1001PSY Week 1 - 4

Individualism vs

Relationality

Axon

Trunk of the Egg/Neuron Tree

Steps in conducting an experiment

1. Framing a Hypothesis 2. Operationalising Variables 3. Developing a standardised procedure 4. Selecting and assigning participants 5. Applying statistical techniques to the data 6. Drawing conclusions

Peripheral Nervous System

- All the neurons that are outside of the central nervous system - Somatic nervous system • Neurons that connect to muscles and sensory receptors • Afferent nerve fibres carry information from periphery to central nervous system • Efferent nerve fibres carry information from central nervous system to periphery Neural tissue other than brain and spinal cord are from what part of the nervous system?

The Hindbrain

- Composed of the cerebellum, pons, and medulla - The cerebellum is important for coordination of movement and balance • The cerebellum will organise sensory information and integrate motor commands from the cerebrum to provide smooth motor actions • Important for fine motor control - The pons is implicated in sleep and arousal - The medulla is important for unconscious but vital bodily functions related to breathing, blood flow, muscle tone, and reflexes like sneezing and coughing

The experimental argument

- Experiments have shown that stimulating parts of the brain can cause motor movements and perceptual experiences - Experiments have also shown that inhibiting parts of the brain can affect movement, cognitive abilities, and emotion

The Midbrain

- Important for some sensory processes - Contains a system of dopamine releasing neurons that are important for voluntary movements - Contains the reticular formation (which also runs through the hindbrain) which is important for muscle reflexes, breathing, pain perception, and regulating sleep and arousal

Central Nervous System

- Is protected by the body in three ways • Covered with bone (cranium and spine) • A protective covering under the bone called the meninges • Is bathed in fluid called the cerebrospinal fluid Brain and Spinal Cord are part of the?

State of a Neuron

- Sodium (Na+) and Potassium (K+) ions are positively (+) charged - Chloride (Cl-) ions and some proteins are negatively charged - The ions move across the cell membrane - But at rest, there are more K+ ions inside than Na+ outside and there are pr- inside to give a negative charge inside the neuron - This resting potential is -70 millivolts

The Forebrain

- The bulk of the forebrain is made up of the cerebrum and is responsible for sensing, thinking, learning, emotion, consciousness, and voluntary movement - The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the cerebrum and it is convoluted and folded upon itself - The cerebrum is split into two hemispheres, joined by a bundle of neurons called the corpus callosum

The genetic/developmental argument

- The development of cognitive abilities follows the physical development of the brain - Processes that interfere with brain development, also interfere with the development of cognitive abilities

Open Mindedness

- considering all sides of an issue - willingness to accept evidence that is contrary to your personal experience

Scepticism

- questioning assumptions or conclusions - does the evidence presented support the conclusion?

Objectivity

- taking an impartial approach - relying on evidence and logic, not subjective beliefs and assumptions

Characteristics of scientific psychological research

1. A theoretical framework 2. A standardised procedure 3. Generalisability 4. Objective measurement.

Ethics in Psychological research

A Code of Ethics has been developed by the Australian Psychological Society (2007) - Informed consent - Maintain participant welfare - Voluntary participation - Ensure confidentiality - Avoid deception - Fair and humane treatment of animals - Gain appropriate ethics approval

Paradigm

A broad system of theoretical assumptions employed by a scientific community

Independent Variable

A condition or event that an experimenter varies/manipulates in order to observe its impact on another variable

Case Study

An in-depth study of the behaviour of one person or a small group. - Often used in clinical research - Used when large numbers of participant are not available - Drawbacks include Small Sample Size Susceptibility to researcher bias Problem of an atypical case

Variable

Any phenomenon that can take on more than one value, i.e., is free to vary along some dimension. Allow us to measure and describe the phenomena under investigation.

Survey Technique

Asks questions of large numbers of persons to gain information on attitudes and behaviour Two Approaches: Questionaires and Interviews, face to face or telephone Disadvantages of survey approach are sampling issues and people not responding accurately.

