1,500+ terms... -_-

The Newburgh Conspiracy

- plot hatched in 1783 by officers of Continental Army, due to no soldiers' pay, to oust Congress and set up a military dictatorship.

proprietary colony

- a colony owned by and individual instead of a joint-stock company

Boomtown

- a community experiencing a sudden growth in business or population - many were male-dominated communities with racial diversity - ethnic prejudice and violence were common

Old Immigrants

- immigrants who came before 1880 - mainly Protestants and Roman Catholics from northern and western Europe - Germans were largest ethnic population

Penelope Barker

- staged Edenton Tea Party - resolved to boycott British goods and sent copy of resolution to London to let British government know that American women were upset

Operation Ajax

- the CIA and British intelligence launched operation to oust Mossadegh - CIA bribed Iranian army officers and hired Iranian agents to arrest Mossadegh

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

- Santa Anna fled country and Mexico was in turmoil - Mexico transferred territories to US that would become Texas, California, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, and Nevada

placer mining

- a cheap mining technique used to retrieve nuggets of gold out of riverbeds

Ponce de Loen

- governor of Puerto Rico who led the first European exploration of Florida - hoped to find gold and Indian slaves

Chief Powhatan

- leader of the Powhatan people and was an imperialist - forced chieftains to give him corn - realized too late that the English were not there to trade but to invade father of Pocahontas

Commodore Thomas Macdonough

- naval commander who saved American troops at Lake Champlain and defeated British fleet

The American Party (The Know-Nothing Party)

- political group which became national organization - members pledged never to vote for foreign born - when asked about the organization, they were to say "I know nothing" - focused on limiting political clout of newcomers and demanded immigrants and Catholics be excluded from public office and waiting period for naturalization be extended to 21 years - generated intense opposition - never grew strong enough to implement their policies

direct primary

- proposed by progressives to clean up political system and to make political process more open and transparent - allowed all members of a political party to vote on the party's nominees rather than traditional practice where an inner circle of party leaders choose the candidates

encomienda

- soldiers or officials received huge amounts of land and control over the people who lived there as long as they Christianize them

Elizabeth Eckford

one of nine black students admitted to central high in little rock

Pennsylvania Gazette

- Purchased by Ben Franklin in 1729 -1st political cartoon - newspaper in which the "Join or Die" cartoon was published -Introduced weather report as a regular feature

V-J Day

- "Victory over Japan day" - the celebration of the Surrender of Japan, which was initially announced on August 15, 1945

Battle of Brandywine

- Battle during which the Continental Army unsuccessfully tried to stop the British from marching into Philadelphia - lost many men and resources

Subsistence Agriculture

- farmers who produced just enough food, livestock, and clothing for their family's needs - lives revolved around regular farmstead routine

Cult of Domesticity

- ideology that called upon women to accept and celebrate their role as manager of the household and nurturer of the children, separate from man's work

Constitution

- "We the people of the United States..." - voters were "the legitimate source of all authority" - authorized federal government to limit powers of the states - confirmed U.S. as first democratic republic in hisotry

William Hooper

- "a soldier made is a farmer lost"

General Douglas MacArthur

- commander of the American and Australian forces and commanded the Allied forces in southwest Pacific -

St. Augustine

- first permanent European settlement - was created in response to French efforts in colonizing north Florida

Isolationism

- desire to stay out of conflicts from other nations - dominated American public opinion after Civil War - nation's geographic advantages encouraged this attitude

Richard Montgomery

- former British General who led a successful attack into Montreal, then on to Quebec Montgomery's attack on Quebec - failed and was killed, thus, the whole invasion into Canada failed.

Langdon Cheves

- former South Carolina congressman appointed as B.U.S's new president - restored confidence in national bank by forcing state banks to keep more gold coins in their vaults to back up loans

Populism

- support for the concerns of ordinary people - included reforms intended to give more power to the people, such as "direct election" of US senators by voters rather than by state legislatures

Democrats

- supported Jackson and states' rights and were strongest in South and West - first party to recruit professional state organizers - convinced voters that their primary allegiance should be to the party rather than any particular candidate

Imperialism

- use of diplomatic or military force to extend nation's power and enhance its economic interests by acquiring territory or colonies and justifying it with assumptions of racial superiority

White Lion

- Dutch ship that stopped at Jamestown and unloaded "20 negars" - the first enslaved Africans known to have reached America - began an inhumane slavery system that spurred economic growth, moral corruption

Fidel Castro

- Communist leader of Cuba who came to power in Cuba against the US supported dictator, Fulgencio Batista - embraced Soviet support and systematically imprisoned hundreds of opponents

Supreme Court

- Chief Justice John Marshall strengthened constitutional powers at expense of states's rights - ruled that Constitution could remain supreme law of the land only if the Court could review and overturn decisions of state courts at time

Joseph

- Indian tribe leader of Nez Perce - delivered surrender speech that highlighted weariness of Indians against American empire

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia

- Marshall court case that ruled the court lacked jurisdiction because Cherokees were "domestic dependent nation"

Toleration Act

- Maryland recognized Puritan victory in civil war and welcomed all Christians - promised to execute anyone who denied Jesus - Act was rescinded in 1654 and Catholics lost right to vote and worship

Southern Colonies

- Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia - profited off of plantations and slaves - sugarcane, tobacco, rice, timber

Battle of Trenton

- Washington led men across Delaware River to surprise attack Hessians - weather conditions were horrible - Patriots had an enormous victory and attacked again 4 days later - success gave colonists hope and more Patriots signed up to serve in army

Return to Normalcy

- campaign promise of Republican presidential candidate, Warren G. Hardin in 1920 - meant to contrast with Woodrow Wilson's progressivism and internationalism - reflected Harding's unexceptional background and limited abilities

Land Ordinance Act of 1784

- created by Thomas Jefferson - urged states to stop claiming Indian-held territory so that the area could be divided into 14 self-governing territories

Catharine Beecher

- published A Treatise on Domestic Economy which promoted the cult of domesticity - argued that young women should be trained in domestic arts no for the workplace

New York black codes

- put in place after rebellions - strictly regulated slave behavior

Jacobins

- radical French revolutionaries who promoted democracy, religious toleration, human rights, and socia racial and sexual equality

Montezuma II

- emperor of the Aztecs - thought Cortes was the god of the wind and sky, so he welcomed the Spaniards - held hostage by Cortes and forced to end sacrifices of slaves - labeled a traitor and was stoned to death

Fundamental Constitution of Carolina

- encouraged awarding large land grants to English men - granted religious toleration and gave Carolina greater degree of religious freedom

Daniel Boone

- famous for his exploration and settlement of modern day Kentucky - took on Shawnee Indians as he created trail through Cumberland Gap

Peter Stuyvesant

- governor of dutch - refused to let Spanish and slaves enter colony but Dutch officials disagreed and thought he was too stubborn

natural rights

- idea that people have rights to life, liberty, and property - people had right to overthrow monarch government if rights were violated

Little Oklahomas

- squatter camps made by homeless migrants on their way to California - often alongside highways or close to towns

Robert Morris

- superintendent of finance who developed program of taxation and debt management to make national government financially stable - established first Bank of North America

tariffs

- taxes on imported goods to raise revenue and to benefit American manufacturers by penalizing foreign competitors

Treaty of New Echota

- signed by minority faction of Cherokees led by Elias Boudinot in which they agreed to move to Indian Territory - treaty was rejected by 90% of Cherokee people but was readily accepted in U.S. Senate and enforced by U.S. army

Joseph Gilden

- developed first effective and inexpensive form of barbed-wire fencing

Sons of Liberty

- secret society of protesters against British policies

Rush-Bagot Treaty of 1817

- Britain and U.S. limited number of warships on Great Lakes

Webster-Ashburton Treaty

- British government sent Alexander Barring and Lord Ashburton to discuss with Webster - meeting produced treaty which provided joint naval patrols off Africa to police outlawed slave trade - resolved long standing dispute over northeastern US boundary with British Canada - did not return feed slaves and dispute was not settled until 1853 when England paid $110,000 to the slaves' former owners

Chesapeake Incident

- British warship HMS Leopard stopped U.S. vessel, Chesapeake, 8 miles off of Virginia and after being denied to search ship for English deserters, Leopard opened fire without warning and killed 3 Americans and wounded 18 - attack on the Chesapeake was act of war and national insult that caused public anger

South Carolina Exposition and Protest

- Calhoun's written opposition of the Tariff of 1828, in which he outlines idea to protect minority rights that agricultural and slave-holding South claimed

Impeachment

- Charges against a president of "high crimes and misdemeanors" approved by a majority of the House of Representatives

Schenck v. United States

- Charles T. Schenck, head of the Socialist party was convicted for circulating anti-war leaflets among members of the armed forces - Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote unanimous opinion that freedom of speech did not apply to words that represented "a clear and present danger to the safety of the country" - Supreme Court ruled that Schenck's conviction was plausible

Financial problems in America

- Confederation Congress could only ask states to provide funds for war; led to shortage in financing - allowed Patriots to directly take supplies from farmers with written promises of future payment - shortage of funding forced Congress to print more paper money, which took away the value

Great Sioux War

- Conflict between Sioux and Cheyenne Indians and federal troops over lands in the Dakotas in the mid-1870s. - largest military campaign since end of Civil War and lasted 15 months - after Sioux won a battle and killed Custer, government abandoned peace policy and dispatched more troops to plains

Land Act of 1796

- Congress doubled price of federal land to $2 per acre - half the townships would be sold in 640 acre sections making minimum cost $1,280 - federal land offices had sold fewer than 50,000 acres due to price - led to Land Act of 1800

Cuban War for Independence

- Cuba revolted against Spain by starting a guerrilla war - many Cubans died in Spanish detention camps

Battle of Little Bighorn (Custer's Last Stand)

- Custer's forces were destroyed because they were outnumbered - Indian army led by Crazy Horse - Custer died after getting shot - greatest Sioux victor but led to their demise because government now abandoned peace policy and turned to violence

Huey Long

- Democratic senator from Louisiana - criticized Roosevelt for not doing enough to help common people - claimed to be leading crusade to serve the poor and treated Louisiana as his personal empire - used bribery, intimidation, and blackmail to get his way - devised Share-the-Wealth Society plan to launch his presidential candidacy - wanted to raise taxes on wealthiest Americans and redistribute money to the people

Matthew Lyon

- Democratic-Republican from Vermont who accused Adams of "an unbounded thirst for ridiculous pomp, foolish adulation, and selfish avarice" - charged with defaming president and was convicted and sentenced to 4 months in prison - centered campaign on his prosecution, claiming Sedition Acts were unconstitutional, and was re-elected in jail

Election of 1852

- Democrats chose Franklin Pierce as presidential candidate and Whigs choose Winfield Scott - Whigs lost all support in Lower South because their greatest leaders, Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, died

election of 1936

- Democrats renominated Franklin Roosevelt and Republicans nominated Alfred M. Landon from Kansas, who had endorsed many New Deal programs - Landon was shot and killed, leaving Roosevelt - Roosevelt carried every state except Maine and Vermont - Democrats dominated new Congress

First New Deal

- Franklin D. Roosevelt's ambitious first-term cluster of economic and social programs designed to combat the Great Depression - during First Hundred Days from March 9 to June 16, Congress approved 15 major legislation proposed by Roosevelt

Napoleon Bonaparte

- French Consul who agreed to sell Louisiana Territory to U.S. due to loss of army and slave revolts

Black Tom Explosion

- German agents dynamited munitions depot in New York Harbor at Jersey City, where more than 1,000 tons of ammunition and explosives were stored - explosion killed 7 people, injured hundreds, blew out windows, and caused damages totaling half a billion dollars

Reports on Public Credit

- Hamilton's report that contained recommendations that would at once strengthen the country's credit, enable it to defer paying its debt, and entice wealthy investors to place their capital at its service - advocated importance of paying off national debt - created a lot of controversy

Alexander T. Stewart

- Irish immigrant who became owner of nation's largest department store and vast real estate holdings

Victor Herbert

- Irish immigrant who emerged as one of America's most revered composers

Twenty-First Amendment

- amendment that ended prohibition

Viet Cong

- communist guerrillas in Vietnam who launched attacks on the Diem government

Hartford Convention

- few weeks before Battle of New Orleans, New England Federalists met up to propse 7 constitutional amendments to limit Republican influence - delegates even discussed possibility of seceding from US if demands were dismissed - when messengers from convention reached Washington, capital was celebrating victory at New Orleans and convention was ignored

Quartering Act 1765

- forced colonists to feed and house British troops

Immigration Restriction League

- formed by nativists in New England - purpose was to save Anglo-Saxon race from being contaminated by alien immigrants - convinced Congress to ban illiterate immigrants

National Trades' Union

- formed to organize local trade unions into stronger national association

Republicans

- formed when Whigs who opposed slavery joined anti-slavery democrats and Free-Soilers - dedicated to exclusion of slavery in western territories - first party to take a stand against slavery

trust

- gives a corporation the legal power to manage another company

Andrew Jackson

- had a rough childhood that led to hatred for British and had quick temper - served one year in Congress and returned to Tennessee as judge - had many slaves and was a cruel master - became 7th president

Columbus

- headed towards open sea on September 6, 1492 on the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Nina - landed in the Bahamas and encountered the Tainos - viewed Indians as inferior people and servants - forced Indians to look for gold and most died from overwork or disease - was removed as governor due to his treatment to Indians

Constitutional Convention

- held at Independence hall for the "purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation" - Rhode Island refused to participate and some delegates quit and others were distracted by other priorities - only 39 out of 55 appointed delegates signed and 3 refused to sign - all delegates were white and members of political and economic elite

driver

- highest managerial position a slave could hope for - job was to supervise a small group of slaves, getting them up and organized each morning by sunrise, and directing their work and punishing them until dark - many drivers were murdered by slaves for being too cruel

Martin Delaney

- highest-ranking black officer in US Colored Troops - addressed hundreds of freed slaves at St. Helena Island - stressed abolition was less the result of Lincoln's leadership but former slaves and free blacks undermining the Confederacy - told slaves that their best hope was to become self-sustaining farmers

Alien

- immigrant who has not gained citizenship

Conestogas

- larger horse-drawn wagons that allowed farmers to transport products faster

Battle of Long Island and White Plains

- led by Washington and was huge failure - colonists were outnumbered and British cannonballs destroyed army - retreated back to Manhattan with boats and hidden with fog

Battle of Alamance

- led by William Tryon, royal governor of North Carolina - led militiamen to victory over 2,000 Regulators - forced Piedmont settlers to sign oath of allegiance to king

Francis Marion (Swamp Fox) & Thomas Sumter (Carolina Gamecock)

- led small bands of Patriots in South Carolina and engaged in guerrilla tactics with British armies - wore down British confidence and morale

William Levitt

- led suburban revolution - built Levittown, a planned community of 17,447 small two-bedroom homes to house lower middle-class people, which included schools, parks, swimming pools, shopping centers, and playing fields - his houses came in 3 styles: the Cape Cod, the Rancher, and the Colonial and all sold for the same low price of 6,990 with no down payment for veterans - believed he was enabling the American Dream - refused to allow minorities to buy his house because whites preferred not to live in mixed communities

