became king of Prussia in 1740 on the death of Emperor Charles VI, and made claims to Silesia for Prussia, which began the war of Austrian Succession (1740-48). He formed an alliance with France and Bavaria, invaded Bohemia, and by the Peace of Dresden in 1745 secured possession of Silesia. He built the palace of Sans Souci, near Potsdam, for royal residence. He formed a new alliance in 1756 with England against Maria Teresa, France, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony, which marked the beginning of the Seven Years' War (1756-63). He displayed great military genius and perseverance in the face of great odds, winning many battles, but was badly defeated in some. He emerged after the Peace of Hubertusburg in 1763 enjoying great military prestige and with Prussia a much-strengthened state. He joined Russia in the first partition of Poland in 1772. In 1785 he formed the Fürstenbund, a league of German princes to defend imperial constitution against Austria. He was a notable patron of literature, and invited Voltaire to live at his court, favoring French culture but in different to German writers. He was a skillful administrator of national economy and encouraging agricultural and industrial improvements. He began the codification of a new Prussian code and instituted many social reforms. He liberalized laws of censorship, religion, and torture, taking special interest in improvement of the Prussian army.

o William I (1797-1888

King of Prussia (1861-88) and German Emperor (1871-88). He devoted himself to the welfare of the Prussian army, assuming personal command in suppressing the Revolution of 1848 in Baden. When he succeeded to the Prussian thrown in 1861 he proclaimed a new era of liberalism, but this did not last for long. In 1862 he invited Otto von Bismarck to become his minister-President and from then on a relied increasingly on Bismarck's policies, giving his approval to the growing influence of Prussia. During the Franco-Prussian war he took command of troops, receiving the surrender of Napoleon III at Sedan. In January 1871 he was invited by the princes of Germany, at Bismarck's instigation, to become their Emperor, thus creating the German second Empire. Two unsuccessful assassination attempts strengthened his popularity, but also offer a pretext to suppress socialist.

Name this monarch: "(1835-1909) - king of the Belgians (1865-1909). His reign saw considerable industrial and colonial expansion due in large part to the wealth gleaned from the Congo. The Berlin Colonial Conference (1884-85) had recognized Leopold as independent head of the newly created Congo Free State and he proceeded to amass great personal wealth from its rubber and ivory trade. Thanks to the report of an Englishman, Edmund Morel, his maltreatment of the Congo native population became an international scandal (1904) and he was forced to hand over the territory to his parliament in 1908."

Leopold II

Name this city: "A city in western Saudi Arabia, and oasis town located in the Red Sea region of Hejaz, east of Jiddah. The birthplace of the Prophet Mohammed, is the holiest city of Islam. Lying in a narrow valley in an arid region, it nevertheless prospered from trade and from the cult associated with its central shrine, the Kaaba. Mohammed's life was crowned by the incorporation of pilgrimage to the Kaaba into Islam. The city soon lost its commercial significance, its prosperity wresting henceforth on the pilgrimage. It was sacked in 930 by the Qarmatians, a radical Ismaili sect, and fell under Ottoman suzerainty in 1517."

Mecca

Name this dynasty: "Founded in 1368 by Chu Yuan-chang after the collapse of Mongol authority in China, and ruling until succeeded by the Manchus (Qing Dynasty) in 1664. It was a period of expansion and exploration, with lasting contact made in the 16th century between China and Europe, and a culturally productive period in which the arts flourished. The capital was established at Peking (Beijing) in 1421."

Ming

Name this person: "(c.570-632) - Arab Prophet and founder of Islam. He was born in Mecca, where in 610 and he received the first of a series of revelations, which became the doctrinal and legislative basis of Islam and which were written down between 610-32 as the Koran. His sayings (the Hadith) and the accounts of his daily practice (the Sunna) constitute the other major sources of guidance for most Moslems. In the face of opposition to his preaching he and his small group of supporters were forced to flee to Medina in 622; this flight, known as the Hegira, is of great significance in Islam, and the Islamic calendar (which is based on lunar months) is dated from 622A.D. After consolidation of the community in Medina, he led his followers into a series of battles, which resulted in the capitulation of Mecca in 630. He died two years later, having successfully united tribal factions of the Hejaz region into a force that would expand the frontiers of Islam. He was buried in Medina. Islam is now the professed faith of more than one billion people."

Mohammed

Name this person. "Albanian nun who lived most of her life in India. She founded the Missionaries of Charity, a Roman Catholic religious congregation. Famously wrote, "I look and do not see, listen and do not hear" in one of many letters confessing during her work with Calcutta's poor she often did not feel the presence of God. She won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979. She was also criticized for accepting money from disreputable sources (such as the Duvalier family in Haiti), as well as not using the money collected to modernize her Home for the Dying. She also stated that the world was being helped by the suffering of the poor people, and that suffering would bring them closer to Jesus."

Mother Teresa

Name this leader: "Egyptian statesman, president since 1981. Appointed head of the Egyptian Air Force in 1972, * became vice president in 1975 and succeeded President Sadat following the latter's assassination. Although he did much to establish closer links between Egypt and other Arab nations, including distancing himself from Israel invaded Lebanon in 1982, he risked division by aligning Egypt against Saddam Hussein in the Gulf War of 1991. After the resurgence of militant Islamic fundamentalism in Egypt in 1992, *'s National Democratic Party government adopted extremely harsh measures to suppress activists."

Mubarak

Name this leader: "(1918-70) - Egyptian colonel and statesman, Prime Minister (1954-56) and President (1956-70). He was the leader of a successful military coup to depose King Farouk in 1952, after which a republic was declared with Mohammed Neguib as its President. * deposed Neguib in 1954, declaring himself prime minister; two years later he announced a new one-party constitution, becoming president shortly afterwards. His nationalization of the Suez Canal brought armed conflict with Britain, France, and Israel in 1956; he also led Egypt in two unsuccessful wars against Israel (1956 and 1967). With considerable Soviet aid he launched the program of domestic modernization, including the building of the High Dam at Aswan. The lake created in 1960 after the building of the Aswan High Dam is called Lake Nasser. It is 500 km (300 miles) long. He was succeeded by Anwar Sadat."

Nasser

(1839-42; 1856-60) - two wars between Britain and China. In the early 19th century British traders were illegally importing opium from India to China and trying to increase trade in general. In 1839 the Chinese government confiscated some 20,000 chests of opium from British warehouses in Guangzhou (Canton). In 1840 the British foreign secretary, Lord Paul Palmerston sent a force of 16 British warships, which besieged Guangzhou and threatened Nanjing and communications with the capital. It ended with the Treaty of Nanking (1842). In 1856 Chinese officials boarded and searched a British flagship, the Aero. The French joined the British and launch a military attack in 1857, at the end of which they demanded the Chinese agreed to the Treaty of Tianjin in 1858. This opened further ports to Western trade and provided freedom of travel to European merchants and Christian missionaries inland he. When the emperor refused to ratify the agreement, Beijing was occupied, after which, by the Beijing convention (1860), the Tianjin agreement was accepted. By 1900 the number of Treaty ports had risen to over 50, with all European colonial powers, as well as the USA, being granted trading concessions.

Opium Wars

What dynasty was King Edward III?

Plantagenet

What dynasty was King Henry II?

Plantagenet

What dynasty was King Henry III?

Plantagenet

What dynasty was King John?

Plantagenet

What dynasty was King Richard I?

Plantagenet

What dynasty was King Richard II?

Plantagenet

Name this city: "in southern Boeotia, in Greece. It was helped by Athens in 519 B.C. to defend itself against Thebes. Hence it alone of the Greek states helped the Athenians against the Persians at the Battle of Marathon (490), the Spartans arrived too late to take part in the battle. In 479 * was the site of the crucial land battle of the Greeks-Persian wars, when Mardonius was defeated. Its citizens were given refuge by Athens in 431 following a Theban attack, and a prolonged siege (429-427) led to the capture and the execution of the garrison who failed to escape."

Plataea

o Blücher, Gebhard (1742-1819

Prussian field marshal whose victories were due more to dash and energy than to military tactics. Forced to surrender to the French in 1806, he helped to re- create his country's opposition to Napoleon, and was commander-in-chief of the armies in their victory at Leipzig in 1813. The following year he led the invasion of France, gaining a major victory at Laon, which led to the overthrow of Napoleon. He retired to Silesia, only to be recalled when Napoleon returned. His intervention at a late stage of the battle of Waterloo was decisive.

Name this dynasty: "The last dynasty to rule China. Its emperors were Manchus. Inn 1644, a Ming general, Wu Sangui, invited Manchu Bannermen massed at Shanhaiguan, the undefended eastern end of then Great Wall of China, to expel the bandit chieftain Li Zicheng from Beijing. The Bannermen occupied the city and proclaimed or their child-emperor 'Son of Heaven'. Resistance continued for up to 30 years in south China. Chinese men were forced to braid their long hair into a queue or 'pigtail'. But * rule differed little from that of Chinese dynasties. It emphasized the study of the Confucian classics and the Confucian basis of society. The empire of China reached its widest extent, covering Taiwan, Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, and Turkistan. The * regarded all other peoples as barbarians and their rulers is subject to the 'Son of Heaven', and were blind to the growing pressure of the West. Under Kangxi (1654-1722) and Qianlong (1736-96) China was powerful enough to treat the outside world with condescension. Thereafter, however, the authority of the dynasty war reduced. Faced with a major internal revolts, most notably the Taiping rebellion (1850-1864) and a succession of Muslim uprisings in the far west, the * proved unable to contain simultaneously with increasing intrusions from Western powers interested in the economic exploitation of China. Humiliating defeat in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) and the Boxer rising (1900) weakened * power, and after the Chinese Revolution of 1911, the last * emperor Puyi was forced to abdicate in 1912."