Scientific Approach

Assumes that events are governed by some lawful order - human behaviour is systematic Psychological research seeks to identify the laws, principles, or consistencies governing behaviour

Brain Damage

Brain trauma is the result of physical damage to the brain • Neuropsychologists aim to understand the causes of brain trauma and provide effective treatments - Can use neuropsychological tests • Brain trauma may have multiple causes

Dendrites

Branches on the end of the neuron tree

Structuralism and Functionalism

By the end of the nineteenth century psychology emerged as a discipline that aimed to answer questions about human nature through scientific investigation. Two prominent early schools of thought were Structuralism and Functionalism. Structuralism attempted to uncover the basic elements of consciousness through Introspection. Functionalism attempted to explain psychological processes in terms of the role, or function they serve.

Categorical Variable

Can take on fixed values

Humanistic

Carl Rogers (1902‐1987) Abraham Maslow (1908‐1970) • objected to claim that people have no control over their destinies • other approaches • criticised as dehumanising • failed to recognise unique qualities of human behaviour • optimistic, emphasises humans' unique qualities • their freedom, potential for personal growth • human behaviour is governed primarily by • each individual's "sense of self" (self‐concept) • human drive toward self‐actualisation • research on animals has little relevance to human behaviour • Metaphor : life is like a bottle of milk - the cream always rises to the top • people are innately good and will strive to realise goals and ambitions. • A person‐centred perspective => new treatments for Psychological problems, disorders

Multipolar Motoneuron

Cell that has a big egg yolk at the top of it's Axon/Tree Trunk and dendrites branching off it.

Unipolar Sensory Neuron

Cell that has it's egg yolk hanging off it's Axon/Tree Trunk

Bipolar Interneuron

Cell that has it's egg yolk in the middle of its Axon/Tree Trunk

Collateral Branches

Connection from the tree trunk/Axon to the tree root tips/terminal buttons

Wernicke's area

Controls speech comprehension (Sensory speech area)

Broca's area

Controls speech production (motor speech area)

2. Operationalising Variables

Converting abstract concepts into testable form

Flow of Communication

Dendrites and/or the soma receive information in the form of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. These may excite the neuron and make it "fire". A minute electric charge called an action potential passes through the dendrites and soma and down the axon to the terminal buttons. The neuron then releases a neurotransmitter at the synapse to then affect the next neuron

5. Applying statistical techniques to the data

Describing the data and determining the likelihood that differences between the conditions reflect causality or chance

Free Will vs

Determinism

Continuity vs

Discontinuity with other animals

Parasympathetic Division

Division of the Autonomic Nervous system responsible for housekeeping.

Sympathetic Division

Division of the Autonomic nervous system responsible for trouble shooting

Schachter's study of affiliation

Effect of anxiety on desire to affiliate with others. Independent variable = Anxiety level was manipulated. • both groups told they would receive electric shocks • high anxiety group told shocks would be very painful • low anxiety group told shocks would be mild & painless • in reality, no plan to shock anyone (deception) • Participants were - told there would be a delay while apparatus was set up (deception) - asked whether they would prefer to wait alone or with other participants • recorded % of participants in each group who chose to affiliate with others • DV: desire to affiliate with others

Nucleus

Egg Yolk of a neuron

Cell Body

Egg white of the neuron

Reason vs

Emotion

Rationalism vs

Empiricism

6. Drawing conclusions

Evaluating whether or not the data support the hypothesis; suggesting future studies to address limitations and new questions raised by the study

Evolutionary Theory

Falls in with Heredity and Behaviour Many psychological functions are interpreted within the context of Bipedalism and encephalisation vital for development of complex cognitive functions, including language, reasoning, culture

Genetics

Falls in with Heredity and Behaviour Many psychological functions are interpreted within the context of passing down of genes from parent to child influences expression of mental processes and behaviour - Environment and genes interact in their effects Studies of twins and relatives, especially identical (MZ) and fraternal (DZ), indicate the effects of genes - Heritability coefficient 0 = none, 1 = completely heritable - Genes influence • Personality (.15 to .50) • IQ (>.50) • Life circumstances that are influenced by personality and intellectual functioning e.g., jobs, religious attitudes, beliefs, divorce

Measures of variability

Form of Descriptive Statistics • how the scores vary from each other & the mean • standard deviation: an index of the amount of variability in the data set • larger SD indicates more variability