Jacques Cartier

- led the first French effort at colonization in North America - discovered St. Lawrence River and made it into parts of Canada

Party Loyalty

- loyalty of people to a political party - most powerful weapon of Democrats

Immigration

- lure of cheap land, plentiful jobs, and promise of political and religious freedom attracted immigrants - ethnic prejudices, anti-Catholicism, and language barriers made immigration difficult

Johnson's Restoration Plan

- mandated appointment of a Unionist as provisional governor in each southern states - governors were to call a convention of men elected by "loyal" (not Confederate) voters - required each state to ratify Thirteenth Amendment - encouraged giving a few blacks voting rights

American Colonization Society (ACS)

- mission was to raise funds to send free blacks back to Africa - supporters included James Madison, James Monroe, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, John Marshall, and Daniel Webster - some supported movement because they opposed slavery others saw it as a way to get rid of free blacks - leaders of free black community opposed movement, saying that they had valid claim to US citizenship as anyone else - acquired land on Ivory Coast of West Africa and began relocation of free blacks - colonization movement slowed and only 15,000 blacks resettled in Africa

Fugitive Slave Act

- most controversial element of Compromise of 1850 - sought to recover slaves who had already escaped for months or years and considered themselves safe - enabled slave traders to kidnap free blacks in northern free states, claiming that they were runaway slaves - denied fugitives a jury trial and forced citizens to help locate and capture runaways - abolitionists were extremely against act and advocated violence

Freedmen's Conventions

- often led by ministers and met in state capitals "to impress upon the white men" - wanted to counter the whites-only state conventions - conventions forged resolutions that stressed desire for free public education, need for paying jobs and their own land, and full civil rights, especially voting rights

Sarah Haggar Osborne

- organized prayer meetings that included men and women, black and white - defied authority

Eighteenth Amendment

- outlawed alcoholic beverages - set off epidemic of lawbreaking throughout 1920s as many people defied the ban by smuggling, producing,and consuming liquor in violation of the law

Tariff Bill of 1816

- placed tax of 25 cents on every yard of imported cloth - major factors in promoting industrialization - enabled American manufacturers to dominate national marketplace

Neutrality Act of 1935

- prohibited American manufacturers from selling weapons to nations at war and banned citizens from traveling on ships owned by belligerents

American Dream

- promise of prosperity through land a better way of life

James Tallmadge Jr.

- proposed resolution to ban transport of slaves into Missouri

Tariff of 1832

- protective tax, pushed through Senate by John Quincy Adams, that was Jackson's attempt to reduce taxes on imports in an attempt to quell nullifcationists' fears - tariff disappointed southerners and caused resentment for federal government

Poor Richard's Almanack

- published by Benjamin Franklin - a collection of seasonal weather forecasts, puzzles, household tips, and witty sayings

Gentlemen's Agreement

- racial conflict on West Coast, especially in California soured relations with Japan - San Francisco's school board ordered students of Asian descent to attend separate public school from "Americans" - when Japanese government protested, Roosevelt convinced school board to change its policy only after making sure Japanese would stop encouraging unemployed Japanese "laborers" to go to America - agreement halted influx of Japanese immigrants to California

Massachusetts Bay Colony

- received charter from King Charles and led by John Winthrop - group of Calvinist Puritans who remained Anglicans and wanted to purify Church of England from within - churches governed by congregations - clear of Indians but disease killed many Puritans - power rested in royal charter and created General Court - all decisions had to be ratified by majority in each house

Juan de Oñate

- received land grant for El Norte and recruited colonists to move with him - established colony of New Mexico

The Great Awakening

- religious revival in the American colonies during which a number of new Protestant churches were established - fueled popular new denominations and new colleges - most controversial element was women who defied tradition and spoke in religious services

Issac Weld

- remarked Americans were "always on the lookout for something better or more profitable"

Pacific Railway Act (1862)

- secession of southern states permitted Republican led Congress to pass act - authorized construction along north-central route by 2 companies: Union Pacific Railroad and Central Pacific Railroad - laborious work: dynamite was required to build through the mountains; harsh weather led to frequent disruptions; and many workers were killed - competition between which company could build the most rails in the shortest time led both companies to cut corners; companies focused on building poor, cheap roads

yeoman farms

- small family farms where crops were grown mostly for household use

Nathaniel Hawthorne

- supreme writer of New England - haunted by knowledge of evil passed on by his Puritan forebears - earned fame with Twice-Told Tales - central themes examined sin and its consequences: pride and selfishness, secret guilt, and the impossibility of rooting sin our of the human soul

Holocaust

- systematic racist attempt by the Nazis to exterminate all Jews in Europe resulting in the murder of more than 6 million Jews and more than 5 million other "undesirables"

Clermont

- the first full-sized commercial steamboat

England society

- unlike European nations, had no heirarchies - monarchs shared power gentry, nobility and lesser aristocracy

Mass revivals

- were family-oriented and community-building events that bridged social, economic, political, and even racial divisions - were on the western frontier and served as backbone of religious life

Iroquoians

- were farmer/hunters who lived in clans - women held key leadership roles - often had war against Algonquians

Mary Henderson Eastman

- wrote Aunt Philis's Cabin/Southern life as it is - stressed the necessity of slavery in the southern sates and believed slaves were comfortable and content

maize

viewed as "gift of the gods" and was primary food

Seventeenth Amendment

- allowed Americans to vote directly for US senators

Asa Candler

- bought the Coca-Cola stock in 1888 and in 1892 formed the Coca-Cola factory

Matthew B. Ridgway

- replaced Douglas MacArthur as leader of UN forces

Thomas Jefferson

- led Republican party - became head of Department of State

mestizo

- the offspring of a Spaniard and a Native American .

Allied Powers

- France, Great Britain, Russia

Frances Trollope

- English traveler: Americans were "a busy, bustling, industrious population, hacking and hewing their way" westward

Zoot Suit Riots

- a series of riots in L.A. California during WW2 between white servicemen stationed in the city and Mexican youths because of the zoot suits they wore.

Celia

- 14 year old slave who was purchased by Robert Newsom, and was treated as his mistress - on June 23, 1855, Newsom raped Celia so she struck and killed him with a large stick then burned his body - she was charged with murder and could not testify at trial because she was a slave, so she was hanged

XYZ Affair

- 3 diplomats were sent to Paris to negotiate an end to French attacks on U.S. ships but France refused to negotiate unless U.S. paid a bribe of $250,000 and loaned France $12 million

Impressment of American sailors

- Britain believed any Americans born in England were still bound to King George III - British warships stopped and boarded American ships and kidnapped English-born sailors and forcing them into Royal Navy

British effect on economy

- Britain closed Caribbean island colonies to American commerce and hit New England shipowners and southern planters hard - U.S. vessels could not carry British goods

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty

- Britain granted US permission to build canal

Fort McHenry

- 1,000 Americans held fort on an island - British bombarded Fort Henry but Americans refused to surrender, causing British to sail away - sight of US flag still flying over fort at dawn inspired Francis Scott Key to write Star-Spangled Banner

Federal Farm Loan Act

- 12 Federal Land banks offered loans to farmers for 5-40 years at low interest rates

Mugwumps

- "gentlemen" reformers - fought patronage system and insisted government jobs be awarded on basis of merit - game up with "honest government" ideal - good-government movement expanded to address persistent urban issues such as crime, unequal access to electricity, clean waters and municipal sewers, mass transit, and garbage collection

rock'n'roll

- "jungle music" seen as evil/dangerous by adults - was seen as the main reason for rebellious teenagers - led by Elvis Presley - flourished in part because it was so controversial - brought together artists of varied races and backgrounds

John Wesley

- English clergyman and founder of Methodism

American Expeditionary Force

- about 2 million Americans went to France as members of this under General John J. Pershing

National Republicans

- split from Democratic-Republican party and agreed with economic nationalism

League of Gileadites

- armed band of African Americans formed by John Brown - attacked slave cathcers

Sir Walter Raleigh

- asked by Queen Elizabeth to colonize the North American coast - landed at Roanoke Island and named it Virginia

Charles Guiteau

- assassinated President James to make civil service reform a reality - shot Garfield because he believed that the Republican Party had not fulfilled its promise to give him a government job - claimed God had ordered him to kill the president - judge refused to believe he was insane and he was convicted of murder - was hanged

Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act

- at least 15% of federal jobs would now be filled based on competitive tests (the merit system) rather than political favoritism - federal employees running for office were prohibited from receiving political contributions from government workers - limited first step in cleaning up patronage system

Woodrow Wilson

- attacked dollar diplomacy as a from of economic imperialism - promised to treat Latin American nations with equality and honor but dispatched American military forces to Latin American more often than Taft and Roosevelt combined -argued that US must intervene to stabilize weak governments in Western Hemisphere to keep European nations from doing so - many disagreed with his reasoning

Edward Braddock

- attempted to capture Duquesne - hated Indians and refused to work with them - was wounded during Battle of Monongahela and died

Universalists

- attracted the working poor - proclaimed dignity and worth of all people - stressed that believers must liberate themselves from rule of priests and minsters and use their capacity to reason to explore mysteries of existence - hell did not exist and salvation was available to anyone through the sacrifice of Jesus - though God was too caring to damn people to hell

Herman Melville

- author of Moby-Dick - New Yorker who spent life at sea - explores unfathomable depths of darkness of human complexity through Moby-DIck

John Steinbeck

- author of The Grapes of Wrath which showed life during the Dust Bowl - traveled with Okies to chase false rumor that good jobs were in California - firsthand experience allowed him to create vivid tale of the Joad family's struggle for survival

Harriet Beecher Stowe

- author of Uncle Tom's Cabin - portrayed southern planters as capitalists who raped enslaved women, brutalized slaves, and lorded over their communities

Paxton Boys

- group of Scots-Irish settlers who massacred peaceful Indians to revenge for Pontiac's Rebellion

Reservationists

- group of Senators led by Henry Cabot Lodge - insisted upon limiting American participation in League of Nations in exchange for approving rest of treaty

Iroquois Confederation

- group of initial 5 Indian tribes across upper New York - characterized themselves as "the people of the longhouse" - included Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca tribes

Bolsheviks

- group of revolutionary Russian Communists who took control of Russia's government in November 1917 - promised to end Russia's involvement in war and to institute Communist system of government

Shay's Rebellion

- groups of angry farmers in western Massachusetts banded together to force judges and sheriffs to stop seizing crops and farms of those who could not pay taxes - Daniel Shay led army of farmers to federal arsenal, but were stopped by militiamen - rebels were forced to flee and some were hanged - federal government could not intervene and rebellion woke the nation and caused many to realize that a new constitution was needed

Bidlack Treaty

- guaranteed Colombia's control over Panama

John D. Rockefeller

- had a passion for systematic organization and was obsessed with precision, efficiency, tidiness, and money - established Standard Oil Company of Ohio - viewed his competitors as inefficient and distracting so he used various schemes to destroy his them - viewed competitions as a form of warfare - wanted to create a monopoly on oil refining business so he methodically reduced expenses by improving productivity, squeezing suppliers, and eliminating any waste - was a leading philanthropist and donated millions towards Baptist causes and University of Chicago

Hawaii

- had large population of American Christian missionaries and sugarcane - signed reciprocal trade agreement allowing its sugar to enter US free in exchange for a promise that none of its territory would be leased or granted to 3rd power - had a boom in sugar production due to cheap immigrant labor and American sugar planters who were economic elite - native population had been reduced to minority due to diseases - haoles overthrew monarchy which made the island nation ripe for annexation into US - President Cleveland tried to restore power back to Hawaiian queen after finding out that haoles had acted improperly and most native Hawaiians opposed annexation

penitentiary

- a place where the guilty pay for their crimes but also undergo rehabilitation

Kelley Act of 1925

- act that allowed federal government to subsidize airplane industry through airmail delivery contracts

Elias Boudinot

- signed Treaty of New Echota for Cherokees and was subsequently murdered

Yalta Declaration of Liberated Europe

- signed by Big Three and called for free and open election in the liberated nations of eastern Europe - Stalin would break his promise by banning election

Dependent Pension Act

- signed by Harrison - doubled federal pensions paid to veterans

1807 - Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves

- signed by Jefferson and outlawed importation of enslaved Africans into U.S., partly because southerners believed African-born slaves were more prone to revolt - South Carolina was only state that still permitted purchase of enslaved Africans - illegal global trafficking of African slaves continued

Emergency Relief Act

- signed by President Hoover which authorized Reconstruction Finance Corporation to make loans to states for infrastructure projects

Treaty of Fort Jackson

- signed by Upper Creek and Andrew Jackson - Upper Creek agreed to five up 2/3 of land

Declaration of Independence

- signed on July 4, 1776 - few delegates refused to sign while others signed with uncertainty - Written by Thomas Jefferson and edited by John Adams and Ben Franklin - listed all the acts the king and parliament has done to tyrannize colonies and justified their decision for independence

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

- slavery would be banned from region north of Ohio River - promised that Indian land "shall never be taken from them without their consent" - issued 3 step process for territory to become a state: 1) Congress would appoint territorial governor and officials to create legal code and administer justice 2) when population of adult males reached 5,000, they could elect territorial legislature 3) when a territory's population reached 60,000, adult white males could draft a constitution and apply to Congress for statehood

spirituals

- slaves created their own community through songs that contained double meanings and expressed longing to get to a "free country", called "Sweet Canaan" or the "promised land"

field hands

- slaves organized into work gangs supervised by a black driver or white overseer - worked from sunrise to sunset, six days a week - women worked in the fields all day and then did housework at night - Sundays was the only day off for the slaves - slaves were assigned daily quota of cotton to be picked, an amount that increased over the years

Germantown

- germans came to America to avoid religious wars - founded by Mennonites who were the first German migrants

Oh! Susanna

- written by Stephen Foster - became national favorite and catapulted Foster into popularity

Stephen A. Douglas

- Democratic senator from Illinois who convinced Congress to provide major land grant to support north-south rail line

San Patricios

- American soldiers who switched to Mexican army - mostly Irish and German Catholic immigrants - attracted by higher wages, land grants, and promised citizenship - switched because Catholicism

Cotton mather

- Boston puritan minister who strongly believed in witches and encouraged witch trials in salem

Great White Fleet

- 18 battleships, 8 armored cruisers, and assorted support ships went on a 14 month world tour - Roosevelt had entire US fleet of warships go from port to port to demonstrate America's power and tho show that the Pacific is "as much our home waters as the Atlantic"

Reconstruction era

- 1865-1877 - period of time recovering from Civil War - southern economy was ruined and there was hatred between South and North

Crazy Horse

- a chief of the Sioux who resisted the invasion of the Black Hills and joined Sitting Bull in the defeat of General Custer at Little Bighorn

William Jennings Bryan

- "Great Commoner" - believed in fundamentalism and turned it into a popular crusade - was a liberal progressive, pacifist Populist in politics, and a religious crusader who believed in literal Bible - supported new state laws banning teaching of evolution in public schools and condemned Darwin's theory of evolution