Qing (or Ch'ing)

Name this war: "(1835) - also known as the War of Tatters, it was a Republican uprising that began in southern Brazil, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul in 1835. The rebels, led by generals Bento Gonçalves da Silva and Antônio de Sousa Neto with the support of the Italian fighter Giuseppe Garibaldi, surrendered to imperial forces in 1845. The uprising is believed to have begun due to the difference between the economy of Rio Grande do Sul and the rest of the country. Unlike the other states, the state economy focused on the internal market rather than exporting commodities. The state's main product, charque (dried and salted beef), suffered badly from competition from charque imported from Uruguay and Argentina. The people that benefited from these markets were called "Gauchos," nomadic cowhands and farmers who lived in Rio Grande do Sul. General Bento Gonçalves captured the capital, Porto Alegre, beginning an uprising against the perceived unfair trade reinforced by the state government. The rebels were known as "ragamuffins" (farrapos) after the fringed leather worn by the gauchos (also where the alternate name, the War of Tatters, originated)."

Ragamuffin War

Name this Rebellion (1869-70) - "the sequence of events that led up to the 1869 establishment of a provisional government by the Métis leader Louis Riel and his followers at the Red River Colony, in what is now the Canadian province of Manitoba. For a period it had been a territory called Rupert's Land under control of the Hudson's Bay Company. The Canadian government had bought Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1869 and appointed an English-speaking governor, William McDougall. He was opposed by the French-speaking, mostly Métis inhabitants of the settlement. Before the land was officially transferred to Canada, McDougall sent out surveyors to plot the land according to the square township system used in Ontario. The Métis, led by Riel, prevented McDougall from entering the territory. McDougall declared that the Hudson's Bay Company was no longer in control of the territory and that Canada had asked for the transfer of sovereignty to be postponed. The Métis created a provisional government, to which they invited an equal number of Anglophone representatives. Riel negotiated directly with the Canadian government to establish Manitoba as a province. In 1870, the national legislature passed the Manitoba Act, allowing the Red River Colony to enter the Canadian Confederation as the province of Manitoba. The Act also incorporated some of Riel's demands, such as the provision of separate French schools for Métis children and protection for the practice of Catholicism. After reaching an agreement, Canada sent a military expedition to Manitoba to enforce federal authority. Warned by many that the soldiers would harm him and denied amnesty for his political leadership of the rebellion, Riel fled to the United States. The arrival of troops marked the end of the Rebellion."

Red River Rebellion

Name this British monarch: "Was the third son of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was made Duke of Aquitaine at the age of 12 and 1173 joined his brothers in their rebellion against Henry. Richard spent only six months of his life in England. Soon after his coronation he left with the Third Crusade and in Palestine in 1191 he captured Acre and defeated Saladin at Arsuf. The following year, after concluding a three-year truce with Saladin, he set out overland for England. He was imprisoned by Emperor Henry VI of Austria and, according to widespread legend, his whereabouts were discovered by the minstrel Blondel. In 1194 England paid a ransom of 100,000 pounds for his release. During his absence his brother John had allied himself with Philip II of France against him. Within a few weeks of his return he began the military campaigns for the defense of Normandy against Philip that led eventually to his death whilst attacking the castle at Châlus (defending his possessions in Aquitaine). Richard's military exploits earned him the nickname Coeur de Lion (French, "Lionheart"). However, his absence abroad led to a growth in the power of the barons, a problem inherited by John."

Richard I

Name this British monarch: "He was a younger brother of Edward IV and the eleventh child of Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York. He was made Duke of Gloucester in 1461 when his brother Edward IV deposed the Lancastrian king Henry VI, as part of the Wars of the Roses. Tudor propaganda, notably the biography of Thomas More, portrayed him as a monster from birth, always a traitor to his own family, but as Duke of Gloucester he served Edward faithfully and was an able soldier and capable administrator in northern England. Upon the accession of his young nephew Edward V, he became Protector of England; the council over which he presided included his enemies, the Woodvilles, and he gained in popularity from striking at their power. His usurpation of the throne in 1483 caused no outright hostility, but in all save the Yorkist north of England there was repulsion when it came to be believed that he had Edward V and his brother killed in the Tower of London (when and how they died remains a mystery). He had long expected a further invasion of England by the Lancastrian Henry Tudor (Henry VII), but when a battle was fought at Bosworth Field in 1485 by he was defeated and killed because he lost the support of his army. The battle at Bosworth Field ended the War of the Roses and marked the beginning of the reign of Henry VII. The death of Richard III marked the end of the rule of the House of York. In Shakespeare's play Richard III he is betrayed as a villain and a hunchback, but there is no evidence to support the tradition that he was physically deformed."

Richard III

Name this religious sect: "(from Arabic, 'sectarians') - the minority division within Islam, which consists of about 1/5 of all Muslims. * are in the majority in Iran (where she Islam is the state religion), southern Iraq, and parts of Yemen, and are also found in Syria, Lebanon, East Africa, in northern India, and Pakistan. They originated as the Shiat Ali, the 'party of Ali', who was the cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed. Ali and his descendents are regarded by * as the only true heirs to Mohammed as leader of the faithful. * now differ from Sunni Muslims in a number of ways but primarily in the importance they attach to the continuing the authority of the imams, who are the authentic interpreters of the sunna (customs), the code of conduct based on the Koran and hadith (sayings and deeds of Muhammad). The suffering of the House of the Prophet, chiefly of Husain and his martyrdom in Karbala, and the Millenarian expectation of a future imam or mahdi who is currently hidden from the world, permeate much Shiite thinking, providing a set of beliefs in which oppression and injustice figure largely. The 10th day of the month of Muharram marks the martyrdom of Al Lee and his sons. * also believe in an inner hidden meaning of the Koran. There are hundreds of different Shiite sex: the main ones are the Zaydis, Ismailis, and Ithna Ashariya (or Twelvers, who await the return of the hidden 12th imam)."

Shiites

Name this ancient city-state: "a city in the southern Peloponnese in Greece. In ancient Greece, * was a powerful city state, capital of the state of Laconia. In debating Dorian Greeks occupied Laconia around 950 B.C., and by about 700 B.C. the * had emerged as the dominant element among them, with a large slave class of helots working on the land. * had also, in the late eighth century, defeated and annexed the territory of Messenia, its western neighbor, reducing its population to helotry and dividing its land among the full * citizens. The stark austere eat, militarism, and discipline of * society was traditionally ascribed to a single great legislator, why surges, variously dated around 900 or 700 DC; it is likely is that the fully developed * system took shape somewhere between 700 and 600 B.C. From the sixth century, * became the hub of an alliance comprising most of the Peloponnesian and Isthmian states except its traditional rival, Argo; but many of these allies in the Peloponnesian League were little more than puppets of *. * led the successful Greek resistance in the Greek-Persian wars, but later came into protracted conflict with Athens in the Peloponnesian war. Its final victory in 404 B.C. left it dominant in Greece and the Aegean; but after crushing defeats by Thebes at Leuctra in 371 and Mantinea in 362 and the loss of Messina it declined in importance."

Sparta

Name these people: "- a people living in southern Mesopotamia in the fourth and third millennium B.C. By 3000 B.C. a number of city states had developed in *, such as Uruk, Eridu, and Ur. Thus * are credited with inventing the cuneiform system of writing, which was originally pictographic but gradually became stylized. Many simple inscriptions survive is evidence of this development; they also attest the increase in administration that accompanied urban growth. Their literature contains references to myths, hymns, and incantations. They developed a legal system, supported by complex political and economic organization. Their technological achievements include wheeled vehicles and Potter's wheels, as well as such architectural features as columns, vaults, and domes. The first great empire of * was established by the people of Akkad, who conquered the area and about 2350 under the leadership of Sargon. The dynasty founded by him was destroyed in about 2200, and after 2150 the kings of Ur not only reestablished * sovereignty in * but also conquered Akkad. This new empire lasted until roughly 2000 when pressure from the Elamites and Amorites reached its culmination with the capture and devastation of Ur. The * at this point disappeared from history, but the influence of their culture on the subsequent civilizations of Mesopotamia was far-reaching"

Sumerians

Name this leader: "Chinese Kuomintang statesman, provisional President of the Republic of China from 1911 to 1912, and president of the Southern Chinese Republic from 1923 to 1925. Generally regarded in the West as the father of the modern Chinese state, he spent the period from 1895 to 1911 in exile after an abortive attempt to overthrow the Manchus. During this time he issued an early version of his influential 'Three Principles of the People' (nationalism, democracy, and the people's livelihoods) and set up a revolutionary society, which became the nucleus of the Kuomintang. He returned to China to play a vital part in the Revolution of 1911 in which the Manchu dynasty was overthrown. After being elected provisional President, * resigned in 1912 in response to opposition from conservative members of the government and established a secessionist government at Guangzhou. He reorganized the Kuomintang along the lines of the Soviet Communist Party and began a period of uneasy cooperation with the Chinese Communists before dying in office."

Sun Yat-sen

Name this religious sect: "(from Arabic, *, 'tradition') - the belief and practice of mainstream, as opposed to Shia, Islam. * Muslims, constituting over 80% of all believers, follow the sunna, a code of practice based on the hadith collected in the Sihah Satta, six authentic Books of Tradition about the Prophet Mohammed. The Sunna, variously translated as 'custom', 'code', or 'usage', means whatever Mohammed, by positive example or implicit approval, demonstrated as the ideal behavior for a Muslim to follow. It therefore complements the Koran as a source of legal and ethical guidance. * recognize the order of succession of the first four caliphs. They follow one of four schools of law: the Hanafi, prevalent in the Middle East and Pakistan; the Malikite, found in western and northern Africa; the Shafite, found in Egypt, East Africa, Malaysia, and Indonesia; and the Hanbalite in Saudi Arabia."

Sunni

Name this war: "Manchu-led Qing dynasty and the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom under Hong Xiuquan. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom was an oppositional state based in Tianjing (present-day Nanjing) with a Christian millenarian agenda to initiate a major transformation of society. Their leader Hong Xiuquan was a convert to Christianity and the self-proclaimed brother of Jesus Christ. He led an army that controlled a population base of nearly 30 million people in southern China. The rebellion devolved into total war, with civilian resources and infrastructure as legitimate military targets. This conflict was the largest in China since the Qing conquest in 1644, and one of the bloodiest wars in human history. It is the bloodiest civil war and the largest conflict of the 19th century, with estimates of those killed ranging from 20-70 million."