Measures of central tendency

Form of Descriptive Statistics • reflect typical or average scores • mean (arithmetic average) • median (middle) • mode (most frequent)

Myelin sheath

Glia cell/Bark protecting the trunk/plastic cover that protects a cable

Continuous Variable

Has a continuum of possible values and varies across this range

The phylogenetic argument

In the animal kingdom, we see a pattern in which more complex brains govern more complex behaviours and cognitive abilities

Autonomic Nervous System

Internal systems, involuntary (breathing, heartbeat, digestion) are which part of the Peripheral nervous system? • Neurons that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands • Important for mediating our arousal • Sympathetic branch and parasympathetic branch differ anatomically and functionally • Sympathetic branch more important for organising the body's resources for threatening situations (arousal) • Parasympathetic branch more important for organising the body's resources for conserving energy (relaxation) • Organs that receive both sympathetic and parasympathetic connections will be influenced by the relative activity of each branch

Left hemisphere

Is dominant for language - Split-brain patients can name and describe an object that is flashed in the right visual field - Two major areas of the left hemisphere involved in language is Broca's area and Wernike's area

The Occipital Lobe

Lobe that processes visual information

Objective Measurement

Measures that are reliable (that produce consistent results) Measures that are valid (that assess the dimensions they purport to assess)

Evolutionary

Metaphor : 'we are all runners in a race, competing for resources...' • often start with a known behaviour in a species (e.g., higher aggression in males than females)then attempt to explain it on the basis of evolutionary principles. • more recently: make predictions about behaviours, which are then tested in experiments Human behaviours evolved because they helped our ancestors survive and reproduce. • some behaviours are biologically determined (e.g., the impulse to eat, sexual impulses). • Charles Darwin's theory of evolution is applied to human behaviours - natural selection; adaptive traits; reproductive success • patterns of behaviour are products of evolution • examines behavioural processes in terms of their adaptive value for a species over the course of many generations • Natural selection favours behaviours that enhance reproductive success • topics • mating preferences; jealousy; • aggression; sexual behaviour; • language; decision making • sex differences in spatial abilities

Node of Ranvier

Node/gateway into the myelin sheath sorta looks like the sausage twistee part.

Nature vs

Nurture

Axon Hillock

Part where the trunk meets the egg tree/Usb port sorta thing

Mental vs

Physical

The clinical argument

Physical damage to the brain can have detrimental effects on a person's cognitive abilities and behaviour

1. Framing a Hypothesis

Predicting the relationships among two or more variables

A Standardised Procedure

Procedure that is the same for all participants except where the variation is introduced to test the hypothesis. (Placebo - Check?)

William James

Proponent of Functionalism

Wilhelm Wundt

Proponent of Structuralism

5 Major Theoretical Perspectives

Psychodynamic: focus on unconscious processes, conflict, and early experiences • Behavioural: focus on learning (behaviour modified by consequences) • Humanistic : focus on the unique individual and motivation to achieve goals • Cognitive: focus on thought and memory • Evolutionary: focus on why we feel, think or behave

4. Selecting and assigning participants

Randomly assigning participants to different conditions

Auditory Cortex

Receives sensory information from the ears

Primary visual cortex

Receives sensory information from the eyes

Criticism of Structuralism

Reductionism - Some people believed that human behaviour was far too complex and can not be reduced to such simple elements. Elemental - That human behaviour should be studied directly as a whole instead of being studied in different elements and then combined. Reliance on verbal reports - Verbal thoughts aren't reliable as they're not observable to anyone but the person thinking them and they're not suitable for children and non-humans and also their test and re-test reliability was low. Introspection isn't a reliable source of information.