Henry Knox

- "Our present federal government is a name, a shadow, without power, or effect"

Declaration of Constitutional Principles

- "Southern Manifesto" - 101 members of Congress signed this declaration deploring that the Brown v. Board of Education was a clear abuse of judicial power and had created an "explosive and dangerous condition" in the South

Good Neighbor Policy

- Franklin D. Roosevelt policy which declared that no nation "has the right to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another"

Eastern Front

- line of fighting along Germany and Russian border

Foran Act of 1885

- penalized employers who imported immigrant workers

Hickory Clubs

- propaganda for Jackson's Presidency and campaigned for him

Emergency Banking Relief Act

- act which declared a four-day bank holiday to allow financial panic to subside - for the first time, all US banks closed their doors

The American Crisis

- written by Thomas Paine - boosted Patriot's spirits

Laissez-faire

- French phrase meaning "let them do as they will" - Congress and presidents opposed government regulation of business - business leaders spent time and money ensuring that government officials stayed out of their businesses

Huguenots

- French protestants forced to leave France for religious freedom

Richard Wright

- African American author who was son of Mississippi sharecroppers and deserted his family - was a Communist for a while which gave him an intellectual framework for his novels centered on quest for social justice - wrote Native Son about the forgotten Americans a the bottom of the heap

American Federation of Labor

- 1886; founded by Samuel Gompers - sought better wages, shorter hours, better working conditions, and skilled laborers - rose out of dissatisfaction with the Knights of Labor, rejected socialist and communist ideas - organized by craft unions - a federation of many separate national unions

Blitzkrieg

- "lightning war" - war strategy used by Germany centered on speed - columns of tanks, motorized artillery, and truck-borne infantry all supported by warplanes and paratroopers moved so fast that they stunned their opponents

Tenochtitlán

- "place of the stone cactus" - capital of Aztec Empire - ruled by emperor and divide into two social classes: noble warriors and priests vs. the free commoners - had legal systems and political structure

Austro-Hungarian Empire

- "powder keg of Europe" - unstable collection of 11 nationalities whose leaders were determined to suppress southern nations and their long-standing enemy, Serbia

Nathaniel Hawthorne

- "the town had sprung up like a mushroom" - said that locomotives, with their whistle, brought "the noisy world into the midst of our slumberous space"

Franklin Pierce

- 14th democratic president and won over Scott - eagerly promoted western expansion and conversion of more territories into states even if it meant adding slave states into Union - burdened by death of his son, and his wife alone, cursed politics and blamed Franklin for her troubles - intelligent man capable of speech making, but was blinded by desire to be liked and had raging ambition - was timid, indecisive leader who drank - sought and failed to acquire Cuba as slave state and was unable to unite warring factions in party

Haymarket Riot

- 1866, some 40,000 Chicago workers went on strike in support of an 8 hour workday - May 3, violent clashes between strikers and nonunion workers hired to replace striking workers erupted - police arrived and shot into the crowd, killing 2 strikers; killings infuriated leaders of anarchist movement so they organized a mass protest at Haymarket Square - rally was peaceful but the speeches were not; crowd began to break up when police arrived and ordered them to disperse when someone threw a bomb into the police and killed dozens - the police then fired into the fleeing crowd, causing more causalities - America's first terrorist bombing - led to Chicago banning all labor meetings and anarchists being viewed as terrorists; many anarchists leaders were persecuted

Daniel Morgan

- Continental Colonel of militia and took up hit andrun strategy - Master of guerilla warfare and given credit for winning the Battle of Cowpens

William McKinley

- 25th president responsible for Spanish-American War, Philippine-American War, the Annexation of Hawaii, and imperialism - tried to remain neutral during Cuban war for independence - was against trying to take away Philippine independence - was assassinated by an anarchist

Leon Czolgosz

- 28 year old unemployed anarchist who approached President McKinley with concealed gun and fired twice - one bullet was deflected by president's coat button and breastbone but the other tore through McKinley's abdomen and lodged in his back

John Adams

- 2nd president of the U.S. - had a bad temper and was a hard-working member of Continental Congress - feared democracy and despised equality

Thomas Jefferson

- 3rd president of US who represented Republicans and Virginians - believed in republican simplicity, and lived simple life - encouraged Americans to work together despite his attempts to rid of Federalist policies and programs - hypocritical; claimed slavery was a crime but bought and owned slaves and never freed them - first president to pursue role of party leader - first president to reduce national government's scope and power by cutting down federal budget

James Madison

- 4th president of US - lacked executive experience and overestimated America's diplomatic leverage and military strength - asked Congress to declare war on Britain and Ireland and closely passed

Confederate Constitution

- 50 representatives of seceded states met and wrote constitution for Confederate States of America - mandated that "institution of negro slavery, as it now exists in Confederate States, shall be recognized and protected" - elected Jefferson Davis as first president and Alexander Stephens as vice president

First Continental Congress

- 55 delegates from 12 colonies assembled in Philadelphia - served as provisional national government - adopted Suffolk Resolves, which urged Massachusetts to resist British with force - adopted Declaration of American Rights which stated Americans had rights as British citizens - adopted Continental Association of 1774 which recommended every colony to organize committees to enforce boycott

John Quincy Adams

- 6th president and was extremely intelligent but ineffective president - was strong willed and refused to compromise - feared that republicansim was turning into democracy and that government of the people was turning to government by the people - first State of the Union message envisioned federal government funding improvement projects but received negative reactions

Tariff of Abominations

- Adam's opponents used controversial tariff issue against him - bill placed taxes on imported raw materials that were produced in key states where Jackson needed support

Election Campaign of 1828

- Adams vs. Jackson: National Republicans vs. Jacksonian Democrats - both sides launched viscous personal attacks - Adams's supporters accused Jackson of adultery with his wife while Jackson's supporters called Adams a monarchists who never had a real job and accused him of allegedly delivering young girls to serve Czar Alexander I during his time as ambassador to Russia

Benjamin "Pap" Singleton

- African American who promoted black migration to the West - thought that African Americans could never gain equal treatment if they stayed in the former Confederacy - discovered that land in Kansas was cheap so he led party of 200 colonists to Kansas and bought 7,500 acres of land - over next several years, thousands of African Americans followed him to Kansas

Zora Neale Hurston

- African American writer and story teller - became first African American to enroll at Barnard College, the woman's college of Columbia University, where she majored in cultural anthropology - mastered art of survival by learning to reinvent herself as the need arose - outspokenness invited controversy when she claimed that she "did not belong to sobbing school of Negrohood who hold that nature somehow has given blacks low end of a deal" - became anthropologist, folklorist, and novelist,

Exodusters

- African Americans who moved from post reconstruction South to Kansas - in search of a haven from racism and poverty - so many African Americans migrated that white southerners closed access to Mississippi River and threatened to sink all boats due to loss of black laborers - many were unprepared for harsh living conditions and the homesteads were often not large enough to be self-sustaining so most black farmers were forced to hire themselves out to white ranchers - sudden influx of southern blacks taxed their resources and patience; there were not enough houses, stores, construction materials, government services, and water

African Slave Trade

- African people were taken as slaves to be sold in America - captives were brought to "slave forts: then shipped on European slave ships - once purchased, captives were branded and put in chains

Albert Parsons

- Alabama-born socialist-anarchist journalist and labor organizer - was convicted for the Haymarket Riot and executed - joined his brother's Confederate unit, the Lone Star Grays, and fought in Civil War but afterwards reversed himself and championed the Republican Party - published the militant newspaper, The Spectator, which earned him idolization from African Americans and death threats from white Texans - moved to Chicago due to threats and joined Knights of Labor and published The Alarm, a newspaper aimed at the working poor

Muckrakers

- America's first investigative journalists - aggressive reporting played crucial role in educating readers about political and corporate wrongdoing and revealed terrible living conditions of immigrants in NYC - given nickname from Theodore Roosevelt - gave journalism a new political role by uncovering political corruption and writing about social ills - became heart of progressivism

Dwight D. Eisenhower

- American General who began in North Africa and became the Supreme Commander of Allied Expeditionary Force - faced daunting task of planning Operation Overlord

Benedict Arnold

- American General who was labeled a traitor when he assisted the British in a failed attempt to take the American fort at West Point.

Loyalists

- American colonists who remained loyal to Britain and opposed the war for independence - were tarred and feathered and harassed by Patriots

houses

- colonists built cabins on stone or brick foundations and used mixture of mud, sand, straw, and wooden stakes to form sturdy walls

Texas War for Independence

- American emigrants kept coming to Mexico illegally and soon Americans outnumber Mexicans 10 to 1 - Mexican president imprisoned Stephen Austin for inciting rebellion,and Austin called for Texans to revolt - fighting erupted and volunteers from southern states rushed to assist Americans fight for independence

Horatio Gates

- American general whose troops defeated the British forces at Saratoga.

Frederick Jackson Turner

- American historian who wrote The Frontier Thesis; said that humanity would continue to progress as long as there was new land to move into. - experience of taming and settling frontier shaped national character in fundamental way however frontier was gone and so was first period of American history - theory ignored role of women, African Americans, Natives, Hispanics, and Asians who shaped western US - downplayed vivid evidence of greed, exploitation, and frequent failure in settling the West

Creole

- American ship that was transporting slaves when slaves revolted and sailed to Nassau in Bahamas - British authorities set slaves free resulting in most successful slave revolt - enrage southerners who wanted slaves returned but Britain refused - rather than risk losing a war with Britain, Tyler and Webster reluctantly agreed to British which enrages southerners even more

Battle of San Juan Hill

- American troops led by Roosevelt on horseback prepared to seize Kettle Hill - US troop were being shot by Spanish snipers while waiting to attack - Captain Bucky O'Neill tried to boost morale by strolling among men while smoking cigarette but was shot and killed - O'Neill's death prompted Roosevelt to charge at Spaniards - although shot in the arm, Roosevelt kept moving towards Spanish lines which made him a home-front legend - one of the most important battles of the Spanish-American War - Roosevelt and Rough Riders defeated Spain

Alvin York

- American war hero in WW1 - worshiped the Bible and was against WW1, and wrote on his registration that "I don't want to fight" - on Western Front, his platoon was told to assault three dozen German machine guns, and storm of bullets killed everyone except him and 7 other soldiers who were all trapped in "No Man's Land" - he began to return fire, so every time a German helmet popped up, he shot them with deadly accuracy - a German officer and 5 soldiers rose from a trench and charged at him, so he dropped his rifle and used a pistol to shoot down every one of them, which led others to surrender - killed 28 Germans, captured 35 machine guns, and captured 132 prisoners - word spread quickly of his achievement and Allied nations showered him with their highest military honors, and US awarded him Congressional Medal of Honor

U.S. battleship Maine

- American warship that docked in Havana, the Cuban capital, supposedly on courtesy call - New York Journal released text of a letter from Dupuy de Lome, Spanish ambassador to US, to friend in Havana calling McKinley weak and someone who tried to please the crowd - 6 days later, ship exploded and many sailors drowned as ship sank - sinking was ruled as an accident resulting from on-board coal explosion but those eager for war were convinced that Spanish had sunk the ship - Congress authorized $50 million to prepare for combat but McKinley resisted demands for war while negotiating with Spain

spectator sports

- Americans became fond of watching sports for entertainment - baseball became national pastime and attracted intense interest and huge crowds

Manifest Destiny

- Americans embraced new form of expansion and sought distant territories as colonies - became justification for imperialism and also took on racial meaning - Americans agreed that US needed to expand on behalf of Anglo-Saxon (Americans & British) because they were superior

Yellow Journalism

- Americans followed conflict between Cubans through the 2 largest newspapers: William Randolph Hearst's 'New York Journal', and Joseph Pulitzer's 'New York World' - both newspapers competed for readers and strove to outdo the other with sensational headlines about Spanish atrocities, real or invented - editors sent their best reporters to Cuba and encouraged them to distort, exaggerate, or even make up stories to attract more readers

Whig/Patriots

- Americans who opposed British policies - labeled king and government as corrupt and Tories

Lattimer Massacre

- August 1897, Lehigh and Wilkes-Barre Coal Company laid off coal workers from the Lattimer mine and those who remained had to accept wage cuts, longer workdays, increased cost for company-owned housing and goods from the company-owned store, and increasingly dangerous working conditions - working conditions provoked strike of 10,000 workers, most of which were immigrants from Europe - Hazleton Evening Standard spoke for the workers and issued a blunt warning - initially management agreed to raise wages only to renege on the offer; as strike continued, mine owners asked county sheriff to disperse workers - clash between sheriff and his men and strikers; sheriff fired into crowd of unarmed strikers, killing many - incident spread throughout the nation; thousands attended funeral of slain workers and newspapers expressed widespread disgust at the "butchery"

nouveau riche

- French for "newly rich" -indulged in "conspicuous consumption" and lived wasteful lifestyle - attended parties and lived in mansions

Tory

- colonists who sided with Britain - alternate to Loyalist

Sigmund Freud

- Austrian founder of modern psychoanalysis - explored human psyche and was determined to legitimize psychoanalysis as a professional field - was reckless and unethical scientist: he lied, manipulated or invented data, made unsubstantiated assertions, and stole ideas from others - relied upon questionable clinic cases to justify his insistence that mind is opaque, unpredictable, and mysterious - created new vocabulary for mapping inner lives of people, explaining complex dynamics of ego - dismissed all forms of traditional religion as irrational responses to infantile fears and father worship; believed religious faith was an illusion - published The Interpretation of Dreams, which stressed crucial role of the subconscious in shaping behavior and moods - claimed that dreams, slips of the tongue, and neurotic symptoms were the mind's most important activity, for they reveal what we truly desire - argued that women and men are endowed with equal sexual energy and that human behavior is driven by variety of intense sexual desires which cause unhappiness because people desire more pleasures than they can attain

divine right

- Belief that a rulers authority comes directly from god - James VI ruled England with divine right

George Cabot

- Boston Federalist; called unchecked democracy "the government of the worst" - predicted Jefferson would unleash "terrible evils of democracy"

Boston Massacre 1770

- Boston rowdies began throwing icicles and oyster shells at Hugh White and taunted him with threats - squad of redcoats arrived but a soldier was knocked down and he fired into crowd - 5 people died and 8 were wounded - 9 British soldiers arrested and 2 were convicted of manslaughter

Paul Revere

- Boston silversmith who rode into the countryside to spread news of British troop movement during Battle of Lexington and Concord

Boxer Rebellion

- Boxers who were angered by foreign involvement in China laid siege on foreign embassies in Peking (Beijing) - an expedition of British, German, Russian, Japanese, and American soldiers was organized to rescue international diplomats and their staffs - John Hay feared that intervention might become excuse for other nations to dismember China so he refined Open Door Policy: US sought solution to preserve Chinese territorial and administrative integrity as well as equal and impartial trade with all parts of Chinese Empire

Convention of 1818

- Britain and U.S. settled disputed northern boundary of Louisiana Purchase by extending it along 49th parallel westward - Oregon Country would be jointly occupied by British and Americans