Taiping Rebellion

Name this civilization: "- the indigenous people dominant in Mexico before the Spanish conquest of the 16th century who arrived in the Central Valley of Mexico after the collapse of the Toltec civilization in the 12th century. By the early 15th century they had risen to dominance of the area and a century later commanded a territory that covered most of the central and southern part of present-day Mexico, exacting tribute from their subjects. They were a warring people who slew captives as human sacrifices to their chief god, but their lifestyle is comfortable and (for the rulers) luxurious, and the Spaniards under Cortez arrived to find a rich and elaborate civilization centered on the city of Tenochtitlán, which boasted vast pyramids, temples, and palaces."

The Aztecs

Name this dynasty: "Descendant or Muslim/Arabian dynasty claiming descent from *, the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad. The * were the 4th Muslim dynasty (they were Shi'a), and ruled in parts of North Africa from 908 to 1171, and during some of that period in Egypt and Syria. The * established their capital at Cairo."

The Fatimid Dynasty

Name this geographical region: "a fertile land stretching from the Mediterranean coast of Syria, Lebanon, and Israel down the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to the Persian Gulf. The expression was coined by the archaeologist James Breasted to describe that part of the Middle East that form the cradle of early civilizations such as the Assyrian, Sumerian, Phoenician, Babylonian, Hittite, and Hebrew. Archaeological evidence confirms the existence of agricultural communities in the area by 8000 B.C."

The Fertile Crescent

Name this Royal House: "- the most prominent European royal dynasty from the 15th to the 20th century. Their name derives from Habichtsburg (Hawk's Castle) in Switzerland, built in 1020. The founder of the family power was Rudolf I, who was King of the Romans (1273-91) and conqueror of Austria and Styria, beginning in the family's rule over Austria. * domination of Europe resulted from the shrewd marriage policy of Maximilian I (1459-1519), whose own marriage gained the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Burgundy and that of his son Philip, which brought Castile, Aragon, and the Spanish New World possessions as well as Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia. *s also ruled Hungary and Bohemia from 1526 to 1918. With us the zenith of * power came under Charles I, King of Spain and Emperor (as Charles V, 1519-56) in the 16th century. In 1700 the Spanish line became extinct and in the subsequent War of the Spanish Succession (1703-13) the Spanish inheritance passed to the Bourbons. The Austrian Habsburgs (after 1740 the House of Habsburg-Lorraine) floors began under Maria Theresa (1717-80) and her son Joseph II (1741-90). The Habsburgs ended the Napoleonic wars with the loss of the Austrian Netherlands and the title holy Roman Emperor, continued to rule over Austria. Following the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 they had to make concessions to Hungarian nationalism with the formation of Austria-Hungary. The Emperor Francis Joseph came increasingly to clash with Russian ambitions in the Balkans. Nationalist aspirations led eventually to the disintegration of his empire during World War I. The last Habsburg Monarch, Emperor Charles I of Austria (Charles IV of Hungary), renounced his title in November 1918 and was later deposed."

The Hapsburgs

Name this scandal: "political scandal in Canada involving bribes being accepted by 150 members of the Conservative government in the attempts of private interests to influence the bidding for a national rail contract. As part of British Columbia's 1871 agreement to join Canadian Confederation, the government had agreed to build a transcontinental railway linking the Pacific Province to the eastern provinces. The scandal led to the resignation of Canada's first Prime Minister, Sir John A. Macdonald, and a transfer of power from his Conservative government to a Liberal government led by Alexander Mackenzie."

The Pacific Scandal

Name this war: "(431-404 B.C.) - the war waged between Athens and Sparta and their respective allies between 431 and 404 B.C. Sparta invaded Attica with its allies and 431, but Pericles persuaded the Athenians to withdraw behind the 'long walls', which linked Athens and its port of Piraeus, and avoid a land battle was Sparta is superior army. Athens relied on its fleet of triremes to raid the * and guard its empire and trade routes. It was struck a serious blow by the outbreak of plague and 430, which killed about a third of the population, including Pericles. Nevertheless the fleet performed well and a year's truth was made in 423 B.C. The Peace of Nicias was concluded in 421 B.C., but Alcibiades orchestrated opposition to Sparta in the Peloponnese, though his hopes were dashed when Sparta won a victory at Mantinea in 418. He was also the main advocate of an expedition to Sicily (415-413), aimed at defeating Syracuse, that ended in complete disaster for Athens. War was formally resumed in 413 B.C. Athenian fortunes revived, with naval victories at Cynossema (411), Cyzicus (410), and the recapture of Byzantium (408). There was a further victory at Arginusae in the 406. From then on, Persian financial support for Sparta and the strategic and tactical skills of the Spartan Lysander tilted the balance. Sparta's victory at Aegospotami and its control of the Hellespont starved Athens into surrender in April 404. An oligarchic coup followed immediately, supported by Sparta, and the reign of terror of the 'Thirty Tyrants', but democracy was restored in 403."

The Peloponnesian War

Name these people: "originally nomads belonging to the tribes of the Syrian or Arabian deserts but at the time of the Crusades the name used by Christians for all Muslims. In a surge of conquest Muslim Arabs swept into the Holy Land (western Palestine), north into the Byzantine territory of Asia Minor, and westward through North Africa during the seventh and eighth centuries. Spain was conquered by the Moors, together with most of the island in the Mediterranean; they held Sicily from the 9th to the 11th century. Their expansion was halted by the Carolingians in France only with great difficulty. The crusades against them, though initially effective, did not prove decisive in the long term, and they were not finally expelled from Spain until the 15th century. Within their conquered territories they had a profound effect on cultural life, particularly in architecture, philosophy, mathematics, and religion. In religion they were often tolerant of local beliefs and customs. The lurid accounts of * bloodshed must be offset by the financial advantages of their presence: * gold, used to pay for European goods, invigorated Frankish economy."

The Saracens

Name this ancient route: ""- an ancient caravan route linking China with the West, used from Roman times on words and taking its name from the * that was a major Chinese export. Via this route Christianity and (from India) Buddhism reached China. A 'North Road' skirted the northern edge of the Taklimakan Desert before turning westwards into Turkestan (and thence to the Levant), while a 'South Road' followed a more southerly route through the high passes of the Kunlun and Pamir Mountains into India. A railway, completed in 1963, follows the northern route from Xian to Urumchi and into Kazakhstan.

The Silk Road

Name these sages: "(Greek, 'wise man') - itinerant professional teachers in Greece, the Greek colonies in Sicily, and southern Italy in the fifth century B.C. * offered instruction in a wide range of subjects and skills considered necessary for public life, especially rhetoric, in return for feeds. Young Athenian democrats needed rhetoric to persuade the democratic assemblies. By questioning the nature of God, conventions, and morals, and by their alleged ability to train men to make the weaker argument the stronger through rhetoric, they aroused some opposition. Their readiness to argue either cause any dispute brought them condemnation from Plato as self interested imitators of wisdom lacking any concern for the truth. However, the most renowned *, such as Gorgias and Protagoras to relative this or skeptical conclusions from the defensibility of opposed claims, indicating a seriousness of purpose that Plato fail to acknowledge."

The Sophists

Name this group: "(Pashto, 'seekers') - an Islamic fundamentalist political and military grouping that controls most of Afghanistan from 1996 until late 2001. The * militia was formed by Islamic theological students in the south of the country in 1994 with the intention of unifying Afghanistan. Rival Mujaheddin factions have been fighting since the withdrawal of Soviet forces in 1989. After initial reverses, the * captured the city of Herat and advanced to take Kabul in August 1996. A strict Islamic code of law was immediately imposed, which he barred women from paid work and education and proscribe television. In the late 1990s the * consolidated their hold on power and took further territory from their main opponents, an alliance of forces concentrated in the northeast of Afghanistan. However, the regime remained internationally isolated and unrecognized, largely because of its support for international terrorism. Following the events of September 11, 2001, the *'s links with Al Qaeda provoked the US to launch airstrikes on its command centers in Kabul and other cities. The regime collapsed within weeks."

The Taliban

Name this sect of a sect: "The largest branch of Shia Islam. The term * refers to its adherents' belief in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as the Twelve Imams, and their belief that the last Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, lives in occultation and will reappear as the promised Mahdi. * believe that the Twelve Imams are the spiritual and political successors to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to the theology of *, the Twelve Imams are exemplary human individuals who not only rule over the community in justice, but also are able to keep and interpret sharia and the esoteric meaning of the Quran."

The Twelvers

Name this ancient nation: "an ancient country lying west of Istanbul and the Black Sea and north of the Aegean, now part of modern day Turkey, Greece, and Bulgaria. It extended as far west as the Adriatic but the * retreated eastwards between 13th and fifth centuries B.C. under pressure from the Illyrians and Macedonians. Conquered by Philip the second of Macedonia and 342 B.C. it later became a province of Rome. The region was ruled by the Ottoman Turks from the 15th century until the end of World War I, but in northern race was annexed by Bulgaria in 1885. In 1923 all of * east of the Maritsa River was restored to Turkey.

Thrace

Name this man: "(c.455-c.400 B.C.) - Greek historian. He is remembered for his History of the Peloponnesian War, an account of a conflict in which he fought on the Athenian side. The work covers events up to about 411 and presents an analysis of the origins and course of the war, based on painstaking inquiry into what actually happened and including the reconstruction of political speeches of such figures as Pericles, whom he greatly admired."

Thucydides

Name this revolutionary: "(1743-1803) - leader of the Haitian Revolution, who led a slave rebellion that transformed an entire society of slaves into the independent state of Haiti. His military genius led him to be nicknamed 'The Black Napoleon'."