Naturalistic Observation

Refers to the in-depth study of a phenomenon in its natural setting - Study of primate behaviour in the wild - Piaget's study of the cognitive development of his own children Advantage: Good generalisability Disadvantages: Observation per se can alter behaviour. Cannot establish the cause of behaviour

Cognitivist

Renewed interest in consciousness & physiological bases of behaviour Some Metaphors: • the mind is like a computer; enduring patterns of thought are like software • Inputs from environment are transformed, stored and retrieved using mental programs leading to specific response outputs • the mind is likened to the brain itself • A concept (e.g. bird) conceived as a network of activated nerve cells • assumption • must study internal mental events to fully understand behaviour • overt behaviour => incomplete picture • Cognition: mental processes involved in perceiving, processing and retrieving information • includes memory, concept formation, reasoning, problem solving, decision making, language, abstract thought etc. • contributing influences • Cognitive development (Piaget, 1954) • Memory (Miller, 1956) • Language (Chomsky, 1957) • Problem solving (Newell, Shaw & Simon, 1956)

Generalisability

Sample that is representative of the population. A population is the entire group of people that a researcher is interested in - Researchers typically study samples, i.e., subsets of the population - Make inferences about the entire population based on the sample. THE SAMPLE MUST BE REPRESENTATIVE OF THE POPULATION. Procedure that is sensible and relevant to circumstances outside the laboratory. Can the research results (from the sample) be applied to the entire population of interest? Requires - Internal validity: Are the procedures of the study sound or are the flawed? - External validity: Does the research context resemble the situation found in the real world?

Descriptive research methods

Seeks to describe phenomena rather than to manipulate variables Methods include: - Case Studies - Naturalistic Observation - Survey Research

Somatic Nervous System

Sensory and motor nerves, voluntary are part of which nervous system?

3. Developing a standardised procedure

Setting up experimental and control conditions; attending to demand characteristics; attending to research bias

Motoneurons

Some communicate with other parts of body.

Sensory Neurons

Some receive information from the outside world.

Behaviourist

Stimulus response Psychology Only observes overt behaviour, extreme position on nature/nurture issue, we are controlled by environmental factors and free will is an illusion • relates stimuli (detectable inputs from environment) to overt behaviours (responses) in the organism • Focus on learning: changes in behaviour based on experience • focus on observable behaviour => no need for human subjects who could introspect & report their mental processes • laboratory based research involving non‐human animals increased • greater experimental control possible • dominant school in 1950s & 1960s • Metaphor: Humans and other animals are mechanistic • We show reflexive responses that can be elicited by external stimuli

Argument from brain recordings

There is a predictable relationship between brain activity as measured by brain recordings of the activity of neurons (e.g., electrical activity through electroencephalogram) and mental processes

A theoretical framework

Systematic way of organising and explaining observations. Hypothesis that flows from the theory or from an important question. FIND EXAMPLES

Glia and Neurons

The Nervous system is made up of these two cells.

Psychodynamic

The Psychodynamic Psychological Perspective, a primary focus of Sigmund Freud, is centred around several key premises. It is the belief that peoples actions are determined by the way thoughts, feelings and wishes are connected in their brains and the mental events that occur outside of a persons consciousness. For example, Anxiety - Freud would say that if I am not consciously making myself anxious, and there are no external or environmental factors as to why I feel anxious than the feeling must be coming from my unconscious mind. Freud argued that while people have conscious motives or wishes, they also have powerful unconscious motives that underlie their intentions. Many of us have had the infuriating experience of being stuck in Traffic only to find that nothing was blocking the road and that it was an accident on the other side of the highway. Why do people slow down to gawk at such things? Are they concerned? Perhaps. Freud would suggest that we feel an unconscious excitement or at least satisfy a morbid curiosity, from viewing a gruesome scene, even though we may deny such socially unacceptable feelings. A Psychodynamic theorist might study why people are more drawn to horror movies and stories than others. Freud's evidence of the unconscious mind included peoples dreams, slip of the tongue, forgetfulness and his own anxieties. In summary, the Psychodynamic perspective suggests that we do not have free will, that we are at the mercy of our unconscious desires.

Ventricles

There are four large internal chambers inside the brain, called the ______________, in which the cerebrospinal fluid flows.