Carolina Campaign

- Britain moved to Carolinas to gain support of loyalists - plan initially: defeated Patriot armies, seized port cities, but was defeated - 3 reasons for downfall of plan: loyalist strength was weaker than estimated, British attempt to unleash Indian attacks convinced undecided settlers to join Patriots,

Coercive Acts 1774 (Intolerable Acts)

- Britain's response to Boston Tea Party - closed Boston Harbor until city paid for lost tea and caused many to lose job and for cost of consumer goods to increase - Quartering Act that forced colonists to provide housing for British soldiers - The Administration of Justice Act transferred allowed any accused royal official to be tried in London instead of colony - The Massachusetts Government Act took away Americans' representative governments and gave royal governor authority to appoint colony's legislative council and banned town meetings

William Howe

- British Commanding General at the start of the American Revolution - had 32,000 troops around New York Harbor - lost chance to win war by not pursuing Americans into Pennsylvania and waiting out winter

Lord North

- British Prime Minister during revolution - passed the Coercive Acts and supported the king greatly to the extent that Britain was ruled only by the king

John Murray

- British clergyman who founded first Universalist church in Gloucester, Massachusetts

Henry Clinton

- British general who takes over after William Howe resigns - sent army to Carolinas to win over loyalists

virtual representation

- British governmental theory that Parliament spoke for all British subjects, including Americans, even if they had no representatives

Zimmerman Telegram

- British had intercepted coded telegram from Germany's foreign minister, Arthur Zimmermann, to German ambassador in Mexico City - telegram said that Germany would begin unrestricted submarine warfare and if war erupted in US, the ambassador was instructed to offer Mexican government an alliance - If US entered war in Europe, Mexican forces would invade US in exchange, Germany would return Mexico its lost territory - newspapers broke news of telegram and Mexican government immediately disavowed any support for Germans

Lusitania

- British luxury liner ship sunk by a German submarine off Irish coast - of the 1,198 people on board who died, 128 were Americans, 50 of which were infants - Roosevelt called for immediate declaration of War but Wilson urged patience - Wilson's "strict accountability" caused outrage from many who called him weak

Samuel Slater

- British mechanic that moved to America and invented first American machine for spinning cotton - known as "the Father of the Factory System" and started the idea of child labor in America's factories

Colonial Marines

- British offered freedom to slaves who fought with them and more than 3,000 slaves escaped - British organized 400 former slaves into all black military unit where recruits received uniforms, meals, and $6 a month

Banastre Tarleton

- British officer in charge of Cornwallis' cavalry and known for his ruthless and merciless attitude - lost to Morgan at Cowpens

Munich Pact

- British prime minister, Neville Chamberlain, and French prime minister, Edouard Daladier, joined Mussolini and Hitler in signing pact which transferred Sudetenland to Germany - Hitler wanted Sudetenland in western Czechoslovakia where more than 3 million ethnic Germans lived and threatened to ignite European war unless Sudetenland was ceded to Germany - Britain and France tried to "appease" Hitler, hoping if they agreed to his demands for Sudeten territory he would stop his aggressions

Effect of the War of 1812

- British stopped interfering with American shipping - U.S. could now develop new industries and exploit new markets around the globe - Americans experienced wave of patriotic excitement

postwar dumping

- British textile companies flooded U.S. with cheap cotton cloth in effort to regain customers - nearly killed American textile industry - delegation demanded federal tax on imported British cloth to make American textile mills more competitive

Burning of Washington

- British troops landed in Benedict, Maryland and marched into Washington, the capital - Madison fled in time and US troops were disintegrated so British troops marched unopposed and burned down government buildings - Americans lost confidence in government and military

Gaspee Incient

- British warship, HMS Gaspee, went aground to chase smugglers but hungry crew took local sheep, hogs, and chicken - crowd disguised as Indians boarded ship, shot captain, removed crew, and looted and burned the ship

John Brown's Raid on Harper's Ferry

- Brown raided federal arsenal in Virginia and cut telegraph lines and occupied arsenal - dispatched several men to kidnap prominent slave owners and sound alarm for local slaves to join rebellion - armed whites and US Marines arrived and ordered abolitionists to surrender - Brown and his accomplices were put on trial for treason, murder, and conspiring with Negroes - was sentenced to death and his death became martyr for abolitionist cause

Battle of Saratoga

- Burgoyne's army had run out of provisions and reached Saratoga, Albany - Patriots surrounded the British who tried to escape twice - October 17, Burgoyne surrenders and was the greatest lost for the British - was a turning point that convinced France to ally with America

Woodruff v. North Bloomfield Gravel Mining Company

- California farmers won their case against mining company when federal judge and former miner, Lorenzo Sawyer, outlawed the dumping of mining debris where it could reach farmland or navigable rivers - nation's first major environmental legal victory - as a result, industrial mining companies stopped using hydraulic mining, leaving abandoned equipment, ugly ravines, ditches, gullies, and discarded rocks and gravel

Charles E. Coughlin

- Canadian-born Roman Catholic "radio priest" who gave weekly broadcasts that criticized Roosevelt as "anti-God" and claimed that the New Deal was a Communist conspiracy - wanted to put all banks, utilities, oil companies, and "our God-given natural resources" under government control - was anti-Semitic and praised Adolf Hitler and the Nazis for killing Jews because they were all Communists

Counter Reformation

- Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation - reaffirmed basic Catholic beliefs and addressed concerns about corruption raised by Luther and Calvin

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

- Catholics killed 3,000 protestants and dumped their bodies into the Seine River

Trail of Tears

- Cherokee Indians were forced to leave their lands and traveled from North Carolina and Georgia - covered more than 800 miles and more than 4,000 Cherokees died of cold, disease, and lack of food during the 116-day journey

George Henry Hammond

- Chicago meat packer - shipped first refrigerated beef in air-cooled railroad car from Chicago to Boston

Black Hawk War

- Chief Black Hawk led 1,000 Sauks back across Mississippi river and into their homeland - Indiana and Illinois militia chased Sauk and Foz into Wisconsin Territory and caught them - soldiers misinterpreted Indians' effort to surrender and fighting occurred

Boxers

- Chinese nationalists (Fists of Righteous Harmony) who rebelled against foreign involvement in China especially Christian missionary efforts

King's college

- Columbia University which is an Anglican institution

National Road (Cumberland Road)

- Congress ordered 5% of money from land sales in Ohio go towards building national road - first interstate roadway financed by federal government - was open from Cumberland, Maryland to Wheeling, Virginia and by 1838, extended 600 miles westward to Vandalia, Illinois - quickened settlement of West and emergence of national market economy by reducing transportation costs, opening new markets, and stimulating growth of towns

Civil Service Reform

- Congress took action in the late 19th century to protect politicians and create standards for political service; including, a civil service test for those seeking a job in government - reform driven by Hayes, who appointed a committee to take charge

Noah Webster

- Connecticut Federalist who produced nation's first reliable dictionary of American English - complained that men who preached democracy never defined what they meant by the people, or democracy

Redeemers

- Conservative white Democrats - "saved" South from Republican control and "black rule" and used the race issue to excite white electorate and threaten black voters - used trickery to rig voting

Immigration

- Constitution did not say much about immigration and naturalization - prohibits future immigrants from becoming president

Presidency

- Constitutional conventions struggled over the president's powers - must be natural born citizen and at least 35 years old - president would serve 4 year terms, counterbalance Congress with power to veto acts - veto could be overridden by 2/3 vote in each house - nation's chief diplomat and commander in chief of armed forces - responsible for implementing laws made by Congress - could not declare war or make peace

Treaty of Paris 1783

- Continental Congress sent group of prominent Americans to Paris to discuss terms with Britain (John Adams, John Jay, Ben Franklin) - negotiation lasted for months and U.S. won independence and gained lots of land - Native Americans had no role in negotiations and treaty's unclear reference for America's northern and southern borders caused dispute - significance in that inexperienced Americans humbled British Empire - provided catalyst for creation of representative democracy

Battle of Yorktown

- Cornwallis and Arnold marched their armies to Yorktown - French and American made plans to meet and destroy British army at Yorktown - American victory depended on French fleet getting to Chesapeake Bay before British - French warships prevented British escape as U.S. army enclosed in on British troop - De Grasse attacked and force British navy to abandon Cornwallis' army - Cornwallis was too humiliated to be there for surrender

Border South

- Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri - slavery was slowly disappearing because cotton could not thrive there - by 1860, 90% of Delaware's black population and half of Maryland's were already free

Grover Cleveland

- Democrat who won presidency in 1884 - supported civil service reform, opposed expanding money supply, and preferred free trade rather than high tariffs - had two scandals: 1. the discovery that he had paid for a substitute to take his place in Union army during Civil War; 2. he had seduced attractive widow, Maria Halpin, and impregnated her, but he refused to marry her and discreetly provided financial support for the child - during first few months in office, he struggled to keep Democratic leaders from reviving patronage system - old-style Democrat who believed in minimal government activity; during his first term, he vetoed over 400 acts of Congress - urged Congress to adopt federal regulation of rates charged by interstate railroads

Affairs of Honor

- Duels to the death that were ultimate expressions of manly pride - protected reputation and fought at the first sign of disrespect - much more common in South than rest of nation

John Smith

- English explorer who founded and governed Jamestown - enforced strict military discipline and forced colonists to work allowed for Jamestown to barely survive

John Locke

- English philosopher who argued that people have natural rights(human rights, political liberty, religious toleration) - believed government should rest on consent of citizens and respect their natural rights

Treaty of Alliance

- February 6, 1778 - both parties agreed that both would fight until American independence - neither would make truce or peace with Britain without the other's consent - guaranteed the other's territory in America

Elanor Roosevelt

- First Lady who was one of the most influential leaders of the 20th century - engaged in public life and was widely beloved - was FDR's moral compass and prodded him about social-justice issues while steadfastly supporting his political ambitions and policies - was dedicated to humanitarian causes - had a political partnership with FDR after she found out he was having an affair - redefined role of First Lady and became outspoken and relentless social activist: she was first woman to address national political convention, write a nationally syndicated newspaper column, and hold press conferences

Tehran Conference

- First meeting of Winston Churchill, Franklin Roosevelt, and Josef Stalin - discussions focused on planned invasions of France and a simultaneous Russian offensive across eastern Europe - 3 leaders agreed to create an international organization, the United Nations, to maintain peace after the war

Florida Land Boom

- Florida became nation's fastest-growing state due to no income tax or inheritance tax and because of widespread ownership of automobiles which made it possible for masses of people to vacation - speculators and develops rushed to Florida and bought, cleared, tamed, subdivided, and sold pieces of land - hundreds of thousands of people, mostly northerners, invested in Florida real estate without even seeing the land, so fraudulent sales made people hesitant - too much growth too fast had caused unexpected problems: railroads struggling to supply food announced they were no longer transporting construction supplies, leaving homes unfinished

Women's Christian Temperance Union

- Frances Willard was president who pushed for legislation to ban alcohol (prohibition) and 8 hour work day, regulation of child labor, government-funded kindergartens, right to vote, and federal inspections of food industry - largest women's group in the nation advocating for temperance - some members were motivated by Protestant beliefs that consuming alcohol was a sin and others saw it as a threat to social progress and family stability by attacking drunkenness and closing saloons, reformers hoped to 1) improve family life by preventing domestic violence 2) reduce crime in the streets 3) remove worst tools of corruption, free beer on Election Day to buy votes among working class - promoted temperance and urged individuals to embrace abstinence and refuse to drink any alcoholic beverages

Age of Passion

- French Revolution caused many debates in America - Thomas Jefferson endorsed the Revolution while Hamilton saw it as vicious and sided with Britain - transformed first decade of American politics - tested America's ability to remain neutral in world affairs - Hamilton wanted to abandon alliance with France formed during American Revolution because it had been made with a monarchy while Jefferson wanted to use the alliance as a bargaining point with Britain

Marquis de Lafayette

- French aristocrat who volunteered to fight for Americans in exchange for a major general role - was responsible for slowing down Cornwallis - became Washington's most trusted aide - helped forge military alliance with France

Psychoanalysis

- Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts - the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to explain activities in the mind - became world's most celebrated and controversial technique for helping troubled people come to grips with the psychic demons haunting them by using "talk therapy": getting patients to tell their sotires

Lexington and Concord

- Gage led British troops to arrest rebel leaders and seize militia's weapons - Paul Revere and William Dawes were sent to warn rebel leaders - British were confronted with John Parker and minutemen but shot was fired and resulted in 8 dead - met more resistance on North Bridge and were ambushed many times before reaching Boston

U-boats

- German use of submarines that violated long-established wartime custom of stopping an enemy vessel and allowing passengers and crew to board lifeboats before sinking it - US called attacks a violation of neutral rights and Wilson warned that he would hold Germany accountable

Walter Rauschenbusch

- German-born Baptist minister who was greatest champion of social gospel - served immigrant tenement dwellers in Hell's Kitchen neighborhood of NY - published Christianity and the Social Crisis, where he argued that whoever separated religious and social life did not understand Jesus - believed that Christian emphasis on personal salvation must be linked with equally passionate commitment to social justice - believed churches must embrace social aims of Jesus since Christianity was intended to be a "revolutionary" faith - thought that religious life needed social gospel to revitalize it and make it socially relevant

Albert Einstein

- German-born scientist - greatest innovations emerged from his ability to picture strange effects of natural forces - "imagination is more important than knowledge" - published several papers that changed science forever but at the time defied common sense - 1st paper earned him Nobel Prize, which revealed that nothing could travel faster than light and that light was not simply a wave of continuous energy but a stream of tiny particles; this breakthrough would provide theoretical basis of quantum physics and lead to new electronic technologies - in 2nd research paper, he confirmed existence of molecules and atoms by showing how their random collisions explained jerky motions of minute particles of water - 3rd paper relativity overturned traditional notions of the universe: explained that no matter how fast one is moving toward or away from a source of light, the speed of that light beam will appear the same; space and time however will appear relative to speed of light - determined that space and time are not independent of one another

Battle of the Atlantic

- Germany's naval attempt to cut off British supply ships by using U-boats - when British and Americans cracked the German naval radio codes, it enabled Allied convoys to steer clear of U-boats or hunt them down with warplanes and anti-submarine weapons deployed on warships - new technology also helped: sonar and radar allowed Allied ships to track submarines - with the advancements, allied shipping losses fell significantly

Central Powers

- Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey (Ottoman Empire)

Irish Potato Famine

- Irish people began fleeing Ireland and into America due to loss of potatoes, their main harvest - 2 million left Ireland and immigrated to America for the jobs and political freedom

Axis Alliance

- Germany, Italy, Japan - claimed that all other nations would be forced to revolve around the "axis" created by those three dominant nations - Hitler and Mussolini vowed to create a "new order in Europe" while Japanese pursed their "divine right" to control east Asia

War Industries Board

- Government agency established to coordinate the purchase of war supplies during World War I - headed by Bernard Baruch - had unprecedented authority to ration raw materials, construct factories, and set prices