Toussaint Louverture

Name this Treaty": "(1748) - the treaty concluding the War of the Austrian Succession. It restored calmer territory to its original owners, with a few exceptions. The terms were drawn up by the British and French and reluctantly accepted by Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, who had to abandon Silesia to Frederick II of Prussia. In Italy Don Philip, the younger son of Philip V of Spain, received Parma. This treaty was a temporary truce in the Anglo-French conflict in India and North America. In North America columnists on willingly ceded the French fortress of Louisburg, in order to secure the return of Madras to Britain. Prussia's rise to the rank of a great power was strongly resented by Austria. A treaty led many issues of conflict unresolved and war (the Seven Years War) broke out again eight years later."

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

Name the 2nd Muslim dynasty or caliphate, descended from the Quraish tribe to which the prophet Muhammad belonged, that ruled Islam from about 660 to 750 and later ruled Moorish Spain (756-1031).

Umayyad Dynasty

Name this British monarch: "The first Norman King of England (1066-87). The illegitimate son of Robert I, Duke of Normandy, he succeeded to the dukedom as a child in 1035. His early life was fraught with danger - three of his closest advisers were murdered in an attempt was made on his own life. Twice he faced major rebellions. In 1047 he was saved only by the intervention of the French king, Henry I, who helped him in battle. Between 1053 and 1054 Henry failed to seize Normandy for himself. William's claim to the English throne was based on the promise allegedly given to him in 1051 by Edward the Confessor. When Edward gave the throne to Harold II in 1066, William invaded England, killing Harold. With papal backing he landed in England and defeated Harold II and the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of Hastings (1066). While the English leaders considered their next move William laid waste parts of Sussex, Surrey, and Hertfordshire. He was crowned on Christmas Day at Westminster Abbey. The period from 1067 to 1071 was characterized by a number of rebellions against his rule in Northumbria, Wessex, Mercia, and the Isle of Ely. His suppression of them was ruthlessly effective. An able administrator, he authorized a survey of his kingdom in the 1086 Domesday Book. One of the main purposes of the survey was to find out who owned what so they couldvbe taxed on it, and the judgment of the assessors was final — whatever the book said about who owned the property, or what it was worth, was the law, and there was no appeal. Much of his later life he spent in Normandy fighting against the French king Philip I. He died after being wounded on the battlefield, fighting Philip I of France."

William the Conqueror

Name this leader (1898-1976) - Chinese Communist statesman, and Prime Minister of China from 1949-76. One of the founders of the Chinese Communist Party, he joined Sun Yat-sen in 1924. In 1927 he organized a Communist workers revolt in Shanghai in support of the Kuomintang forces surrounding the city. In the early 1930s he formed a partnership with Mao Zedong, supporting his rise to power within the Communist Party in 1935. On the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949 Zhou became Premier and also served as foreign minister from 1949-58. During the 1960s he continued to keep open communication channels with the US, and he presided over the moves towards détente in 1972-73. He was also a moderating influence during the Cultural Revolution.

Zhou Enlai

o Vandals -

a Germanic tribe that migrated from the Baltic coast in the first century B.C. After taking Pannonia in the 4th century they were driven further west by the Huns. With the Suebi and Alemanni they crossed the Rhine into Gaul and Spain, where the name Andalusia ('Vandalitia') commemorates them. They were then ousted by the Goths. Taking ship to North Africa under Genseric, they set up an independent kingdom after the capture of Carthage. In 455 they returned to Italy and sacked Rome. Belisarius finally subjected them in 534..

*Austerlitz, Battle of (Dec. 2, 1805

a battle fought by Austria and Russia against France, near the town of Austerlitz in Moravia. Regarded as the greatest victory achieved by Napoleon during the Napoleonic Wars, it is sometimes known as "The Battle of the Three Emperors." The Grande Armée of France, led by Napoleon, defeated a larger Russian and Austrian army led by Emperor Alexander I of Russia and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II. Alexander I of Russia persuaded Francis I of Austria to attack before reinforcements arrived. Their complicated plan to encircle the French allowed Napoleon to split their army and defeat each half. It was a decisive battle; the Russian army was forced to withdraw from Austria, and Austria signed the Treaty of Pressburg (1805), in which he recognized Napoleon as King of Italy, and ceded territories in northern Italy, the Alpine regions, and on the Adriatic coast.

o Sedan, Battle of (Sept. 1, 1870

a battle fought on the River Meuse, near the Belgian frontier, between French and Prussian forces during the Franco-Prussian War. The Prussians, discovering that MacMahon's army had set out to relieve the Siege of Metz, diverted two armies marching on Paris and encircled the army of Napoleon III at Sedan. The French, under heavy shellfire, surrendered unconditionally. The Prussians were led by Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke and accompanied by Prussian King Wilhelm I and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Napoleon III was taken prisoner, together with a large army. In World War II with the Germans breached the Maginot line when they crossed the River Meuse at Sedan in 1940.

Bayeux Tapestry

a celebrated piece of embroidered linen fabric (not actually a tapestry) depicting the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. It is about 70 meters long (the last section was lost) and 50 cm wide, and is arranged with one episode succeeding another in more than 70 scenes. Perhaps made to the order of the William the Conqueror's half-brother, Bishop Odo of Bayeux in Normandy, it was displayed for centuries in the cathedral at Bayeux and is now housed in the former Bishop's Palace there.

• Plataea

a city in southern Boeotia, in Greece. It was helped by Athens in 519 B.C. to defend itself against Thebes. Hence it alone of the Greek states helped the Athenians against the Persians at the Battle of Marathon (490), the Spartans arrived too late to take part in the battle. In 479 Plataea was the site of the crucial land battle of the Greeks-Persian wars, when Mardonius was defeated. Its citizens were given refuge by Athens in 431 following a Theban attack, and a prolonged siege (429-427) led to the capture and the execution of the garrison who failed to escape.

Sparta (Greek, Sparti

a city in the southern Peloponnese in Greece. In ancient Greece, Sparta was a powerful city state, capital of the state of Laconia. In debating Dorian Greeks occupied Laconia around 950 B.C., and by about 700 B.C. the Spartans had emerged as the dominant element among them, with a large slave class of helots working on the land. Sparta had also, in the late eighth century, defeated and annexed the territory of Messenia, its western neighbor, reducing its population to helotry and dividing its land among the full Spartan citizens. The stark austere eat, militarism, and discipline of Spartan society was traditionally ascribed to a single great legislator, why surges, variously dated around 900 or 700 DC; it is likely is that the fully developed Spartan system took shape somewhere between 700 and 600 B.C. From the sixth century, Sparta became the hub of an alliance comprising most of the Peloponnesian and Isthmian states except its traditional rival, Argo; but many of these allies in the Peloponnesian League were little more than puppets of Sparta. Sparta led the successful Greek resistance in the Greek-Persian wars, but later came into protracted conflict with Athens in the Peloponnesian war. Its final victory in 404 B.C. left it dominant in Greece and the Aegean; but after crushing defeats by Thebes at Leuctra in 371 and Mantinea in 362 and the loss of Messina it declined in importance.

Hippodrome

a course on which the ancient Greeks and Romans held chariot and horse races. The courses were U-shaped with a barrier down the center. The competitors would race down one side and then back up the other. Spectators watched from tiered stands. Olympia had an early example, and * were a typical feature of major Greek cities of classical and Hellenistic times. The one at Constantinople (now Istanbul) held about 100,000 spectators and was the scene of fierce rivalry among partisan supporters. The Circus Maximus at Rome was modeled on the Greek *.

Waterloo, Battle of (June 18, 1815

a decisive battle between French and British and Prussian forces near the Belgian village of Waterloo. It was fought during the Hundred Days of Napoleon between his hastily recruited army of 72,000 men and Wellingtons allied army of 68,000 men (with British, Dutch, Belgian, and German units) for the Prussians (45,000 men) arrived. There had been a violent storm in the night and Napoleon postponed his attack until midday to allow the ground to dry. By 2 p.m. a first contingent of Prussians arrived and attacked Napoleon on the right. At 6 p.m. Marshal Ney ordered a coordinated attack and captured La Haye Sainte, a farmhouse in the center of the Allied line. The French artillery then began attacking the allies from the center. At 7 p.m. Napoleon launched his famous Garde Imperiale in a bid to break Wellington's now weakened infantry. At this point, however, Blücher appeared with the main Prussian forces, taking Napoleon in the flank, and Wellington ordered a general advance. French were routed, with the exception of the Garde, who resisted to the end. In Wellington's words, the outcome of the battle was "the nearest run thing you ever saw in your life". On June 22, Napoleon signed his second and final abdication.

Leipzig, Battle of (also called the "Battle of Nations", 1813

a decisive battle in the Napoleonic wars. It was fought just outside the city of Leipzig in Saxony, by an army under Napoleon of some 185,000 French, Saxon, and other allied German troops, against the force of some 350,000 troops from Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Sweden, under the overall command of Schwarzenberg. Napoleon took up a defensive position at first successfully resisted attacks by Schwarzenberg from the south and Blücher from the north. The next day Russian and Swedish troops arrived, while Napoleon's Saxon troops deserted him. The battle raged for nine hours, but at midnight Napoleon ordered a retreat. This began in an orderly fashion until, early in the afternoon of heat October 19, a bridge was mistakenly blown, stranding the French rearguard of 30,000 crack troops, who were captured. Following the battle, French power east of the Rhine collapsed as more and more German princes deserted Napoleon, who abdicated in 1814.

Nantes, Edict of (1598

a decree promulgated by Henry IV that terminated the French wars of religion. It was signed at Nantes, a port on the Loire estuary in western France. The Edict defined the religious and civic rights of the Huguenots, giving them freedom of worship and a state subsidy to support their troops and pastors. It virtually created a state within a state and was incompatible with the policies of Richelieu and Mazarin and of Louis XIV. The fall of the Huguenots stronghold of La Rochelle to Richelieu's army in 1628 marked the end of these political privileges. After 1665 Louis XIV embarked on a policy of persecuting Protestants and in 1685 he revoked the Edict.

o Ems telegram (1870

a dispatch from the Prussian king William I to his chancellor, Bismarck, that precipitated the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War. A relative of the Prussian King, Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, had excepted an offer to the Spanish throne. This alarmed the French, who feared Prussian influence south of the pure knees. Leopold withdrew his claim a few days later, but the French ambassador approached William at the German spot town of Ems, asking for an assurance that Leopold's candidacy would never be renewed. The king refused, politely but firmly, and he sent his chancellor a telegram to the effect that the crisis had passed. Bismark, intent on provoking war with France, published a shortened version which turned the refusal into an insult. French public opinion was outraged and Napoleon III declared the Franco- Prussian War, whose consequences were to include the downfall of the French Second Empire and the creation of the German Second Empire.