The endocrine system

The endocrine system will communicate with the body by secreting hormones into the bloodstream • Most of the endocrine system is controlled through the hypothalamus at the base of the forebrain • The hypothalamus helps regulate basic bodily needs, hunger, thirst, temperature control and in general the "four F's" - Fighting - Fleeing - Feeding - Mating

Functional structures in the central nervous system

The forebrain - The bulk of the forebrain is made up of the cerebrum and is responsible for sensing, thinking, learning, emotion, consciousness, and voluntary movement - The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the cerebrum and it is convoluted and folded upon itself - The cerebrum is split into two hemispheres, joined by a bundle of neurons called the corpus callosum

Firing of a Neuron

The neural impulse that flows down the axon is started by an action potential that changes the resting potential of the neuron • The resting potential of the neuron refers to its electric charge when at rest (inactive) - The electric charge is determined by charged particles called ions

Terminal Buttons

The tips at the ends of the roots/collateral branches that look like little alien finger tips

Interneurons

The vast majority communicate with other neurons

Descriptive Designs

Type of research method concerned with describing behaviour

Experimental Designs

Type of research method concerned with establishing the causes of behaviour

Correlational Designs

Type of research method concerned with predicting behaviour

Conscious vs

Unconscious

Why is research important?

Understanding of empirical research => • improved ability to think critically about research => better informed consumer of research • keep abreast of developments in your field of expertise (professional development) Psychology is the - science that studies behaviour & the biological & cognitive processes that underlie behaviour - profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems - Science of Psychology underpins the profession of Psychology

Dependent Variable

Variable that is thought to be affected by the manipulation of the IV

The experiential argument

We have experienced the effects of drugs or other external influences (e.g., lack of sleep) on our own behaviour

Structuralism

Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener Wundt's student Edward Titchener, advocated the use of introspection or looking inside yourself or careful and systematic observation of your own conscious experiences to determine the structure of your own consciousness. The theory was often tested by training individuals to ensure their own objectivity and awareness and then exposing them to new stimuli, like food, colours, places etc and having them analyse and report on their experiences. Titchener believed that using structuralism methodically would leave to the creation of a periodic table of elements of human consciousness, much like the periodic table developed by chemists. Structuralist's efforts were about cataloguing the elements of consciousness. • based on Wundt's ideas • examined the structure of consciousness • identified basic elements • sensations, feelings, emotions • how are these elements related? • used introspection method

Functionalism

William James Instead of focusing on the contents of the mind, functionalism focuses on the role or function of psychological processes. Consciousness exists because it serves a function and the task of a psychologist is to understand that function. Functionalism is about explaining the minds contents not simply describing them as found within structuralism. Functionalism is still very current today and people still site William James in their work. Functionalism looks at why and how people adapt to their surroundings or their environment and the patterns of development during childhood as well as education practises and their effectiveness and also the behavioural differences between males and females • how do people adapt their behaviour to the demands of the environment? • => more practical (or applied) slant • topics • patterns of development during childhood • effectiveness of educational practices • behavioural differences between males & females

Right hemisphere

can still process meaning for an object - If split-brain patients hold an object in their left hand, they can point to a picture of that object

Introspection

careful, systematic observation of one's own conscious experience • required training to ensure person's objectivity and awareness • people were exposed to stimuli, then analysed & reported what they experienced

History of Psychology Outline

• "Psychology has a long history but a short past" (Ebbinghaus, 1908) • Western psychology can be traced to Greek philosophers - How does the mind work? - Nature of free will - Relations between individual & state/society/culture • Discipline of psychology emerged from physiology & philosophy.

The Thalamus

• All sensory information (except smell) is received at the thalamus before it is then distributed to the relevant areas of the cerebrum (e.g., primary auditory cortex) • Some integration of information from different senses also occurs at the thalamus

Neurons

• Are the information processors of the nervous system - they receive, integrate, and transmit information • They will communicate by using both electricity and chemicals • There are different types of neurons

Frontal Lobe

• Controls the movement of voluntary muscles • Important for a number of "higher order" functions • May be the executive control system of the brain that monitors, organises and directs thought processes

Critically evaluating research

• Does the theoretical framework make sense? • Is the sample adequate and appropriate? • Are the measures and procedures adequate? • Are the data conclusive? • Are the broader conclusions warranted? • Does the study say anything meaningful? • Is the study ethical?