Fort Ticonderoga

- Green Mountain Boys and Massachusetts volunteers captured British fort in upstate New York - led by Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allen

Whiskey Rebellion

- Hamilton's tax on liquor angered farmers on western frontier and after repeal failed, many turned to violence - angry farmers rebelled in Pennsylvania and threatened to assault Pittsburgh - Supreme Court declared western Pennsylvania a state of rebellion and Washington sent militiamen into Pennsylvania - show of force led rebellions to subdue but rebels changed their tactics and voted for Republicans

Teapot Dome Affair

- Harding administration scandal in which Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall profited from secret leasing of government oil reserves in Wyoming to private oil companies - the Teapot Dome was a government-owned oil field in Wyoming managed by the Department of the Interior and Fall began selling the oil to close friends and took bribes

Battle of the Bulge

- Hitler's last-ditch effort to repel the invading Allied armies; he dispatched most of his army's reserves to the Ardennes Forest in Belgium where they launched a counterattack intended to split Allied advance and retake Belgian port of Antwerp - initially, the counterattack surprised Allied commanders and punched a hole in the Allied lines and drove British and US forces back 50 miles - heaviest fighting centered on Bastogne where US infantry and paratroopers were surrounded; they ran low on supplies and held off Germans as General George S. Patton's Third Army was coming to the rescue - after US planes were able to bring supplies to trapped units and Patton's relief force arrived, Bastogne was no longer surrounded - Germans repeatedly tried to take the town without success and wave after wave of American and British warplanes assaulted German forces - Hitler's gamble failed and Germans lost more than 100,000 men

Battle of San Jacinto

- Houston's army caught Santa Anna's napping and assaulted them and took them by surprise - battle lasted 18 minutes but Houston's troops spent 2 hours slaughtering fleeing Mexican soldiers

International Workers of the World

- IWW; created by prominent socialists and union leaders - giant global "revolutionary labor union" open to all workers skilled or unskilled, man or woman, child or adult, native or immigrant, black or white as long as they renounced capitalism - purpose was to provide an alternative to American Federation of Labor, which excluded unskilled workers - sought to destroy capitalist system and "take possession of the means of production" - drew intense criticism from society - split by sectarian disputes - captured public support by portraying strikes as a plea for basic human rights

Pontiac's Rebellion

- Indians were furious when France gave land to Britain - Indians fought back and took British forts around Great Lakes and Ohio Valley - also raided settlements, farms, and killed colonists

Michael Cudahy

- Irish immigrant who became head of Cudahy Packing Company and developed process for curing meats under refrigeration

Ghost Dance Movement

- Jack Wilson (Wovoka) went crazy and imagined being in the spirit world where he learned that a deliverer was coming to save the Indians and that the Indians must perform ceremonial dance wearing "ghost shirts" - movement spread rapidly and Sioux adopted practice with such passion that it alarmed white authorities - Indian Bureau banned ceremony, but Indians defied the order

Maysville Road Bill

- Jackson opposed the construction of this, calling it unconstitutional - set important precedent for limiting federal support of transportation improvements - Calhoun and Clay authorized use of federal money to build road along state of Kentucky from Maysville to Lexington

Jefferson Day Dinner

- Jackson toasted "Our Union- it must be preserved" and Calhoun responded with " the Union, next to our liberty the most dear!"

Bank War

- Jackson vs. Biddle - Jackson believed B.U.S. were to powerful and favored rich and powerful - revealed that Jackson never understood the national bank's role or policies and let personal animosity drive many of his policy decisions

William P. Anderson

- Jackson's ex-friend who public ally outlined Jackson's faults

McCulloch v. Maryland

- James McCulloch refused to pay state taxes on B.U.S. currency required by Maryland law - Supreme Court ruled that Congress had authority to charter B.U.S. and no states had right to tax national bank because it was unconstitutional - ruled that federal law was stronger than the state law

Taft-Katsura Agreement

- Japan's show of strength during Russo-Japanese War raised concern among US leaders about security of Philippines so Roosevelt sent William Howard Taft to meet with Japanese foreign minister - negotiated agreement in which US accepted Japanese control of Korea in exchange for Japan acknowledging US control of Philippines

Bataan Death March

- Japanese forced about 12,000 captured American troops along with 60,000 Filipinos to march 65 miles in 6 days up the Bataan peninsula - the prisoners were already underfed, ravaged by disease, and those who fell out of line were bayoneted or shot; others were beaten, stabbed, or shot for no reason - more than 10,000 prisoners died along the way

Hiroshima

- Japanese port city that was the first target of the newly developed atomic bomb on August 6, 1945. Most of the city was destroyed

Kamikaze

- Japanese suicide pilots who deliberately crashed their bomb-laden planes into American warships

Gould-Fisk Scheme

- Jay Gould and James Fisk plotted to manipulate the nation's gold market by purchasing massive quantities of gold to drive up its value - plan would be ruined if federal Treasury sold large amounts of gold, which would deflate the market value - Grant was seen in public in Gould and Fisk so people assumed that he supported the scheme and value of gold soared - Grant and Treasury secretary realized what was happening and began selling government gold which caused the price to plummet

Lewis and Clark Expedition

- Jefferson asked Congress for funding to scientific expedition of new Louisiana Territory and appointed Lewis and William Clark who led "Corps of Discovery" - built Fort Mandan and sent maps soil samples, and live specimens of prairie dos and magpies, unknown in U.S. - recruited a French fur trader and his Indian wife; provided crucial assistance as a guide, translator, and negotiator - traveled over 8,000 miles, discovered 180 plants and 125 animals, and recorded extensive journals describing experience - strenghtened Fefferson's support in South and West

Embargo Act

- Jefferson signed act that stopped all American exports and prohibited U.S. ships from sailing to foreign ports in hopes for France and Britain to stop violating American rights - embargo act devastated Republicans and economy and revived political appeal for Federalists - smuggling increased and Jefferson expanded federal power by blockading ports with warships and sending New York state militia to stop smuggling in Canada - public hatred for Jefferson grew

Presidential Campaign of 1804

- Jefferson was renominated and chose George Clinton as vice president candidate - federalist candidates did not have a chance due to Jefferson's outstanding accomplishments as president - Jefferson won by a landslide, 162 of 172 electoral votes - Jefferson's victory caused problems withing his party, and Republicans began dividing into different factions

Compromise of 1790

- Jefferson, Hamilton and Madison agreed to a compromise - capital would be moved from New York City to Philadelphia for 10 years - government bonds were a success and provided money to pay off war debts - Congress created excise taxes on particular products like carriages, sugar, and salt

Levi Strauss

- Jewish tailor who made work pants and founded Levi's company

Pottawatomie Massacre

- John Brown and his men dragged 5 men from their houses and hacked them to death with swords - Brown believed their actions were justified because "God is my judge" - launched guerrilla war in Kansas Territory

Peggy Eaton Affair

- John Eaton was one of Jackson's closest friend and had an affair with Peggy Eaton who was married - gossip aimed at John and Peggy, and others criticized their haste marriage and called Peggy a cheater - Jackson's cabinet and their wives snubbed Peggy and affair became distraction for presidency - Jackson blamed Henry Clay and John Calhoun for the affair and targeting Eaton

Ethiopian Regiment

- John Murray offered all slaves and indentured servants freedom if they joined loyalists cause - number of runaway slaves to join regiment increased

Transcontinental Treaty

- John Quincy Adams convinced Spanish to sign treaty in which U.S.would acquire all of Florida for $5 million i exchange for abandoning any claims on Texas - clarified western boundary separating Louisiana Territory from New Spain

professions

- created by dramatic social changes - new towns required new services

Annexation of California

- John Sloat commanded by Polk to use warships to gain control of port of San Francisco - US sailors went ashore at San Francisco and took down flag of Republic of California and raised American flag, claiming California as part of US - Sloat turned command over to Robert Stockton who sailed south to capture San Diego and Los Angeles - Stephen Kearny captured Santa Fe, capitol of New Mexico and join Sotckton's forces in California - John Fremont arrived and claimed Stockton was in charge, who then named Fremont governor of California - Kearny, who was ordered to be governor by Polk, arrested Fremont, who was found guilty

A City on a Hill

- John Winthrop wanted Massachusetts Bay Colony to be haven for Puritans and a model Christian community for the world to imitate

Andrew Johnson Impeachment

- Johnson fired Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton, without congressional approval, which violated the Tenure of Office Act - Republican-dominated House passed 9 articles of impeachment - Johnston was 1 vote short for impeachment and removal from office - Edmund Ross cast deciding vote in favor of acquittal which angered Radicals - effort to remove Johnson weakened public support for Congressional Reconstruction

D-Day

- June 6, 1944, the biggest invasion fleet in history arrived at Normandy coast: 160,000 Allied troops landed along a 50-mile stretch of heavily-fortified French coastline to fight Nazis on the beaches of Normandy, France

Taylorism

- Labor system based on detailed study of work tasks, championed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, intended to maximize efficiency and profits for employers - would improve productivity and profits and reduce likelihood of worker strikes - many workers resented this and saw it as a tool to make people work faster at monotonous tasks

Jim Crow Laws

- Laws designed to enforce segregation of blacks from whites - signs reading "whites only" or "colored only" above restrooms and water fountains emerged as hallmarks of the system - caused widespread violence

Civil Rights Cases (1883)

- Legalized segregation with regard to private property as long as segregated facilities were equal in quality; "separate but equal"

Election of 1872

- Liberal Republicans nominated Horace Greeley - Greenley's campaign caused outrage in most northerners but southern democrats liked Greeley's criticism of Reconstruction - Greenley did not win any northern state and Grant won presidency

Attack on Fort Sumter

- Lincoln ordered unarmed ships to resupply soldiers at Fort Sumter but Confederates began launching cannons at fort - Major Anderson (North) was forced to surrender and assault started Civil War

Republican Convention

- Lincoln won nomination over William Seward - reaffirmed party's opposition to extension of slavery and promoted national economic expansion: higher protective tariff, free farms on federal lands out West, and federally financed internal improvements, including transcontinental railroad - Lincoln won presidency but had close tie with Stephen Douglas

Lincoln's surrender

- Linton and Charles Cornwallis trapped entire American army on Charleston Peninsula - local slaveholders prevented Lincoln and Continental army from escaping - Lincoln surrendered and was greatest Patriot loss of war

Alexander Berkman

- Lithuanian anarchist who tried to assassinate Frick in his office by shooting him twice in the neck and stabbing him three times - after incident, sympathy for the strikers evaporated

Ernest Hemingway

- Lost Generation writer - wrote A Farewell to Arms, where a character declares that "abstract words such as glory, honor, courage...were obscene" in context of WW1's colossal casualties - sought to get the feeling of actual life, not just to depict life, but to actually make it alive in his stories

Slaughterhouse Cases

- Louisiana legislature had granted a single company a monopoly of the livestock slaughtering business and competing butchers sued the state, arguing that the monopoly violated their "privileges" as US citizens under the Fourteenth Amendment and deprived them of property without due process of law - court ruled that monopoly did not violate Fourteenth Amendment because its "privileges and immunities" clause applied only to US citizenship not state citizenship - states retained legal jurisdiction over their citizens and federal protection of civil rights did not extend to property rights of businesses

Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge

- Loyalists militia of paid Scottish Highlanders were ordered to head towards coast - Patriots lured Scots into charging towards bridge but Patriots had removed planking and greased rails of bridge - Patriot muskets and cannon fire destroyed British troops; battle was brief but significant - ended royal authority in North Carolina and boosted efforts to recruit soldiers - within two months, North Carolina became first colony to vote for independence

Invading Canada

- Madison approved three-pronged plan for invasion; one army would move north New York to capture Montreal, another army would advance to Upper Canada , third attack would come from west with force moving east into upper Canada - plan was a disaster due to underfunded and undermanned armies - losses in Canada caused public hope to falter

Second Bank of the United States

- Madison urged Congress to establish second national bank due to economy in ruins after first national bank expired - intended to support stable national currency, handle federal government funds without charge, and lend government up to $5 million upon demand - debate over bank helped set pattern of regional alignment for other economic issues - westerners opposed national bank because it catered to eastern customers - New England Federalists opposed bank out of fear of the growing financial power of Philadelphia

Congressional Reconstruction

- March 1867 - consisted of the Military Reconstruction Act, the Command of the Army Act, and the Tenure of Office Act

Anschluss

- March 1938, union of Austria and Germany - Nazi government in Austria began arresting or murdering opponents and imprisoning or exiling Jews

Commonwealth v. Hunt

- Massachusetts Supreme Court declared that trade union and demanding employers to hire only members of the union was legal - union workers could strike if employers hired laborers who refused to join union

Treaty of Cession

- May 2, 1803 when U.S. agreed to pay $15 million to France for entire Louisiana Territory - no precise extent of territory, and transfer of land was "noblest work" - Jefferson was concerned that purchase of territory was an unconstitutional exercise of executive power

Cuban Campaign

- McKinley called for volunteers and nearly 1 million men enlisted - some 10,000 recruits were northern African American soldiers who were determined to "show our loyalty to our land" - US Navy blockaded Spanish fleet inside Santiago harbor while some 17,000 American troops assembled at Tampa, Florida

Francisco "Pancho" Villa

- Mexican Revolutionary general and one of the most prominent figures of the Mexican Revolution - launched raids into Texas and New Mexico in deliberate attempt to trigger US intervention - his men attacked Columbus, New Mexico and burned the town and killed 17 Americans, causing Wilson to send John J. Pershing to Mexico to chase his army

Mexico

- Mexican creoles tried to liberate themselves again and Spanish officials withdrew and Mexico became independent republic - struggled to develop stable government and effective economy - Americans took advantage of nation's instability in northern provinces

Goliad Massacre

- Mexican force had captured 465 Texans and brought them to nearby town of Goliad - Santa Anna ordered captives killed as "pirates and outlaws" and more than 300 Texans were murdered - fueled burning desire for revenge among Texans

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

- Mexican president who led an army against Texas - suspended national congress and became dictator, calling himself "Napoleon of the West" - imprisoned Austin for inciting rebellion - ordered all Americans expelled, all Texans disarmed, and all rebels arrested and executed as "pirates" - lost war over Texas - was captured and bought his freedom by signing treaty recognizing independence of Republic of Texas

Mexican relations

- Mexicans had revolted against dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz but rebels debated on who would become the leader resulting in leader of the rebellion, Francisco Madero, and other political opponents murdered - Victoriano Huerta, chief of staff, assumed power and established a dictatorship - Wilson halted shipments of foreign weapons to Mexico while several rival revolutionary Mexican armies began trying to unseat Huerta - 9 American sailors were arrested in Tampico, Mexico while trying to buy supplies but Mexican officials quickly released them and apologized to US naval commander - US admiral demanded that Mexicans fire a 21 gun salute to American flag and after Mexicans refused, Wilson sent US troops to Veracruz where they occupied the city for 7 months until Huerta was overthrown by Venustiano Carranza