Tennis Court Oath

a dramatic incident that took place at Versailles in the first stage of the French Revolution. On June 17, 1789 the Third Estate of the States-General under the presidency of Jean Bailly, a representative of Paris, declared themselves the national assembly, claiming that they were the only estate properly accredited and at the first and second estates must join them. On June 28 found their official meeting place closed and moved to the tennis court, a large open hall nearby. The oath bound them not to separate until they had given France a constitution.

Athenian democracy

a form of popular government established in Athens by Cleisthenes (died 508 B.C.) in the last decade of the sixth century B.C. The principal organ of * was the popular assembly (ekklesia), which was open to male citizens aged over 18. All members have the right to speak and it was the assembly that decided all legislative and policy matters. The council (boule) of 500, elected by lots for a year from Athenian male citizens over the age of 30, was an executive body which prepared business for the assembly and then saw that its decisions were carried out. Pericles dominated the * until his death in 429, but none of the 'demagogues' who followed him achieve the same level of influence.

Bastille

a fortified prison built on the city wall of Paris, France, between 1370 and 1382, during the reign of Charles V. Used by Cardinal Richelieu, Louis XIII's minister, it became an infamous state prison in the 17th century. During the French Revolution it was completely demolished after being stormed on July 14, 1789. The storming is remembered with a national holiday, Bastille Day, celebrated annually on July 14

o Franks -

a group of Germanic tribes who dominated Europe after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. They consisted of Salians from what is now Belgium and Ripuarians from the Lower Rhine. They settled in Gaul by the mid-4 th century when the Salians under Clovis defeated the Romans at Soissons. Gaul became 'Francia', ruled from the old capital Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris) of the Parisii Gauls. The Merovingian succession continued until 751. Power then passed from the Kings to their palace mayors. In 751 Pepin, son of Charles Martel, became the first Carolingian ruler of the Franks.

Nile, Battle of the (1798

a major naval battle fought between the British Royal Navy and the French Navy at Aboukir Bay on the Mediterranean coast off the Nile Delta of Egypt. It was the climax of a naval campaign that ranged across the Mediterranean, as a large French convoy sailed from Toulon to Alexandria carrying an expeditionary force under General Napoleon Bonaparte. The British fleet was led by Horatio Nelson as they decisively defeated the French under Brueys. Nelson trapped the French fleet in the bay and destroyed many ships before they surrendered. Brueys died when his flagship, Orient, exploded during the battle. The naval defeat basically trapped Napoleon's army in Egypt.

o Peasants' War (1524-26

a massive revolt of the German lower classes during the Reforrmation. It began in the southwest Germany and spread down the river Rhine and into Austria. Frustrated by economic hardships, the rebels were encouraged by radical Protestant preachers to expect a second coming of Jesus Christ and the establishment of social equality and justice. They raided and pillaged in uncoordinated bands, driving Luther to condemn them in his fierce broadsheet Against the thieving and murdering hordes of the peasants (1525). Luther also supported the army of the Swabian League under Philip of Hesse, which helped to crush the main body of insurgents at Frankenhausen. Over 100,000 rebels were eventually slaughtered. o Reformation - the 16th century movement for reform of the doctrines and practices of the Roman Catholic Church, ending in the establishment of Protestant, or Reformed, churches. The starting point of the Reformation is often given as 1517, when the German theologian Martin Luther launched his protest against the corruption of the papacy and the Roman Catholic Church, although he was breaking no new controversy around. In fact, most of the Reformation movements laid stress, not on innovation, but on return to a primitive simplicity. Luther's theological reading led him to attack the Central Catholic doctrines of strand substantiation, clerical celibacy, and papal supremacy. He also called for the radical reform of the religious orders. By 1530 the rulers of Saxony, Hesse, Brandenburg, and Brunswick, as well as the Kings of Sweden and Denmark have been won over to the reform the beliefs. They proceeded to break with the Roman Church, and set about regulating the churches in their territories according to Protestant principles. In Switzerland, the Reformation was led first by Zwingli, who carried through antipapal, antihierarchic, and antimonastic reforms in Zürich. After his death the leadership passed to Calvin, in whose hands were forming opinion assumed a more explicitly doctrinal and revolutionary tone. Calvinism became the driving force of the movement in western Germany, France, the Netherlands, and Scotland, where in each case it was linked with the political struggle. Calvinism was also the main doctrinal influence within the Anglican Church. In Europe the reforming movement was increasingly checked and balanced by the Counter- Reformation. The era of religious wars came to an end with the conclusion of the 30 years war (1618-48).

o Berlin airlift (1948-49

a measure taken by the U.S. and British governments to counter the Soviet blockade of Berlin. In June 1948 the USA, Britain, and France announced a currency reform in their zones of occupied Germany. The Soviet Union, fearing this was a prelude to the unification of these zones, retaliated by closing all land and water communication routes from the western zones to Berlin. The western Allies in turn responded by supplying their sectors of Berlin with all necessities by cargo aircraft. The siege lasted until May 1949, when the Russians reopened the surface routes. The blockade confirmed the division of Berlin, and ultimately of Germany, into two administrative units.

• ostracism

a method of banishment in ancient Athens. At a stated meeting each year, the Athenian assembly voted on whether it wanted an ostracism that year. If the vote was affirmative, an ostracism was held to two months later. Every citizen who so wished then wrote a name on a shard of pottery ('ostrakon'), and provided that at least 6000 valid 'ostraka' were counted, the man with the most against him had to leave Attica for 10 years, though he was allowed to enjoy any income from his properties air while absent. A vote to ostracize often functioned as a sort of general election, constituting a vote of confidence for the policies of the most powerful rival of the man thus named. Such trials of political strength were most notable in the ostracisms of Themistocles (c.471), Cimon (c.462), and Pericles' rival Thucydides (443). Ostracism was not resorted to after 417 or 416.

Dragoon

a mounted infantry soldier, named in 16th century France after the short musket called the "dragon". Originally trained to fight on foot, drag goons were organized in infantry companies, not cavalry squadrons, but were progressively trained to cavalry standard. Thus by the early 18th century they were known as medium cavalry and the Prussian army, and light cavalry and the British Army.

Iconoclastic controversy (from Greek, 'breaking of images')

a move within the Eastern Christian church in the eighth and ninth centuries that opposed the veneration of icons, both religious paintings and statues. Emperor Leo III banned such veneration in 726 and despite popular antagonism the decision was confirmed by Constantine V in 753. In the seventh ecumenical Council of 787 at Nicaea Empress Irene overturned the decrees what they were again and forth on the Emperors Leo V, Michael II, and Theophilus. Veneration of icons was finally restored in 843 in the practice still survives in the Eastern Orthodox Church.

• *Salamis, Battle of (480 B.C.)

a naval battle fought in the straits between mainland Greece and Salamis, an island in the Saronic Gulf near Athens. This battle marked the high-point of the second Persian invasion of Greece, during the Greek-Persian wars. Themistocles, the Greek commander of an alliance of Greek city-states, lured the Persian fleet of Xerxes, the Persian king into the narrow waters between the island of Salamis and the mainland. The outnumbered but nimbler and expertly handled Greek triremes took full advantage of the confusion engendered by the confined space and the huge number of Persian ships to win a victory that offset the earlier reverses at Thermopylae and Artemisium. After the battle, Xerxes retreated to Asia with much of his army, leaving the Persian commander Mardonius to complete the attempted conquest of Greece. The following year, the remainder of the Persian army was decisively beaten at the Battle of Plataea and the Persian navy was defeated at the Battle of Mycale. After these defeats, the Persians made no further attempts to conquer the Greek mainland.

• Thermopylae

a pass in Greece, about 200 km northwest of Athens, originally narrow but now much widened by the recession of the sea. It was the scene of the heroic defense (480 B.C.) against the Persian army of Xerxes by 6000 Greeks including 300 Spartans under their commander Leonidas.

Terror, Reign of

a period of the French revolution that began in March 1793 when the revolutionary government, known as the Convention, having executed the king, set about attacking opponents and anyone else considered a threat to the regime. A revolutionary tribunal was set up to bring enemies of the state to trial and the following month the Committee of Public Safety was created. It began slowly but during the ruthless dictatorship that followed the defeat of the Girondins at least 12,000 political prisoners, priests, and aristocrats were executed, including Marie Antoinette and Madame Roland de la Platiere. The terror was intensified in June 1794 after the execution of Hebert and Danton had left the Robespierre supreme. It ended to the following month, after the arrest and execution of Robespierre.

o July Plot (July 20, 1944

a plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler. Disenchanted by the Nazi regime in Germany, an increasing number of senior Army officers believed that Hitler had to be assassinated an alternative government, prepared to negotiate peace terms with the allies, established. Plans were made in late 1943 and there are number of unsuccessful attempts before that of July 1944. The plot was carried out by Count Berthold von Stauffenberg, who left a bomb at Hitler's headquarters at Rastenburg. The bomb exploded, killing four people, but not Hitler. Stauffenberg, believing he had succeeded, flew to Berlin, where the plotters aimed to seize the Supreme Command headquarters. Before this was done, however, news came that Hitler had survived. A counter-move resulted in the arrest of some 200 plotters, including Stauffenberg, Generals Beck, Olbricht, von Tresckow, and later Friedrich Fromm. He they were shot, hang it, or in some cases strangled. Field Marshal Rommel was implicated in obliged to commit suicide. The regime used the occasion to execute several prominent protesters such as Dietrich Bonhoeffer.