Prefrontal cortex

• Function not completely understood, but is implicated in relational reasoning and working memory

Glia/Glue

• Guides developing neurons to appropriate locations in the brain during development • Provide support, protection, and nourishment for neurons • Can also act as "insulators" for neurons and so help avoid cross-talk

Ways to research and understand brain structure and functions

• If we know what the brain is made up of (brain structure) we will better understand what the brain does (brain functions) • Brain structure can be examined be examined with intact or non- intact individuals. However, brain function can only be learnt from intact individuals • Both humans and non-human animals can be studied to learn about brain structure and function - The more invasive the method, the more problematic it is to use on human subjects • Methods to examine brain structure - Dissection of deceased persons - Brain imaging (e.g., MRI - magnetic resonance imaging) • Methods to examine brain function - Can be "passive" or "invasive"

The Hypothalamus

• Involves in the regulation of basic bodily needs

The Limbic System

• Is loosely composed of a number of structures: parts of the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, the amygdala, mammillary body and other structures • Has three main functions - Regulation of motivation, of which the hypothalamus is important - Regulation of memory, of which the hippocampus is important - Regulation of emotion, of which the amygdala is important

Neuroplasticity

• Our brain is not a static fixed structure - it reorganises a static, fixed structure structurally and functionally in response to genes, environment, learning, and injury • Neuroplasticity in response to injury - the case of Todd Cerven Neuroplasticity in response to learning - Enriched environments - Rats reared in an enriched environment (lots of social contact and objects to interact with) have • Heavier cerebral cortex • Largest gain in occipital cortex • Thicker synaptic contacts • More dendritic branching, can be 20% greater - The hand area of the motor cortex is larger and more complex in experienced musicians

Temporal Lobe

• Processes auditory information • Important for speech and language

Parietal Cortex

• Processes tactile (touch) information • Integrates visual input • Monitors a persons position in space

The Primary Motor Cortex

• Provides motor control to all voluntary muscles • The area of the cortex devoted to the body areas is not proportional

Define Psychology

• Psychology - Psyche: Mind - Logos: Knowledge or study • Psychology is defined as the scientific investigation of mental processes (thinking, remembering and feeling), behaviour and the interaction between them.

The Primary Somatosensory cortex

• Receives sensory information from all around the body

Laterality of brain function

• The each hemisphere of the brain shows dominance for many functions • Sensory information received on the left side of the body is largely processed by the right hemisphere and vice versa • Motor control on the right side of the body is largely controlled by the left hemisphere and vice versa • The two hemispheres communicate and will co- ordinate behaviours through the corpus callosum Visual information seen in the right visual field is processed in the left hemisphere and visual information seen in the left visual field is processed in the right hemisphere. The term "contralateral" is given when referring to the opposite side of the body. The term "ipsilateral" refers to the same side of the body

Organisation of the nervous system

• The nervous system has two major divisions - Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord) - Peripheral nervous system (somatic and autonomic nervous system) • The brain can be further divided into different sections and anatomical areas

Correlational Research

• used when variables cannot be manipulated - lack of control => no cause‐effect relationship can be demonstrated - can establish whether links or associations between variables exist • a correlation exists when 2 variables are associated with one another - correlation coefficient (r) indicates the strength & direction of the association • values of r range from ‐1.00 to + 1.00 • ‐1.00 = strong negative correlation • ‐0.50 = moderate negative correlation • 0.00=nocorrelationbetweenvariables • +0.50 = moderate positive correlation • +1.00 = strong positive correlation • values indicates strength • sign indicates direction

Negatively Correlated Variables

• values vary in opposite direction • high values of one variable are associated with low values of the other variable • age (after 40 yrs) adulthood, visual acuity • shyness, number of friends

Positively Correlated Variables

• values vary in same direction • high values of one variable are associated with high values of the other variable. • years of education, income level • age during childhood, foot size • hours of study, exam performance Variables can be strongly correlated without being causally related examples - power failure linked to baby boom - shoe size & vocabulary are positively correlated during childhood - ice cream sales and shark attacks

Extraneous Variables

• variables other than IV that seem likely to influence the DV - Schachter (1959): participants' sociability might have affected the decision to wait with others or wait alone - not a problem unless all highly sociable people are in same group