You should be able to...
Identify whether a statement is an example of descriptive or prescriptive grammar
-In order to identify whether a statement is an example of descriptive or prescriptive grammar, one must first understand the differences between these two concepts: descriptive grammar: •describes how language is actually used by speakers and writers in a particular language community •it aims to objectively analyze and document the patterns, structures, and rules that people naturally employ when communicating •it does not make judgments about whether a particular usage is "correct" or "incorrect." Instead, it seeks to provide an accurate description of linguistic phenomena. •describe language as it is, without prescribing rules or norms. •example: "many English speakers use 'ain't' in casual conversation. •example: "In some dialects, double negatives are used for emphasis" prescriptive grammar: •concerned with establishing and enforcing a set of rules and norms for "correct" language usage •these rules are often based on traditional or formal standards of language. •it prescribes how language should be used, according to certain guidelines, and may label some usages as "incorrect" or "nonstandard." •typically offer advice or rules on how language should be used to adhere to established norms. •example: "You should not end a sentence with a preposition." •example: "Use 'whom' instead of 'who' when the pronoun is the object of a preposition." -to identify whether a statement is an example of descriptive or prescriptive grammar, consider the following: •Does the statement describe how people commonly use language without making value judgments about correctness? If so, it's likely descriptive. •Does the statement provide rules or guidelines for "correct" language usage and potentially label certain usages as wrong? If so, it's likely prescriptive.
Recognize the presence of minimal pairs/contrastive distribution in a dataset (thereby concluding that the sounds are allophones of different phonemes
-Look for words in your dataset that differ by only one sound in a given position. These pairs are called minimal pairs. -Examine the sounds in minimal pairs to determine if they occur in complementary distribution or contrastive distribution. This step is crucial for concluding whether the sounds are allophones of different phonemes -when sounds are in complementary distributions, you will not find a minimal pair. -If the two sounds in minimal pairs can occur in the same phonetic environment and change the meaning of a word, they are in contrastive distribution and represent different phonemes. For example, if in a language, [p] and [b] can both occur at the beginning of words, and changing one to the other results in a change in meaning (e.g., "pat" vs. "bat"), they are contrastive and represent different phonemes /p/ and /b/.
Explain in words the phonetic environments that condition a phonological rule (which allophone is used in which environment)
-Obstruents are sounds produced with a constriction or blockage of airflow. They include voiceless stops (/p/, /t/, /k/), voiced stops (/b/, /d/, /g/), and fricatives (/f/, /v/, /s/, /z/). -Sonorants are sounds produced with relatively unrestricted airflow. They include vowels, glides (/w/, /j/), and liquids (/l/, /r/). -Labial sounds are those produced with the involvement of the lips, such as /p/, /b/, /f/, and /v/. Sibilants are sounds characterized by a hissing or rushing quality, such as /s/ and /z/. Sibilants often exhibit specific phonological rules related to adjacent sounds
Identify an example of a design feature or give your own example
-To identify examples of design features of language in various statements, you can focus on specific characteristics associated with each design feature. mode of communication: •refers to the use of linguistic symbols (speech, writing, sign language) to convey meaning (means by which info in transmitted and received) •example: A deaf person communicates using sign language, such as hand gestures and facial expressions. semanticity: •refers to the property of language where words and symbols have specific meanings •example: The red traffic light signals drivers to stop. pragmatic function: •refers to the use of language to achieve specific goals or purposes in communication •example: "could you please pass the salt?" Interchangeability •refers to our ability to both produce and comprehend language •example: In a classroom, a teacher and a student take turns speaking. The teacher provides information, and the student responds with questions. This exchange of roles demonstrates the interchangeability of language use, where both individuals can switch between speaking and listening in a conversation. Discreteness •refers to property of language where it is composed of distinct units that can be combined to create meaning •example: The word "book" is composed of distinct sounds, /b/, /ʊ/, and /k/, which combine to convey a specific meaning. Displacement •refers to the ability to discuss things not present in the immediate context •example: During a conversation about future vacation plans, someone says, "I hope to visit Japan next year." arbitrariness •means there is no inherent connection between the form (sound or symbol) of a word and its meaning •example: the word "loud" which means high volume sounds can be spoken softly/quietly, and its sound and form do not affect its literal meaning. Ruidoso (spanish) and loud (english) mean the same thing but are not the same sound or symbols, thus it is arbitrary cultural transmission •refers to process by which language is passed down from generation to generation through social interaction with and learning from others. •example: In a family that speaks a particular dialect or language variety, parents pass down the unique linguistic features, accents, an
Explain why linguists mostly analyze speech/signing rather than writing
-because linguists' goal is to understand mental language competence using performed language, it makes sense to get as close to the original as possible, which is the spoken form. -Writing must be taught, whereas spoken language is acquired naturally. -Writing does not exist everywhere that spoken language does. -Writing can be edited before it is shared with others in most cases, while speech is usually much more spontaneous. This is further evidence of the immediacy of speech as a communication signal, compared to the delay nature of writing. -neurolinguistic evidence demonstrating that the processing and production of written language is overlaid on the spoken language centers in the brain. Spoken language involves several distinct areas of the brain, writing uses these areas and others as well. -Archeological evidence indicates that writing is a later historical development than spoken language.