o Thirty Years War (1618-48

a series of conflicts, fought mainly in Germany, in which Protestant-Catholic rivalries and German constitutional issues were gradually subsumed in a European struggle. It began in 1618 with the Protestant Bohemian revolt against the future emperor Ferdinand II; it embraced the last phase of the Dutch Revolt after 1621; and was concentrated in a Franco-Habsburg confrontation in the years after 1635. By 1623 Ferdinand had emerged victorious in the Bohemian revolt, and with Spanish and Bavarian help had conquered the Palatinate of Frederick V. But his German ambitions and his Spanish alliance aroused the apprehensions of Europe's Protestant nations and also of France. In 1625 Christian IV of Denmark renewed the war against the Catholic imperialists, as the leader of an anti-Habsburg coalition organized by the Dutch. After suffering a series of defeats at the hands of Tilly and Wallenstein, Denmark withdrew from the struggle at the Treaty of Lübeck (1629), and the Emperor reached the summit of his power. Sweden's entry into the war under Gustavus II (Adolphus) led to imperial reversals. After Gustavus was killed at Lützen (1632), the Swedish Chancellor Oxenstierna financed the Heilbronn League of German Protestants (1633), which broke up after a heavy military defeat at Nördlingen in 1634. In 1635 the Treaty of Prague ended the civil war within Germany, but in the same year France, in alliance with Sweden and the United provinces, went to war with the Habsburgs. Most of the issues were settled after five years of negotiation at the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, but the Franco-Spanish war continued until the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. The Treaty of Wesphalia is the name usually given to a pair of treaties that were signed in 1648, the Treaty of Münster and the Treaty of Osnabrück, and sometimes the Treaty of the Pyrenees is also included.

Linear B

a syllabic script that was used for writing Mycenaean Greek, the earliest attested language form of Greek. The script predates the Greek alphabet by several centuries. The oldest Mycenaean writing dates to about 1450 BC. It is descended from the older Linear A, an undeciphered earlier script used for writing the Minoan language. It was deciphered by the English architect and linguist Michael Ventris, Linear B consists of around 87 syllabic signs and over 100 ideographic signs. These ideograms or "signifying" signs symbolize objects or commodities. They have no phonetic value and are never used as word signs in writing a sentence. It was recorded on page and palm-leaf clay tablets.

o Seven Years War (1756-63

a wide-ranging conflict involving Prussia, Britain, and Hanover fighting against Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, and Spain. It continued the disputes left undecided after the Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle, which was signed at the end of the War of Austrian Succession. The Seven Years War was concerned partly with colonial rivalry between Britain and France and partly with the struggle for supremacy in Germany between Austria and Prussia. Fighting had continued in North America with the Braddock expedition. Each side was dissatisfied with its former allies and in 1756 Frederick II of Prussia concluded the Treaty of Westminster with Britain. This made it possible for Maria Theresa of Austria and her minister Count von Kaunitz to obtain an alliance with France by the two treaties of Versailles in 1756 and 1757. At first the advantage was with the French and Austrians, but in July 1757 Pitt the Elder came to power in England and conducted the war with skill and vigor. In November Frederick II won his great victory of Rossbach over the French, and in December he defeated the Austrians at Leuthen. Frederick was hard-pressed in 1758, but he defeated the Russians at Zorndorf and Ferdinand of Brunswick protected his western flank with an Anglo-Hanoverian army. In 1750 Wolfe captured Quebec, Ferdinand defeated the French army at Minden, and Hawke destroyed the French fleet at Quiberon Bay. In India, Clive had won control of Bengal at Plassey, and in 1760 Montreal was taken. Admiral Boscawen successfully attacked the French West Indies. In 1761 Spain entered the war and Pitt resigned. The death of Elizabeth of Russia eased the pressure on Frederick, as her successor Peter III reversed her policy. All were ready for peace, which was concluded by the Treaty of Paris in 1763. Overall, England and Russia were victorious.

o *Tilly, Count of (1559-1632

actual name was Johann Tserclaes, he was a field marshal who commanded the Catholic League's forces in the Thirty Years' War from 1620-31, winning an unmatched string of important victories against the Protestants, including White Mountain and the Conquest of the Palatinate. He destroyed a Danish army at the Battle of Lutter and sacked the Protestant city of Magdeburg, which caused the death of 20,000 of the city's 25,000 inhabitants (the largest massacre of the Thirty Years' War). He was finally crushed at the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631 by the Swedish army of King Gustavus Adolphus. After this defeat, he was replaced as supreme commander by Wallenstein. He then lost his life at the Battle of Rain (Battle of Lech) when he was struck by a Swedish cannonball.

Vienna, Congress of (1814-15

an international peace conference that settled the affairs of Europe after the defeat of Napoleon in the Napoleonic wars. It continued to meet through the hundred days of Napoleon's return to France (March-June 1815). The dominant powers were Austria, represented by Metternich, Britain, represented by Castlereagh, Prussia, represented by Frederick William III, and Russia, represented by Alexander the first. Talleyrand attended as the representative of Louis XVIII of France. The Congress agreed to the absorption of the new Kingdom of the Netherlands of the territory known as the Austrian Netherlands (now Belgium). Otherwise the Habsburgs regained control of all their domains, including Lombardy, Venetia, Tuscany, Parma, and Tyrol. Prussia gained parts of Saxony as well as regaining much of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, which had allied itself with friends, who lost Norway to Sweden. In Italy the pope was restored to the Vatican and the Papal States, and the Bourbons were reestablished in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The German Confederation was established, and Napoleon's grand duchy of Warsaw was to be replaced by a restored Kingdom of Poland, but as part of the Russian Empire with the Russian Emperor also king of Poland. The Congress restored political stability to Europe.

o Brandt, Willy (1913-92

and West Germany from 1969 to 1974. He was the mayor of West Berlin from 1957 to 1966 and 1964 he became chairman of the West German Social Democratic Party. He achieved international recognition for his policy of détente and the opening of relations with the former communist countries of the Eastern bloc in the 1960s. A pragmatist, he encouraged the negotiation of joint economic projects and a policy of nonaggression. He also chaired the bland commission on the state of the world economy, the report on which was published in 1980. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971.

Leuctra, Battle of (371 B.C.

battle between the Boeotian League led by Thebes and the Spartans. The Thebans were led by Epaminondas and the Spartans by Cleombrotus I (their king). In a major break with tradition, Epaminondas used the Echelon formation with a 50-deep column of Theban infantry against the right wing of the Spartans, which was only 12-deep in infantry. King Cleombrotus I was killed during this Echelon attack. The Theban victory shattered Sparta's immense influence over the Greek peninsula, which Sparta had gained since its victory in the Peloponnesian War. Philip II and his son Alexander the Great studied this battle, and used these tactics in future battles, such as concentration of force, refused flank, and combined arms.

o *Lutter, Battle of (1626

battle during the Thirty Years' War between the Lower Saxon Circle of Protestant states led by Christian IV of Denmark and the Catholic League, led by the Count of Tilly. The battle took place in present-day Lower Saxony, Germany, and resulted in the Danish army being decimated. This was a huge blow to Christian IV, Denmark, and the Lutheran states in the Lower Saxon Circle. Most of the Lower Saxon states refused Christian their further allegiance. After a couple more losses, the Protestant German princes were forced to sue for peace and Ferdinand II could have ended the war satisfied with Imperial Catholic gains, but instead he issued the Edict of Restitution, which encouraged Sweden to enter the war. o *Breitenfeld, Battle of (1631) - battle of the Thirty Years' War that was the Protestants first major victory during the war. It occurred near Leipzig, Germany, and pitted the Protestant forces of Sweden's Gustavus Adolphus against the forces of the German Catholic League, led by the Count of Tilly. The Swede's forces routed the Catholic League forces, with the victory convincing the Protestant German states to join the cause of Gustavus Adolphus. Emperor Ferdinand II replaced the injured Tilly with Wallenstein, who became the new supreme commander of the Catholic League forces.

Continental System

economic strategy in Europe, intended to crippled Britain's economy. It was based upon the Berlin and Milan decrees of Napoleon, in 1806 and 1807, which declared Britain to be in a state of blockade and forbade the either neutral countries or French allies to trade with it or its colonies. At Tilsit in 1807 Russia agreed to the system and in 1808 Spain was obliged to join it. Britain responded by issuing orders in Council that blockaded the ports of France and its allies and allowed them to trade with each other and neutral countries only if they did so via Britain. The restrictions contributed to the war of 1812 with the US over the right of neutral ships to trade with Europe. It gradually resulted in Napoleon losing support at home and being challenged abroad. His unsuccessful invasion of Russia in 1812 was provoked by Russian refusal to continue the system and it marked the beginning of his downfall.

• *Plataea, Battle of (479 B.C.)

final land battle of the second Persian invasion of Greece. It took place near the city of Plataea in Boeotia, and was fought between an alliance of the Greek city- states (including Sparta, Athens, Corinth and Megara) commanded by Pausanias, and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I. After the defeat at the Battle of Salamis, Xerxes retreated with much of his army, leaving his general Mardonius to finish off the Greeks the following year. Mardonius was killed by the Greeks and much of the Persian army was trapped in its camp and slaughtered. The destruction of this army, and the remnants of the Persian navy on the same day at the Battle of Mycale, decisively ended the invasion.

Adenauer, Konrad (1876-1967

first chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany (1949-63). He cofounded the Christian Democratic Union in 1945. As chancellor, he is remembered for the political and economic transformation of his country. He secured the friendship of the US and was an advocate of strengthening political and economic ties with Western countries.

• sophists (Greek sophists, 'wise man')

itinerant professional teachers in Greece, the Greek colonies in Sicily, and southern Italy in the fifth century B.C. Sophists offered instruction in a wide range of subjects and skills considered necessary for public life, especially rhetoric, in return for feeds. Young Athenian democrats needed rhetoric to persuade the democratic assemblies. By questioning the nature of God, conventions, and morals, and by their alleged ability to train men to make the weaker argument the stronger through rhetoric, they aroused some opposition. Their readiness to argue either cause any dispute brought them condemnation from Plato as self interested imitators of wisdom lacking any concern for the truth. However, the most renowned sophists, such as Gorgias and Protagoras to relative this or skeptical conclusions from the defensibility of opposed claims, indicating a seriousness of purpose that Plato fail to acknowledge.