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

- Mexico transferred California, Nevada, Utah, Texas, and parts of Arizona to US

Mississippi Plan

- Mississippi's plan to strip blacks of their voting rights - series of amendments to state constitution; 9 more states would soon follow their example - 1890: instituted a residence requirement for voting (2 years in the state, one year in local election district); was aimed at African American tenant farmers who moved each year in search of better economic opportunities - disqualified black people from voting if they had committed certain crimes - in order to vote, people had to have paid all taxes on time including poll tax for voting - all voter shad to read and understand the Constitution

Modernity vs Tradition

- Modernists looked to the future for inspiration while Traditionalists looked at the past for guidance - Americans were shocked by modernists' forms of artistic expression and sexual liberation

Joseph Brant

- Mohawk cheif who led Iroquois attacks on frontier settlements in western New York

Nauvoo

- Mormon community built on the banks of the Mississippi River in Illinois in the - became the second largest city in Illinois - Joseph Smith was religious dictator

Naval Harassment

- Napoleon Bonaparte declared war on Great Britain and both sides were determined to stop Americans from trading with each other - British warships began seizing American merchant ships bound for France - created dilemma for American shippers; if they agreed to Britain to stop trading with French, French would seize U.S. vessels headed to Britain; if they agreed to France and stopped trading with Britain, Britain would seizing American ships headed towards France

Nat Turner's Rebellion

- Nat Turner, black overseer, believed God had instructed him to proclaim liberty for slaves so he planned a rebellion - small group of slaves methodically murdered whites at farmhouses, killing mostly women and children, while more slaves and freed blacks joined them - Federal troops and Virginia militiamen crushed revolt - rebellion terrified whites across South and Virginia legislature even debated on abolishing slavery - instead more laws were placed to restrict slaves

National American Woman Suffrage Association

- National Woman Suffrage Association united with American Woman Suffrage Association

Navajos

- Native American tribe that served in WWII as "code talkers" to encode and decipher messages using Indian languages unknown to the Germans and Japanese - the complex language made it impossible for Germans and Japanese to decode American messages

Eli Whitney

- New Englander who invented cotton gin

Dartmouth College v. Woodward

- New Hampshire legislature's effort to change Dartmouth college charter to stop college's trustees from electing their successors - state legislature created new board of trustees so original trustees sued and won an appeal at Supreme Court - john Marshall stated that college's original charter was a valid contract and state legislature had impaired, act forbidden by Constitution

Alice Paul

- New Jersey-born Quaker who was a social worker - joined National American Woman Suffrage Association and urged activists to use more aggressive tactics: picketing state legislatures, "punishing" politicians who failed to endorse suffrage, chaining themselves to public buildings, inciting police to arrest them, and launching hunger strikes - was expelled from NAWSA for being too militant so she formed Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage and started the Suffragist magazine - created National Woman's Party and urged followers ("Silent Sentinels") to picket White House until Wilson ordered for their arrest

Middle Colonies

- New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware - initially controlled by Netherlands - had the largest merchant fleet and controlled northern European commerce

James Monroe

- Republican president, slaveholding Virginia planter - dropped out of College of William and Marry to join army under Washington during Revolutionary war - financial Panic of 1819 and political conflict over statehood for Missouri ended Era of Good Feelings

Sacco and Vanzetti case

- Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were accused of stealing $16,000 from a shoe factory and killing the paymaster and a guard - occurred at height of Italian immigration and against backdrop of numerous terror attacks by anarchists - both were armed with pistols when arrested, both lied to the police, and both were identified by eyewitnesses - both were convicted and sentenced to death despite lack of clear evidence

Black Tuesday

- October 29, 1929 - worst day in stock market's history as prices went into free fall and brokers found themselves flooded with stocks they could not sell - on that day, investors lost $15 billion and by the end of the month they had lost $50 billion - investors who had borrowed heavily to buy stocks were forced to sell their holdings at huge losses so they could pay their debts

Compromise of 1877

- Ohio Republicans and southern Democrats had struck private bargain in Washington, DC - Republicans promised that if Hayes won presidency, he would remove the last federal troops from the South

Andrew Jackson

- Old Hickory; offered toast at Jefferson Day dinner: "Our Union- it must be preserved!" - short-tempered and proud; if honor or authority was challenged he never hesitated to fight - was not in good health when he became president but remained focused and sure of himself - was widely loved or despised and shaped Democratic party and modern presidency - championed "common man" and simple pleasures - wanted to expand powers of presidency at expense of legislative and judicial branch

Oregon Country

- Oregon, Idaho, Washington, British Columbia, and parts of Montana and Wyoming - region claimed by Britain and US but settled by neither

Seminoles

- Osceola led Seminoles and resisted federal removal policy for eight years through guerrilla war - was longest, most costly, and deadliest war fought by Native Americans - Seminole resistance stopped after 1837 when Osceola was captured under flag of truce and imprisoned

Declatory Act 1766

- Parliament had lower to govern colonies in all cases

Boston Tea Party 1773

- Patriots dressed as Indians boarded 3 British tea ships and dumped 342 chests of tea into ocean - huge lost to Britain and tea company - pushed British officials to breaking point and a forceful response was required

Albert Gallatin

- Pennsylvanian Republican; Secretary of Treasury

Panic of 1893

- Philadelphia and Reading Railroad declared bankruptcy which caused depression - overextended railroads collapsed, taking down man banks with them - European investors began withdrawing their funds from America which left unskilled urban workers jobless while others had their wages cut - President Cleveland convinced Congress to return nation's money supply to a gold standard by repealing Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 which made the depression worse - investors rushed to exchange their silver dollars for gold, further constricting money supply - triggered wave of labor unrest - President Cleveland and Democrats were blamed for economic crisis

Colonel Paul Tibbets

- Pilot of Enola Gay - on August 6, 1945, dropped the atomic bomb "Little Boy" on Hiroshima

Republican ideology

- Political belief in which property-holding white men governed themselves by electing representatives, or legislators, to make key decisions on the citizens' behalf

Independent Treasury Act

- Polk persuaded Congress to restore act - deposit offices received all federal government funds - system was intended to replace second B.U.S. - entrusted federal government rather than state banks with exclusive management of government funds - required disbursements be made in gold or silver or paper currency backed by gold or silver

Mexican-American War

- Polk wanted small war that would require treaty for peace but not large enough to create military hero - Polk ordered thousands of US troops under Zachary Taylor to move towards Rio Grande - Mexico claimed Nueces River as boarder between US and declared that US troops invaded Mexico - Mexican troops attacked US troops which justified Congress declaring war on Mexico - some were skeptical of Polk's scheme - many southerners volunteered for war -fought on 4 fronts

Court Packing Plan

- President FDR's failed 1937 attempt to increase the number of US Supreme Court Justices from 9 to 15 in order to save his 2nd New Deal programs from constitutional challenges - backfired and ignited profound debate among three branches of government - worst political blunder and greatest humiliation of Roosevelt's career; fractured Democratic party

Executive Order 9066

- President Roosevelt initiated the incarceration of Japanese Americans, 70% of which were already US citizens - there were no trials, no "due process", no concerns about violations of civil rights - Roosevelt called the program a "military necessity"

U.S.S. Princeton

- President Tyler and others boarded warship for excursion on Potomac River - one cannon, "the Peacemaker", exploded and killed 8 people including secretary of state and secretary of navy - Tyler seized opportunity to reorganize his cabinet and appointed John C. Calhoun as secretary of state because he wanted him to complete annexation of Texas as a slave state

James Gillespie Blaine

- Republican presidential nominee in 1884 - faithful to Republican party; gave powerful speeches and knew how to make backroom deals - was caught corrupting election process when newspapers uncovered the Mulligan letters - secretly sold his votes in favor of railroad corporation

Franklin D. Roosevelt

- President of the US during Great Depression and World War II - wanted to save capitalism by transforming it from within - believed basic problem of 20th century life was excessive power of large corporations and only the federal government and an active president could regulate corporate capitalism - enacted dozens of measures to relieve human suffering and promote economic recovery - was willing to experiment with using government power and resources to address the Depression - contracted polio which left him disabled - had many virtues and was determined to help those who could not help themselves - assembled a "brain trust" of specialists as his advisers and they settled on a three-pronged strategy to revive economy: 1) they would tackled banking crisis and provide short-term emergency relief for the jobless 2) the New Dealers would encourage agreements between management and unions designed to keep businesses from failing 3) raise depressed commodity prices by paying farmers "subsidies" to reduce sizes of their crops and herds so that prices would rise

Winston Churchill

- Prime Minister of Great Britain during WWII - became symbol of Britain's determination to stop Hitler - focused on getting US to enter WWII

Baron Friedrich von Steuben

- Prussian soldier who helped train American forces at Valley Forge in the American Revolutionary War - was Washington's chief of staff in final years of war

John Winthrop

- Puritan governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony - took charter to colony, transferring government authority from London to Massachusetts - landed in Salem and named it Boston - hated democracy and believed government should enforce religious devotion - only tolerated freedom to do what was "good, just, honest" - suppressed other religious views in New England like Quakers, Catholics, Anglicans

Anne Hutchinson

- Puritan woman who spoke out against mandatory church attendance, absolute power of ministers - claimed to know who were saved and who were damned - Puritans authorities saw her as a treat and tried her for heresy - convicted herself by claiming direct revelations from God - was banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony and moved to Rhode Island - was murdered along with her kids by Indians

William Penn

- Quaker that founded Pennsylvania - land for different religions to live in harmony; even got along with Native Americans - wanted government to operate with Quaker principles

Aaron Burr

- Republican Vice President of Jefferson - was elected by Federalists to run as New York governor, but lost due to Hamilton's slander - challenged Hamilton to duel and killed Hamilton - career never recovered and fled to South after being charged with murder

Alfred M. Landon

- Republican nominee for presidential election in 1936 - was from Kansas and endorsed many New Deal programs - hoped that followers of Huey Long, Charles Coughlin, Francis Townsend, and other Roosevelt critics would combine to draw enough Democratic votes away from Roosevelt - was assassinated before he could win election

election of 1868

- Republicans nominated General Grant for the presidency and Democrats nominated Horatio Seymour - Grant won the election of 1868: won all but 8 states and swept electoral college

Warren G. Harding

- Republican who won presidential election of 1920 - promised to return America to "normalcy"

Crime of '73

- Republican-controlled Congress declared that only gold, not silver, could be used for coins - occurred just when silver mines in western states had begun to increase their production and deposits of gold were drying up

Election of 1884

- Republicans abandoned Arthur and nominated James Gillespie Blaine from Maine - rise of Mugwumps and national concerns over political corruption prompted Democrats to nominate Grover Cleveland from New York - both nominees had scandals which led to nasty election - Blaine lost election to two events in New York: 1. he was seen at a private dinner with 200 of the nation's wealthiest business leaders where he asked them to finance his campaign; 2. a Protestant minister made an insult to Catholics but Blaine let it slide which cause his Irish American and Catholic support to crumble

Election of 1920

- Republicans choose Warren G. Harding as their nominee and Democrats choose James Cox as president and Franklin Delano Roosevelt as vice president - first presidential election where women voted in all 48 states - Cox's campaign was disorganized and underfunded and Democrats struggled against conservative postwar mood - Harding won big and Republicans increased their majority in both houses of Congress

Election of 1896

- Republicans nominate William McKinley and Democrats nominate William Jennings Bryan - Gold Democrats refuses to support Bryan so they ran their own candidate, splitting the democratic party - most dramatic election in history because of striking contrast between candidates and terrible economic depression which made the stakes very high

Election of 1888

- Republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison, who was important because he would do as he was told - Democratic Grover Cleveland reran for second term - election was centered around tariff reform and Republicans had huge advantage in campaign funding, as business executives contributed generously to their campaign - close outcome: Cleveland won popular vote by thin margins but Harrison carried crucial New York State and electoral college 223 to 168 - allowed Republicans to gain control of House and Senate

Election of 1924

- Republicans nominated Calvin Coolidge while Democratic party had deep division between urban and rural America - Democratic contenders, William McAdoo, was endorsed by the Ku Klux Klan while Al Smith, an Irish Catholic led the party's anti-Klan, anti-Prohibition wing - Democratic party nominated compromise candidate, John W. Davis, a little-known lawyer - rural Populists and urban progressives organized the Progressive party and nominated Robert M. La Follette - Coolidge won election

Air Commerce Act of 1926

- provided federal funds for advancement of air transportation and navigation, including the construction of airports

Election of 1928

- Republicans nominated Herbert Hoover because Coolidge would not rerun; Democrats nominated Alfred E. Smith - candidates presented sharply different images and Smith had constant criticism - Hoover won by a landslide and Republicans kept control of both houses in Congress

Election of 1932

- Republicans nominated Herbert Hoover for a second term and Democrats nominated Franklin Delano Roosevelt - Roosevelt won presidency and broke precedent by traveling to Chicago to accept nomination in person - throughout Roosevelt's campaign, he stressed that struggling economy required new ideas and aggressive action and promised them a "New Deal"

Election of 1856

- Republicans nominated John Fremont and Democrats nominated James Buchanan - Republicans had very few southern supporters

Election of 1876

- Republicans nominated Rutherford Hayes and Democrats nominated Samuel Tilden - early election pointed to victory for Tilden and he needed 1 more electoral vote to win - election hinged on 19 disputed electoral votes; Democrats needed only 1 of the challenged cotes while Republicans needed all 19 - all 3 states were governed by Republicans who appointed election boards and reported narrow victories for Hayes - Democrats challenged results and Congress appointed an electoral commission to settle dispute - Hayes won by a narrow margin

Election of 1904

- Republicans nominated Theodore Roosevelt for reelection and Democrats nominated Alton B. Parker, who was virtually unknown and dull - Democrats suffered worst election defeat in 32 years, with Roosevelt winning the electoral vote 336 to 140

election of 1944

- Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey and Democrats renominated Franklin Roosevelt - Roosevelt was seriously ill and would not survive another 4 years in office but he won anyways with 25.6 million to 22 million

election of 1940

- Republicans nominated Wendell L. Willkie of Indiana, a plainspoken corporate lawyer - Democrats renominated Roosevelt - Roosevelt won his third term by a decisive margin of 27 million votes to Willkie's 22 million

Ballinger-Pinchot Controversy

- Richard A. Ballinger, secretary of the interior, allowed commercial development on the millions of acres of federal lands that Roosevelt had ordered protected - Giffor Pinchot complained about the "giveaway" but president Taft refused to intervene - when Pinchot made his opposition public, Taft fired him

New Era

- Roaring Twenties: decade between end of the Great War and onset of Great Depression - period of rapid urbanization, technological innovation, widespread prosperity, social rebelliousness, cultural upheaval, and political conservationism - for the first time, more than half the population resided in cities - economic growth soared to record levels: jobs were plentiful, nation's total wealth almost doubled, and wage workers enjoyed record-breaking increases in average income; US had highest standard of living in the world - cultural conflicts resulted from tensions between rural and urban ways of life - scope and pace of societal changes changed as national entertainment culture emerged - radio networks, motion pictures, mass ownership of automobiles, national chain stores, soaring popularity of spectator sports, and rise of mass marketing and advertising transformed America into world's leading consumer society - culture of mass consumption ignited growth of middle-class urban life - progressive movement weakened; demand for honest, efficient government and public services remain strong, but impulse for social reform shifted into drive for moral righteousness and social conformity

Taft-Roosevelt Feud

- Roosevelt believed Taft had failed to carry out his work by filling the cabinet with corporate lawyers and firing Gifford Pinchot - Roosevelt's rebuke of Taft was somewhat undeserved because Taft had attempted tariff reform, which Roosevelt never dared, and Taft's administration actually preserved more land than Roosevelt's and filed more anti-trust suits - Roosevelt and Taft challenged each other for Republican presidential nomination of 1912 through party primaries - Roosevelt won all but 2 primaries but his popularity was no match for Taft's authority as party leader so Taft won presidential nomination

Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty

- Roosevelt had aided Panamanian rebels in their fight for independence and signed a treaty with the newly independent nation that extended the Canal Zone from 6 to 10 miles wide - US had to pay $10 million down payment and $250,000 yearly

Square Deal

- Roosevelt's policy of the Three C's: greater government control of corporations, enhanced conservation of natural resources, and new regulations to protect consumers against contaminated food and medication - was for "every man, great or small, rich or poor"

New Nationalism

- Roosevelt's progressive proposal - promised to "change the rules" to force large corporations to promote social welfare and serve needs of working people - called for tighter federal regulation of "arrogant" corporations that tried to "control and corrupt" politics; for federal income tax and for federal laws regulating child labor

Lord Dunmore

- Royal governor of Virginia who issued a proclamation promising freedom for any enslaved black in Virginia who joined the British army

Samuel Parris

- Salem's minister who called for the condemnation of witches led by his daughter Betty's possession - punished Tituba into confessing in witchcraft.