Explain why an example (that I provide for you) is likely an error of competence or performance and why
-consider the speaker's proficiency: if the speaker is native, then they are expected to have a high level or linguistic competence, therefore, errors made by native speakers are more likely to be related to linguistic performance, as they already possess the necessary linguistic competence. Non-native speakers, especially those who are still learning the language, may make errors in grammar, vocabulary, or pronunciation due to gaps in their linguistic competence. -evaluate the nature of the error: determine whether the error appears to be systematic or a slip of the tongue (typo like). If it is systematic, then it is more likely a competence error. Vice-versa, if it seems to be a momentary lapse in speech/writing, then it is probably a performance error. -check for performance factors: consider external factors that might have influenced the error, such as tiredness, haste, or stress. These can lead to performance errors that do not necessarily reflect a lack of linguistic competence. -consider the context: for example, errors in casual spoken language or in informal situations may be errors of performance, while errors in formal written documents may suggest a competence issue.
Explain how phonotactics relates to speaking with a foreign accent
-different languages have varying sets of phonemes, and these phonemes may not align with those in the speaker's native language. Thus, speakers from one language may find it challenging to accurately produce the vowel of the other language due to phonotactic constraint from differences between their accents -also phonotactic rules determine which sounds can occur together in a given language. In a foreign accent, a speaker may inadvertently use sound combinations that are permissible in their native language but not in the target language, which results in pronunciation errors or distorted speech -furtheremore, syllable rules dictate which consonants and vowels can appear at the beginning, middle, or end of a syllable. When speaking with a foreign accent, individuals struggle to conform to the target syllable structure, leading to syllable patterns that sound unusual to native speakers
Explain similarities and differences of signed and spoken languages
-signed languages are similar to spoken languages in every way, with the exception of their modality (spoken languages are auditory-vocal whereas signed languages are visual-gestural). -signed languages, like spoken languages, are made up of words that can be put together in sentences according to particular grammatical rules -every kind of linguistic analysis that may be performed on spoken languages may also be performed on signed languages. -as with spoken languages, signed languages may be acquired in childhood as a person's first language or much later, through either instruction in school or immersion in a culture that uses a particular signed language.
Identify an example as being grammatical/ungrammatical and socially acceptable/unacceptable, in a given context, and explain your reasoning
grammaticality -example for standard American english: grammatical: I will pick the package up tonight (it follows the correct subject-verb agreement where the subject 'I' matches with the correct verb form 'will pick') ungrammatical: I will picks the package up tonight (it violates the standard rules of english subject-verb agreement because 'picks' is the third-person singular form, which does not match with the singular form of the subject 'I' Social acceptability -example for standard American english: imagine the president of the United States asks a subordinate to review some piece of legislation for him. The following are two different responses from the subordinate: socially acceptable: "yes sir, I will review the legislation as soon as possible." (This response is socially acceptable in a formal, professional, and hierarchical context like a conversation with the President of the United States. It demonstrates respect for authority, politeness, and a willingness to fulfill the request promptly. Using "yes sir" is a respectful way to address a superior in a formal setting, and committing to reviewing the legislation promptly aligns with the expectations of professionalism and decorum.) socially unacceptable: "nah dude... I am busy." (Addressing the President of the United States as "dude" is highly informal and disrespectful in this context. It disregards the formalities and respect expected when interacting with a head of state. Using "nah" and declining the request without a valid reason demonstrates a lack of respect for the President and the seriousness of the request. The phrase "I am busy" is dismissive and does not acknowledge the importance of the task or the authority of the President's request.)