Peninsular War (1807-14

one of the Napoleonic wars, fought in Spain and Portugal. War was caused by Napoleon's invasion of Portugal in 1807 in order to compel it to accept the Continental system. In 1808 the conflict spread to Spain, whose king was forced to abdicate, Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte being placed on the throne. In June the Spanish revolted and forced the French to surrender at Baylen, whereupon Joseph fled from Madrid. In August Wellesley (later the Duke of Wellington) landed in Portugal and routed a French force at Vimeiro and expel the French from Portugal. In November and Napoleon personally went to Spain, winning a series of battles, including Burgos, and restoring Joseph to the throne. British hopes of pushing the French out of Spain were dashed in January 1809, after Moore's retreat to Corunna. Despite his victory at Talavera, Wellesley withdrew to Lisbon. Here he built a strong defensive line, which he centered at Torres Vedras. In 1810 Napoleon sent Massena to reinforce Soult and drive the British into the sea. Massena attempted to lay siege to Torres Vedras, but after four months is army, starved and demoralized, was forced to retreat. Soult, jealous of Massena's command, was slow in coming to his support, but managed to capture Badajoz. Wellington, who had pursued Massena and defeated him at Alameida, withdrew from invading Spain and turned to face Soult. During 1812 Wellington recaptured Badajoz and after defeating Mussina's replacement, Marmont, at Salamanca, entered Madrid. The following year he defeated Joseph at the death by a decisive battle of the tour yet. He went on to defeat Soult at Orthez and Toulouse (1814), having driven the French out of Spain.

Linear A

one of two currently undeciphered writing systems used in ancient Greece (Cretan hieroglyphic is the other). Linear A was the primary script used in palace and religious writings of the Minoan civilization. It was discovered by archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans. It is the origin of the Linear B script, which was later used by the Mycenaean civilization.

*Tours, Battle of (723

the Franks, led by Charles Martel, defeated an army of the Umayyad Caliphate, led by Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi. It was fought between the cities of Poitiers and Tours, in the Aquitaine of west-central France. The battle is sometimes called the Battle of Poitiers, and by Arab sources it is sometimes called the Battle of the Palace of the Martyrs. Historians later interpreted the outcome as divine judgement in his favor, giving Charles Martel the nickname 'Martellus' ("The Hammer"). Charles Martel was later praised as the champion of Christianity, characterizing the battle as the decisive turning point in the struggle against Islam and the preservation of Christianity as the religion of Europe. The battle helped lay the foundations of the Carolingian Empire and Frankish domination of Europe for the next century.

o Munich Pact (Sept. 29, 1938

the agreement between Britain, France, Germany, and Italy concerning Czechoslovakia. Hitler had long demanded protection for the German-speaking Sudetenland and showed readiness to risk war to attain his end. To avert conflict at all costs the British prime minister, Neville Chamberlain, had met Hitler at Berchtesgaden (Sept. 15), and again at Bad Godesberg (Sept. 23), by which time the Hitler had extended his demands. He now stipulated the immediate annexation by Germany of the Bohemian Sudetenland and demanded the Germans elsewhere in Czechoslovakia should be given the right to join the Third Reich. In a final effort Chamberlain appealed to Mussolini, who organized a conference in Munich where he, Chamberlain, and Hitler were joined by Daladier, the French premier. No Czech or Soviet representative was invited. Hitler gained most of what he wanted and on October 1 German troops entered the Sudetenland. As part of the agreement, Poland and Hungary occupied areas of Moravia, Slovakia, and Ruthenia. In March 1939 Bohemian and Moravia was occupied by German troops, and the rest of Slovakia became an independent client state; President Benes had resigned, and he left the country. Germany, which now dominated the entire Danubian area, emerged as the strongest power on the mainland of Europe.

Napoleonic Wars (1796-1815

the campaigns carried out between Napoleon I and the European powers. The first great Italian campaign (1796) under Napoleon security series of decisive victories for the French over the Austrians in northern Italy. In 1798 he led an expedition to Egypt, but the British fleet under Admiral Nelson destroyed the French fleet in Aboukir Bay. In 1799 Napoleon led an army over the Alps to win the battle of Marengo (1800) over the Austrians. Britain, apprehensive of Napoleon's threaten the Mediterranean and in continental Europe, was by 1803 once more at war with France. Nelson destroyed the combined Spanish and French fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805), and in the same year he Napoleon swung his grande armée toward Austria, which, with Russia and Sweden, joined Britain in the Third Coalition. Napoleon's forces in circles of the Austrians at Ulm, forcing them to surrender without a battle. Napoleon font and defeated the emperors of Austria and Russia at the Battle of Austerlitz (1805) and forced Austria to sue for peace. In the following year Prussia joined the third coalition but, in a campaign that lasted 23 days, Napoleon broke the Prussian armies at Jena and Auerstadt and accepted the surrender of Prussia. The Russian Emperor Alexander I concluded a treaty of friendship and alliance with Napoleon at Tilsit in 1807. In 1808 a revolt broke out in Spain, which by now was also under French rule. Napoleon sent a large force to quell it but was confronted by the British army under Sir Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington. Britain won a series of victories in the Peninsular War, which, though not conclusive, occupied 300,000 French soldiers when they were needed elsewhere. In 1812 Napoleon defeated the Russians at Borodino and occupied Moscow, but instead of suing for peace, Alexander I's forces withdrew further into the country. Napoleon's army was forced to retreat from Moscow in the severest winter conditions, which cost the lives of nearly half a million men. After a crushing defeat at Leipzig at the following year, Napoleon abdicated and retired to Elba. Next year he returned to France and was finally defeated by Wellington and Blücher at the Battle of Waterloo (1815).

Athenian empire

the cities and islands mainly in the Aegean area that paid tribute to Athens in the fifth century B.C. It developed out the Delian League as Athens, by virtue of its great naval superiority, imposed its will on its allies. A significant step was the transference of the league's treasury from Delos to Athens probably in 454 B.C., since this insured for Athens absolute control of the tribute. Inscriptions and literary sources reveal the means I which Athens controlled its subjects: the installation of garrisons; the establishment of clenruchies (colonies) of Athenian citizens in important or rebellious areas; the encouragement of local democracy; the referral and important judicial cases to Athens; the imposition of Athenian weights and measures throughout the Empire; and officials to keep an eye on subject cities. As long as it had a strong navy, Athens could crush revolts and enforce its will throughout the Aegean, but the Empire died with Athens final defeat in the Peloponnesian war. Nevertheless it did establish the second Athenian Confederacy in 377 B.C., trying to avoid the mistakes of the fifth century.

• Minoan civilization

the earliest civilization on European soil, centered on Crete (c.3000-1100 B.C.), it was first revealed by the excavations of Sir Arthur Evans, who gave it its name, based on the legendary King Minos. It had reached its zenith by the beginning of the late Bronze Age, extending over the islands of the south Aegean while its wares were exported to Cyprus, Syria, and Egypt. Urban centers were dominated by palaces such as those at Knossos, Mallia, Phaistos, and Zakro. Divided into two periods by a devastating earthquake that occurred around 1700 B.C., the Minoan civilization was noted particularly for its Linear A script and distinctive palatial art and architecture. It greatly influenced the later Mycenaeans, whose presence in Crete is attested from the 16th century B.C., and who succeeded the Minoans in control of the Aegean around 1400 B.C.

o SS (Schutzstaffel; German, 'protective echelon'

the elite core of the German Nazi party. Founded in 1925 by Hitler as a personal bodyguard, the SS was schooled in absolute loyalty and obedience, and in total ruthlessness towards opponents. From 1929 until the dissolution of the third Reich in 1945 the SS was headed by Heinrich Himmler, who divided mainly into two groups: the Allgemeine SS (General SS) and the Waffen-SS (Armed SS). Subdivisions of the SS include the Gestapo and the Sicherheitsdienst, in charge of foreign and domestic intelligence work. The Waffen-SS administered the concentration camps. After the fall of the Third Reich, Himmler committed suicide in the whole core was condemned by the court at the Nuremberg trials.

*Verdun, Treaty of (843

the first of the treaties that divided the Carolingian Empire into three kingdoms among the three surviving sons of Louis the Pious, who was the son of Charlemagne. The treaty, signed in Verdun-sur-Meuse, ended the three-year Carolingian Civil War. The grandsons of Charlemagne and sons of Louis the Pious were Lothair I (received Middle Francia), Louis the German (received East Francia, which later became the High Medieval Kingdom of Germany, the largest component of the Holy Roman Empire), and Charles the Bald (received West Francia, which later became the Kingdom of France). Pepin II was granted the Kingdom of Aquitaine, but only under the authority of Charles.

Directory, French (1795-99

the government of France in the difficult years between the Jacobin dictatorship and the Consulate. It was composed of two legislative houses, a Council of 500 and a Council of Ancients, and an executive (elected by the councils) of five directors. It was dominated by moderates and sought to stabilize the country by overcoming the economic and financial problems at home and ending the war abroad. In 1796 introduced measures to combat inflation and the monetary crisis, but popular distress increased and opposition grew as the Jacobins reassembled. A conspiracy, led by François Babeuf, was successfully crushed but it persuaded the Directory to seek support from the Royalists. In the election of the next year, supported by Napoleon, it decided to resort to force. This second Directory implemented an authoritarian domestic policy, which for a time established relative stability as financial and fiscal reforms met with some success. By 1798, however, economic difficulties in agriculture and industry led to renewed opposition which, after the defeats abroad in 1799, became a crisis. The Directors, fearing a foreign invasion and a coup, turned to Napoleon who took this opportunity to seize power.