Stephen Douglas

- Senator of Illinois - Constitution was "made by white men, for the benefit of white men and their posterity forever"

Battle of the Alamo

- Santa Anna's army assaulted group of fewer than 200 Texans and volunteers from the south, led by James Bowie, William Travis, and David Crockett - Bowie had fallen sick and turned command to Travis who refused to surrender - fighting ensued and became war for Texan independence - Santa Anna's men finally broke through northern wall and killed most of the Texans - those who were captured were hacked to death with swords - costly victory as more than 600 Mexicans died and battle became rallying cry for vengeful Texans

Grimke Sisters

- Sarah and Angelina Grimke - grew up in South Carolina and around slaves but both sisters joined abolitionist movement - spoke to crowds of men and women which caused criticism from ministers in anti-slavery movement - fought to free the slaves and to free women from male domination - Sarah: "Men and women are created equal! Whatever is right for man to do is right for woman."

Dred Scott v. Sanford

- Scott, slave born in Virginia, was taken Illinois and Wisconsin Territory - Scott filed suit in Missouri claiming his residence in Illinois and Wisconsin territory made him free because slavery was outlawed in those areas - Missouri jury decided in his favor but state Supreme Court ruled against him, so case was appealed to U.S. Supreme Court - Chief Justice Roger Taney stated that Scott was not a US citizen and when Constitution was written, African Americans were implicitly excluded from citizenship - Taney argued that Missouri Compromise had deprived citizens of property by prohibiting slavery, thus declaring it unconstitutional - decision challenged concept of popular sovereignty because if Congress could not exclude slavery from a territory then neither could territorial government - opened all of West and North to slavery

James Oliver

- Scottish immigrant - invented chilled iron "sodbuster" plow

Patrick Ferguson

- Scottish officer in the British Army who was killed leading his men at the Battle of King's Mountain.

Henry Clay

- Secretary of State under John Quincy Adams - was Jackson's opponent for presidential election in 1832

William Jennings Bryan

- Secretary of State under Wilson - resigned in protest of Wilson's pro-British stance

Andrew Mellon

- Secretary of Treasury under President Harding who instituted a Republican policy of reduced government spending, lower taxes to the wealthy and higher tariffs - created Mellon Plan - proposed lowering tax rate because the high rates were pushing wealthy Americans to avoid paying taxes by investing their money in foreign countries or tax-free government bonds - helped Harding reduce federal budget which lowered national debt and the economy soared

Osceola

- Seminole leader of resistance to federal removal policy

Henry Clay

- Senator from Kentucky - developed the American System as well as negotiated numerous compromises

the Blitz

- September and October of 1940 - Hitler ordered his bombers to target civilians and cities (especially London) in night raids designed to terrorize civilians and force a surrender - German bombers destroyed a million homes and killed 40,000 civilians - enraged rather than demoralized the British

Sacagawea

- Shoshone woman who helped Corps of Discovery on their expedition as a guide, translator, and negotiator

Roanoke Island

- Sir Walter Raleigh's failed colonial settlement off the coast of North Carolina - John White returned to England for supplies, but when he came back, the colony was abandoned and pillaged - only the word "Croatoan" was carved at the entrance of the village and the colonists were never found

"No taxation w/o representation"

- Slogan of the Revolution - colonies hated that they had no representative in Parliament

John C. Calhoun

- South Carolina congressman who wanted to "bind the Republic together with a perfect system of roads and canals"; "let us conquer space" - sparked fierce debate over how to fund such improvements(federal government, individual states, or private corporations) - debates over interpretation of Constitution and federal government's role

Elizabeth Pinckney

- South Carolina plantation owner who took after her father's plantations - discovered indigo, crop that produced dye, and made a fortune - married Charles Pinckney and became house wife but after husband's death she took charge of business - symbolized possibility of women breaking out of traditional housewifery and having a leadership role

George Howe

- South Carolina religion professor who complimented southern women for understanding their subordinate place - women are "born to lean upon others, rather than to stand independently by herself, and to confide in an arm stronger than hers" - "women had no desire for 'power' outside the house" and those who demanded equality were "unsexing" themselves and were "despised and detested"

James Henry Hammond

- South Carolina's former governor who owned cotton plantation and slaves - gave a speech to Senate; "Cotton is King" - railed to acknowledge southern economy's dependence on European demand for raw cotton - created "system of roguery" among his slaves and raped and impregnated many young girls

Battle of Moscow

- Soviet defenders executed 8,000 civilians charged with "cowardice" for not fighting - Stalin also ordered that Soviet soldiers who surrendered be classified as traitors

Election of 1840

- Whigs nominated William Henry Harrison over Henry Clay - Harrison won over Buren by an incredible amount - more than 80% of white American men voted, the highest turnout before

Louisiana Purchase

- Spain had been forced to transfer Louisiana province back to France which threaten future of U.S. - Jefferson sent Robert Livingston to Paris as ambassador to acquire New Orleans and West Florida - Napoleon offered to sell all of Louisiana Territory due to French army being decimated by epidemics and massive slave revolt - New England Federalists were against purchase and argued it was a waste of money; feared it would weaken Federalist party - most significant event of Jefferson's presidency and important development that spurred western exploration

First Seminole War

- Spain was unable to enforce obligations under Pinckney's Treaty of 1795 to keep Indians from raiding south Georgia so John Calhoun, Secretary of War ordered Andre Jackson to lead army to Florida - Calhoun ordered Jackson to pursue Indians into Florida but not to attack Spanish forts - Jackson disobeyed orders and assaulted Spanish fort at St. Marks and destroyed several Seminole villages - Jackson's soldiers also captured 2 British soldiers accused of provoking Indian attacks who were executed under Jackson's order - Jackson captured Pensacola, Spanish capital of West Florida, and established provisional government - Jackson's actions excited expansionists, but Spain demanded return of its territory and that Jackson be punished for violating international law

Hernando de Soto

- Spanish Conquistador looking for gold but found the Mississippi River

conquistadores

- Spanish conquerors or soldiers

Charles A. Lindbergh

- St. Louis based pilot also known as "Lone Eagle" who was the first person to fly a solo transatlantic flight, traveling from New York City to Paris - won a $25,000 prize - wanted to reduce weight of his plane to accommodate weight of fuel, so he used a wicker basket for a seat, removed the radio, and modified tail section to make plane hard to control so he didn't fall asleep

election of 1880

- Stalwarts and Half-Breeds nominated James A. Garfield - Republicans nominated Chester A. Arthur in order to please Stalwarts and to win crucial swing state of New York - Democrats nominated Winfield Scott Hancock to help deflect the Republicans' attack on Democrats as the party of the Confederacy

Bloodied Sumner

- Sumner, a passionate abolitionist, delivered speech insulting slave owners and directly attacked Andrew Butler, senator from South Carolina - Brooks, Butler's cousin, was enraged by Sumner's speech and accused Sumner of slandering Butler and South Carolina - Brooks beated Sumner's head with his cane, and Sumner almost died - created martyr, "Bloodied Sumner", for anti-slavery cause and drove more Northerners to Republican party

John Marshall Harlan

- Supreme Court Justice who dissented with Court's decision that Civil Rights Act of 1875 and 13th and 14th amendment were unconstitutional - Kentuckian who had owned slaves but served in Union army; had opposed emancipation of slaves and 14th and 15th amendment, but violence of KKK convinced him to rethink - argued that 13th and 14th amendments and Civil Rights Act of 1875 were designed to ensure African Americans same rights as white citizens - insisted that federal government had authority and responsibility to protect citizens from any actions that deprived them of their civil rights

Lochner v. New York

- Supreme Court case that declared that a state law limiting bakers to a 60 hour workweek was unconstitutional because it violated workers' rights to accept any job they wanted

Schechter Poultry Corporation v. United States

- Supreme Court case that killed National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) by a unanimous vote - justices ruled that Congress had given too much authority to the president when National Recovery Administration brought business and labor leaders together to create "codes of fair competition" which violated federal anti-trust laws

Powell v. Alabama

- Supreme Court case which overturned the original convictions of the Scottosboro Boys and ordered new trials because the judge had not ensured that the accused were provided adequate defense attorneys

United States v. Butler

- Supreme Court declared that Agricultural Adjustment Act's tax on "middle men", the companies that processed food crops and warehoused commodities, was unconstitutional

Worcester v. Georgia

- Supreme Court ruled in favor of Cherokees when Georgia officials arrested group of white Christian missionaries who were living among Cherokees and such interaction was forbidden - Samuel Worcester and Elihu Butler were sentenced to 4 years at hard labor - John Marshall said missionaries must be released and that anti-Cherokee laws passed by Georgia violated Constitution and treaties of US

Norris v. Alabama

- Supreme Court ruled that systematic exclusion of African Americans from Alabama juries had denied the Scottsboro defendants equal protection under the law - had widespread impact on state courts by opening juries to African Americans

United States v. Cruikshank

- Supreme Court ruling that overturned protections of individuals embedded in 14th Amendment - Court argued that equal protection and due process clauses in 14th Amendment governed only state actions not behavior of individuals

Guinn v. United States

- Supreme Court struck down Oklahoma's efforts to deprive African Americans of the right to vote

John A. Sutter

- Swiss settler who founded colony of European emigrants - left behind everything in Europe to make fortune in America - hired local Indians and whites to build fort and established Sutter's Fort - wanted to create wilderness empire: put Indians to work making wool blankets and hats, cultivating cast acres of wheat and corn, raising herds of cattle, sheep, hogs, and horses - paid Indian workers, but whipped, jailed, and even executed those who disobeyed him

Tecumseh's Indian Confederacy

- Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa were Shawnee leaders who lived near northern Indiana - Tecumseh wanted to create single nation powerful enough, with British assistance, to stop America's expansion - Tenskwatawa gained large following by predicting that white Americans were on the verge of collapse; he demanded Indians all things European - Tecumseh fled to Canada after huge defeat in Battle of Tippecanoe

Lower South

- Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina - grew increasingly dependent on cotton production and slave labor - slaves represented nearly half of Lower South population

Election of 1916

- Theodore Roosevelt had hoped to be Republican nominee but his decision in 1912 to run as 3rd party candidate alienated many powerful members of his party and his eagerness to enter war scared many voters - Republicans nominated Supreme Court Justice, Charles Evans Hughes - Democrats renominated Woodrow Wilson and adopted a platform centered on social-welfare legislation and prudent military preparedness - Democrats rallying cry was "He kept us out of war"

Election of 1800

- Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Bur (Republicans) both received 73 electoral votes, while John Adams received 65 - Burr refused to withdraw so election was sent to House of Representatives - first time one party had presidential power over opposing party and the only election that pitted president against vice president - time between House vote for president and inauguration were so tense that people talked of civil war or assassination of Jefferson - further divided nation into political factions and marked major turning point in history

Water Cure

- Torture method used by US soldiers to gain information from Filipino soldiers - simulated drowning by forcing salt water down someone's mouth and nose until is stomach was bloated then they would stomp on his abdomen, forcing water and gastric juices out of his mouth - repeated process until captive told the soldiers what they wanted to know or died

Battle of New Orleans

- Treaty of Ghent had not reached US so fighting continued - Andrew Jackson recruited slaves, militiamen, Choctaws, sharpshooters, and Creole pirates - Jackson and army built almost invulnerable position by digging trenches, building ramparts with cannons, stacking cotton bales and barrels of sugar, and digging 10 foot wide moat for protection - Pakenham ordered British soldiers to assault, but marched right into hail of artillery shells and rifle fire - complete total failure for Britain and important victory for US

Tuscarora War

- Tuscaroras attacked colonists after they intruded causing Carolinas to retaliate - Tuscaroras were defeated and fled north, joining the Iroquois

Tuskegee Airmen

- U.S. Army Air Corps unit of African American plots whose combat success spurred military and civilian leaders to desegregate the armed forces after the war

Export Control Act

- U.S.'s response to Japan building airfields in French Indochina - authorized Roosevelt to restrict export of military supplies and other strategic materials to Japan - Roosevelt ordered that all Japanese assets in US be frozen and that oil shipments be stopped

Hay-Herran Treaty

- US agreed to pay Colombia $10 million in return for a canal zone 6 miles wide - US Senate ratified treaty but Colombian Senate wanted $25 million

John M. Chivington

- US army colonel who lead troops at the Sand Creek Massacre - told troops to "kill and scalp all (Indians), big and little, you come across" - reported that he had claimed great victory and was treated as a hero - was accused of planing and executing the Indians at Sand Creek; resigned from militia to avoid military trial - was shot and killed by one of his soldiers

Oliver Hazard Perry

- US commodore who led fleet that defeated British on Lake Erie - refused to surrender even though weapons weren't working and most men were dead - US control of Lake Erie forced British to evacuate Upper Canada

Greer

- US destroyer that was tracking a German submarine off the coast of Iceland and sharing the information with British warplanes when it was attacked - in response, Roosevelt began undeclared war in Atlantic by ordering warships to protect shipping convoys all the way to Iceland

Treaty of Ghent

- US diplomats Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams met with British officials to discuss ending the war - Britain decided to end war due to military setbacks and because London merchants wanted to trade with America - two countries agreed to return prisoners and restore previous boundaries - British also pledged to stop supporting Indian attacks along Great Lakes - treaty saved splintered republic from civil war and financial ruin

Indian Wars

- US had signed numerous treaties with Indian nations which gave them ownership to reservation lands but those commitments were repeatedly violated - in 1860s, government forced numerous tribes from lands that had been promised would be theirs forever - emigrants to the West often violated agreements which caused violence

Thomas Benton

- US senator from Missouri and was supporter of Jackson - felt federal bank was a financial monopoly controlled by wealthy and referred to it as a "monster"

Battle of Horseshoe Bend

- US troops led by Andrew Jackson against Upper Creek Indians which ended in major victory for US - US troops along with crucial Cherokee and Creek allies surrounded and set fire Upper Creek fort and shot Indians as they escape - worst defeat ever inflicted on Native Americans and ended the Creek's ability to wage war

Battle of Pensacola

- US troops led by Andrew Jackson in Florida seized Spanish controlled Pensacola - US victory prevented British army from landing and pushing northward into southern states - convinced Congress not to abandon Washington, D.C.