Aegospotami, Battle of (405 B.C.

the last major battle of the Peloponnesian War. In the battle, a Spartan fleet under Lysander destroyed the Athenian navy. This effectively ended the war, since Athens could not import grain or communicate with its empire without control of the sea. Only 9 Athenian ships escaped, led by general Conon. Lysander and his allies slaughtered the general Philocles and 3,000 Athenian prisoners. The city of Athens surrendered to the Spartans in 404, and the Spartans demolished the walls of the city and established a pro-Spartan oligarchic government (the so-called Thirty Tyrants' regime).

o Reichstag (German, 'imperial parliament'

the legislature of the German Second Empire and of the Weimar Republic. Its role was confined to legislation, being forbidden to interfere in federal government affairs and having limited control over public spending. Under the Y. Marr Republic it enjoyed greater power as the government was made responsible to it. On the night of February 27, 1933 the Reichstag fire occurred. Goering and Goebbels allegedly planned to set fire to the building, subsequently claiming it as a communist plot. The arsonist was a half crazed Dutch communist, Marinus van der Lubbe. The subsequent trial was an embarrassment as the accused German and Bulgarian communist leaders were acquitted of complicity and only van der Lubbe was executed. But the fire had served its political purpose. On February 28 a decree suspended all civil liberties and installed a state of emergency, which lasted until 1945. Elections to the Reichstag were held on March 5, 1933, but by the Enabling Act of March 23, 1933 the Reichstag effectively voted itself out of existence.

French Revolution (1789

the political upheaval that ended with the overthrow of the Bourbon monarchy in France and marked a watershed in European history. Various groups in French society opposed the ancien régime with its privileged establishment and discredited monarchy. Its leaders were influenced by the American Revolution of the 1770s and had much popular support in the 1780s and 1790s. Social and economic unrest combined with urgent financial problems persuaded Louis XVI to summon the States-General in 1789, an act which helped to set the revolution in motion. From the States-General emerged the National Assembly and a new constitution which abolished the ancien régime, nationalized the church's lands, and divided the country into departments to be ruled by elected assemblies. Fear of royal retaliation led to popular unrest, the storming of the Bastille, and the capturing of the king by the National Guard. The National Assembly tried to create a monarchical system in which the king would share power with an elected assembly, but after the king's unsuccessful flight to Varennes and the mobilization of exiled royal lists, the revolutionaries faced increasing military threats from Austria and Prussia which led to war abroad and more radical policies at home. In 1792 the monarchy was abolished, a Republican established, and the execution of the king was followed by a Reign of Terror (September 1793-July 1794). The revolution failed to produce a stable form of republican government as several different factions (Girondins, Jacobins, Cordeliers, Robespierre) font for power. After several different forms of administration had been tried the last, the Directory, was overthrown by Napoleon in 1799.

• trireme

the principal warship of antiquity from the sixth to the late fourth century B.C. A type of galley with three banks of ores, it was lightly built for speed and maneuverability and unable to venture very far from land; each trireme carried a crew of some 200 men, the majority being rowers. They were probably seated three to a bench, the bench being angled so that each rower pulled a separate oar. A beak of metal and wood was set at the front of the galley, ramming being the principal aim of the steersman. Athens' fleet of triremes played a major part in the Greek victory at Salamis and was instrumental in controlling the Athenian Empire.

Academy -

the school established at Athens by Plato in the 380s B.C., probably intended to prepare men to serve the city-state. It was as a philosophical center that it became celebrated, its students including the philosopher is Aristotle, Epicurus, and Zeno of Citium. Much of its history is obscure, but it survived until its closure by Justinian in 529A.D.

Louis XVI (1754-93

the the last king of France (1774-92) before the French Revolution. Weak and vacillating, unwisely advised by his Austrian wife, Marie Antoinette, he could neither of her to the Revolution by supporting the economic and social forms proposed by Necker and Turgot, nor, lacking all understanding a popular demands, become its popular leader. To meet this situation he summoned the largely aristocratic Assembly of Notables (1787), which achieved nothing, and then (1789) the States-General, which had not been called for 175 years. This marked the start of the Revolution. The royal family was forcibly brought back from Versailles to Paris (October 1789) and their attempt to flee the country ended when they reached Varennes (1791). Thereafter they were virtually prisoners in the Tuileries Palace. The monarchy was abolished (September 1792) and Louis was guillotined in January 1793. His wife was executed six months later.

*War of the First Coalition (1792-1797

the traditional name of the wars fought between the French First Republic and a coalition of several European powers, including Great Britain, the Holy Roman Empire (including the Habsburg monarchy and Prussia), Spain, and the Dutch Republic. The coalition did not have much coordination or agreement, and each power had its eye on a different part of France. France won, allowing them to turn the Republic of the Netherlands into the Batavian Republic as their sister republic. The French also gained Prussian recognition of French control of the Left Bank of the Rhine by the first Peace of Basel. With the Treaty of Campo Formio, the Holy Roman Empire ceded the Austrian Netherlands to France and Northern Italy was turned into several French sister republics. The Treaty of Leoben was an armistice and preliminary peace agreement between the Holy Roman Empire and the First French Republic that ended the war.

Agincourt, Battle of (1415

the village of Agincourt in northern France was the scene of the defeat of a large French force by an English army led by Henry V. Henry's force invaded Normandy in 1415, captured Harfleur, but was intercepted by a large French army after a long march north toward Calais. The English troops, mainly archers and foot soldiers, dug in behind wooden stakes between thickly wooded ground. The next day the French cavalry advanced on a narrow front across the muddy ground only to be killed by English archers and infantry. A dozen French notables, including the constable of France, died, together with perhaps 1500 knights and 4500 men at arms. English casualties were light but included the Duke of York and Earl of Suffolk. The battle was fought on St. Crispin's day.

o Franco-Prussian War (1870-71

the war between France, under Napoleon III, and Prussia. The war itself was provoked by Bismarck, who had skillfully isolated the French, and altered a uncontroversial message from his king (the EMS Telegram). Prussian armies advanced into France. The French forces led by MacMahon were driven out of Alsace, while a second French army was forced to retire to Metz. MacMahon, marching to relieve Metz, was comprehensively defeated by Moltke at Sedan. Napoleon was captured and, discredited in the eyes of the French, ceased to be emperor. Bismarck refused to make peace, and in September the siege of Paris began. Hopes of a French counterattack were dispelled when Bazaine surrendered at Metz and the Paris finally gave way in January 1871. An armistice was granted by Bismarck, and a national assembly elected to ratify the peace, but the population of Paris refused to lay down arms and in March 1871 rose in revolt and set up the Commune of Paris. The French government signed the Treaty of Frankfurt in May, ending the war. French prisoners of war were allowed through Prussian lines to suppress the Commune. For Prussia, the proclamation of the German second Empire at Versailles in January was the climax of Bismarck's ambitions to unite Germany.

• Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.)

the war waged between Athens and Sparta and their respective allies between 431 and 404 B.C. Sparta invaded Attica with its allies and 431, but Pericles persuaded the Athenians to withdraw behind the 'long walls', which linked Athens and its port of Piraeus, and avoid a land battle was Sparta is superior army. Athens relied on its fleet of triremes to raid the Peloponnese and guard its empire and trade routes. It was struck a serious blow by the outbreak of plague and 430, which killed about a third of the population, including Pericles. Nevertheless the fleet performed well and a year's truth was made in 423 B.C. The Peace of Nicias was concluded in 421 B.C., but Alcibiades orchestrated opposition to Sparta in the Peloponnese, though his hopes were dashed when Sparta won a victory at Mantinea in 418. He was also the main advocate of an expedition to Sicily (415-413), aimed at defeating Syracuse, that ended in complete disaster for Athens. War was formally resumed in 413 B.C. Athenian fortunes revived, with naval victories at Cynossema (411), Cyzicus (410), and the recapture of Byzantium (408). There was a further victory at Arginusae in the 406. From then on, Persian financial support for Sparta and the strategic and tactical skills of the Spartan Lysander tilted the balance. Sparta's victory at Aegospotami and its control of the Hellespont starved Athens into surrender in April 404. An oligarchic coup followed immediately, supported by Sparta, and the reign of terror of the 'Thirty Tyrants', but democracy was restored in 403.

Pepin

three Frankish 'mayors of the palace' under Merovingian rule who gave rise to the Carolingian dynasty. Pepin I of Landen was mayor Austrasia, and his son Pepin II of both Austrasia and Neustria, the two most important parts of the Merovingian kingdom. Pepin III, the Short, was the grandson of the latter and son of Charles Martel. He ousted the last Merovingian, Childeric III, in 751 and was crowned king of the Franks. A close ally of the papacy, he defended from Lombard attacks and made the Donation of Pepin which was the basis for the Papal States. He added Aquitaine and Septimania to his kingdom, which passed, on his death in 768, to Charlemagne and Carloman.

*Tilsit, Treaties of (1807

two agreements signed by Napoleon I of France in the town of Tilsit (in modern Kaliningrad Oblast) in July 1807 in the aftermath of his victory at Friedland. The first was signed on 7 July, between Tsar Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon I of France, when they met on a raft in the middle of the Neman River. The second was signed with Prussia on 9 July. The treaties were made at the expense of the Prussian king, who had already agreed to a truce on 25 June after the Grande Armée had pursued him to the easternmost frontier of his realm. In Tilsit, he ceded about half of his pre-war territories. From those territories, Napoleon had created French sister republics, which were formalized and recognized at Tilsit: the Kingdom of Westphalia, the Duchy of Warsaw and the Free City of Danzig; the other ceded territories were awarded to existing French client states and to Russia. Napoleon not only cemented his control of Central Europe but also had Russia and the truncated Prussia ally with him against his two remaining enemies, Great Britain and Sweden, triggering the Anglo-Russian and Finnish War.

States-General (or Estates-General

usually a gathering of representatives of the three estates of a realm: the Church, the nobility, and the commons (representatives of the corporations of town). They met to advise a sovereign on matters of policy. The name was applied to the representative body of the United provinces of the Netherlands in their struggle for independence from Spain in the 16th century. In France, it began as an occasional advisory body, usually summoned to register specific support for controversial royal policy. It was developed by Philip IV who held a meeting in 1302 to enlist support during a quarrel with the pope, but throughout the 14th century it was rarely convoked and the first proper States-General in France was in 1484 in the reign of Louis XI.