Battle of Queenston Heights

- US troops led by General Stephen Van Rensselaer - US troops rowed across Niagara River in New York to Canadian village Queenston - suffered terrible defeat and almost 1,000 soldiers were forced to surrender

Election of 1836

- Whigs nominated multiple candidates: Daniel Webster, Hugh Lawson White, and William Henry Harrison for president - Martin Van Buren defeated entire Whig party

1902 Coal Strike

- United Mine Workers labor union walked off the job in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, seeking wage increase and shorter workday - union also sought official recognition by mine owners, who refused to negotiate and instead chose to shut down coal mines - miners were mostly immigrants, so they experienced ethnic prejudice from owners - lengthy shutdown had caused price of coal to soar, and hospitals, schools, and poor households had run out of coal - president Roosevelt invited leaders of both sides to conference in Washington, DC and he was so infuriated by coal owners that he threatened to declare a national emergency so that he could take control of the mines and use soldiers to run them - Roosevelt's threat worked and strike ended and miners won a 9 hour workday and 10% wage increase

John Jay

- United States diplomat and jurist who negotiated peace treaties with Britain and served as the first chief justice of the United States Supreme Court

Creek War

- Upper Creeks attacked Fort Mims on Alabama River and massacred hundreds of white and Africans - Andrew Jackson recruited David Crockett, Sam Houston, and 2,500 militiamen to take revenge - crushed Upper Creeks in series of battles but Battle of Horseshoe Bend was the most decisive

Independent Treasury Act

- Van Buren convinced Congress to pass bill - political disaster and state banks lost control of federal funds - did nothing to end widespread suffering caused by depression

V-E Day

- Victory in Europe Day, May 8, 1945 - the day the Allies won WWII in Europe

Upper South

- Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Arkansas - more varied agricultural economies: mixture of large commercial plantations and small family farms

Muscoe Garnett

- Virginian cotton planter who declared "democracy is indeed incompatible with slavery, and the whole system of Southern society"

John Marshall

- Virginian federalist who was Chief Justice of supreme court, appointed by John Adams who gave Supreme Court power to rule laws unconstitutional - Supreme Court did not have enough power to balance powers of Congress and president, so he established judicial review

Cyrus Hall McCormick

- Virginian who invented mechanical reaper

Office of Price Administration

- WWII office that installed price controls on essential items to prevent inflation - with prices frozen, basic goods had to be allocated through rationing and government urged every family to save

Election of 1844

- Whigs nominated Henry Clay and Democrats nominated Martin Van Buren - both parties hoped to keep Texas issue out of presidential campaign - Tyler initially announced that he would run for reelection as an independent under slogan "Tyler and Texas" but dropped out due to little support - Van Buren's southern supporters abandoned him because he opposed annexation of Texas - Democrats nominated James K. Polk - Clay was forced to alter his position on annexation - Polk defeated Clay for presidency

Whigs

- William Henry Harrison became president in 1841 and was first Whig to win office - now controlled both houses of Congress and continued to promote federal government support for industrial development and economic growth - Harrison won because of his prominence as military hero - Harrison died of pneumonia withing 1 month of his inauguration so Vice President John Tyler became president

US Involvement

- Wilson tried to remain neutral while supplying Allied Powers with food and supplies - also allowed Britain and France to borrow money and make investments - many American volunteers served in Allied hospitals or as soldiers or pilots

Young Men's Christian Association

- YMCA/YWCA (women's group) - entered US from England in 1850s and grew rapidly - combined religious evangelism with social services and fitness training in community centers, which were separated by race and gender - centers often included libraries, classrooms, and kitchens to provide low-cost housing and exercise

humanism

- a Renaissance intellectual movement that focused on power of people to exert their command over natrue

Monopoly

- a business so large that it controls an entire industry

Dutch Revolt

- a civil war for national independence - aided by Queen Elizabeth - 7 provinces came together to form Dutch Republic - Spain recognized their independence in 1648

joint stock companies

- a company whose stock is owned jointly by the shareholders - no single investor would have to suffer from entire loss of failed colony - represented most important organizational innovation of Age of Exploration - provided first instruments of English colonization in America

holding company

- a corporation that controls other companies by "holding" most or all f their stock certificates - produces nothing itself; it simply owns a majority of the stock in other companies

Shantytowns

- a deprived area on the outskirts of a town consisting of large numbers of crude dwellings where the homeless lived - nicknamed "Hoovervilles" to mock the president and people used newspapers to keep warm, and called them "Hoover blankets"

Congress of Industrial Organizations

- a federation of labor union for all unskilled workers created from the American Federation of Labor (AFL) - focused on organizing automobile and steel industries

Trench Warfare

- a form of warfare in which opposing armies fight each other from trenches dug in the battlefield - purpose was not so much to gain ground as to inflict death and destruction on enemy until its resources were exhausted -both sides built network of zigzagging trenches from coast of Belgium to border of Switzerland - soldiers who were sent "over the top" and into "no man's land" often died from constant bombardment of machine guns and artillery shells

Enlightenment

- a movement that advocated the use of reason - celebrated rational inquiry, scientific research, and individual freedom

Gilded Age

- a name for the late 1800s, coined by Mark Twain to describe the tremendous increase in wealth caused by the industrial age - financiers and industrialists dominated social, economic, and political life in post-Civil War and amassed large amounts of wealth and showed it off publicly through luxurious lifestyles - hid the many social problems of the time, including a high poverty rate, a high crime rate, and corruption in the government. - created growing gap between the rich & poor

Second New Deal

- a new set of programs proposed by Roosevelt that established new regulatory agencies, strengthened rights of workers to organize unions, and laid foundation of federal social welfare system through creation of Social Security

Brooker T. Washington

- a prominent African American educator - he believed that racism would end once blacks acquired useful labor skills and proved their economic value to society - worked at Tuskegee Institute as the president - message to black students was importance of gaining "practical knowledge" - in order to please white donors, he argued that African Americans should not focus on fighting racial segregation and instead work hard and avoid stirring up trouble - priority should be self-improvement rather than social change - white racists did not support his beliefs and thought he was teaching students to be masters of men

Wilderness Road

- a road that traveled westward over the Appalachian Mountains into Kentucky - allowed steady stream of settlers into Kentucky - built by Daniel Boone

Manhattan Project

- a secret U.S. project for the construction of the atomic bomb during World War II - US wanted to create an atomic bomb before Germany - almost 200,000 people worked on the project, including Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer

Adjusted Compensation Act

- act passed by Congress which agreed to pay veterans in 1945 a bonus for their war service

Casablanca Conference

- a wartime conference held at French Morocco where Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and the Anglo-American military chiefs met - was a historic occasion for Roosevelt because no US president had ever flown abroad while in office and none had visited Africa - at conference, British convinced Americans to assault Italian island of Sicily - Roosevelt and Churchill also decided to step up bombing of Germany and to increase shipments of military supplies to Soviet Union and Chinese forces fighting Japanese - Roosevelt announced, with Churchill's blessing, that the war would only end with "unconditional surrender" of all enemy nations; this decision was designed to ease Soviet suspicions that the Americans and British might negotiate separately with Hitler to endwar in western Europe

Unitarians

- abandoned concept of the Trinity (God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost) and believed that God and Jesus were separate; Jesus was a saintly man, not divine, who set an example - stressed that people were not inherently sinful - hell did not exist and all people were eligible for salvation from God by following teachings of Jesus and trusting their consciences - thought themselves too good to be damned - Boston became center for Unitarian movement and attracted educated elite

Military Reconstruction Act

- abolished new governments in "the Rebel States" established under Johnston's Reconstruction policies - Congress established military control over 10 of the 11 former Confederate states - ten states were divided into 5 military districts, each commanded by an army general who was also governor - not enough federal troops to police military districts - required former Confederate states to create a new constitution that guaranteed all adult males the right to vote, black or white, rich or poor, landless or property owners - women were still not allowed to vote - new constitutions were to be drafted by conventions elected by male citizens "of whatever race, color, or previous condition" - once majority of voters ratified new constitutions, state legislatures had to ratify Fourteenth Amendment to be entitled to representation in Congress

Giles Corey

- accused of witchcraft and was crushed to death with stones - refused to confess and only requested more weight from rocks - by choosing death, his estate would go to his sons

Federal Reserve Act

- act created a national banking system with 12 regional districts, each of which had its own Federal Reserve Banks owned by member banks in the district - all nationally chartered banks had to be members of Federal Reserve System, but state-chartered banks which were essentially unregulated did not - the 12 regional Federal Reserve banks were supervised by central board of directors - overarching purpose of the system was to adjust nation's currency supply to promote economic growth and ensure stability and integrity of member banks

Housing Act

- act developed by Senator Robert F. Wagner - set up United States Housing Authority within Department of Interior - extended long-term loans to cities to build high-rise public housing projects in poor neighborhoods and provided subsidized rents for low-income residents

Neutrality Act of 1939

- act that allowed Britain and France to send freighters to US to bring back American military supplies - said to be best way "to keep us out of war" - public supported such measures as long as other nations did the fighting - later changed to allow freighters and oil tankers to be armed and to enter combat zones and ports of nations at war

Economy Act

- act that allowed Roosevelt to cut government workers' salaries, reduce payments to military veterans for non-service-connected disabilities, and reorganized federal agencies - purpose was to reduce government expenses

Glass-Steagall Banking Act

- act that created Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation - called for separation of commercial banking from investment banking to prevent banks from investing savings of depositors in risky stock market and only banks that specialized in investment could trade shares in stock market after 1933

National Industrial Recovery Act

- act that created massive public-works construction projects funded by the federal government - created the Public Works Administration and National Recovery Administration

War Powers Act

- act that gave the president far-reaching authority to reorganize government agencies and create new ones, regulate business and industry, and even censor mail and other forms of communication

Civil Liberties Act

- act that granted those Nisei still living $20,000 each in compensation

Specie Circular

- act that had the government accept only gold or silver coins in payment for land - upset westerners because most of government land sales were in their states

Fair Labor Standards Act

- act that replaced many of the provisions in NIRA which were deemed unconstitutional - established minimum wage of 40 cents an hour and a maximum workweek of 40 hours - only applied to businesses engaged in interstate commerce - prohibited employment of children under age of 16

Command of the Army Act

- required that the president issue all army orders through General-in-Chief, Ulysses S. Grant

Farm Security Administration

- administration created by the Farm Tenant Act - provided loans to keep farmers from losing their land to bankruptcy - also made loans to tenant farmers to enable them to purchase farms - did little more than help few farmers survive in difficult times

Public Works Administration

- administration that granted $3.3 billion for the construction of government buildings, highways, bridges, dams, port facilities, and sewage plants - also built 47 public housing projects for low-income Americans, all separated by race - built the Blue Ridge Parkway in North Carolina and the Grand Coulee Dam in Washington State

Federal Housing Administration

- administration which offered mortgages of much longer duration (20 years) to reduce monthly payment

John C. Calhoun

- adopted some nationalistic views after War of 1812 and supported second bank and tariffs - believed federally financed network of roads and canals in West would benefit South by opening up trade

Lester Frank Ward

- advocate for reform Darwinism - wrote Dynamic Sociology and claimed Darwin and Spencer neglected one aspect of evolution: the human brain - claimed that people collaborate as well as compete - argued that humanity could actively control social evolution through long-range planning - believed government should work to alleviate poverty and promote education of the masses

Herbert Spencer

- advocated social Darwinism - argued that human society and its institutions evolved through same process of natural selection - claimed "survival of the fittest" was engine of social progress and by encouraging people, ideas, and nations to compete for dominance, society would generate perfection and happiness - discouraged interfering with human competition in marketplace and setting up regulations - only acceptable charity was voluntary

Gibbons v. Ogden

- affirmed federal government's supremacy in regulating interstate commerce - Robert Fulton and Robert Livingston were granted right by New York legislature to operate steamboats - Fulton and Livingston then gave Aaron Ogden right to ferry people and goods in Hudson River - Thomas Gibbons operated ships under federal license that competed with Ogden - Court ruled that monopoly granted by New York to Ogden conflicted with federal license

Sand Creek Massacre

- after Evans told whites to kill "hostile" Indians after some Indians murdered a white family he moved "friendly Indians" to Fort Lyon and promised them protection - Chivington's militiamen attacked on the friendly Natives, killing them all despite the Natives attempt to surrender - killed men, women, children, and elderly - ignited warfare across central plains

Postwar Nationalism

- after War of 1812, Madison and other leading southern Republicans like John Calhoun, and switched to a nationalistic view - abandoned Jefferson's presidential initiatives like reducing armed forces and opposition to national bank in favor of economic nationalism

Revenue Act of 1942

- also called the Victory Tax - required most workers to begin paying taxes - by the end of the war, 90% of workers were paying income tax - tax revenues covered about 45% of military costs and borrowed the rest

Great Railroad Strike of 1877

- after financial panic of 1873, major rail lines who feared recession slashed workers' wages by 35%; in July 1877, companies announced another 10% would be taken from wages - due to cut in wages, many Baltimore and Ohio(B&O) railroad workers quit their jobs which shut down rail traffic - strike spread to hundreds of other cities and towns and tens of thousands of railroad workers left their job - first nationwide labor uprising and revealed how polarized relationship between working poor and company executives had become - President Hayes dispatched federal troops to put down the riots; it was the first time federal troops in large numbers had suppressed civilian strikers - strike ended up failing, but raised the possibility of "a great civil war in this country between labor and capital"

John C. Calhoun

- against Clay's Compromise of 1850 - believed Congress needed to protect rights of slave owner to take their "property" into new territories - asserted South would not compromise and the only solution was for the North to accept slavery in California and western territories

War Refugee Board

- agency created by FDR to save European Jews at risk of extermination - managed to rescue about 200,000 European Jews and some 20,000 other refugees

Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

- agreement between Soviet Union and Germany - announcement surprised the world because people had assumed fascism and communism would clash - Stalin and Hitler agreed to divide northern and eastern Europe between them: Germany would take most of Poland and Soviet Union would claim Estonia, Latvia, Finland, and a portion of Lithuania

Treaty of Tordesillas

- agreement between Spain and Portugal to divide up the newly explored land - Spain gained most of Western hemisphere - Portugal gained Africa and Brazil

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty

- agreement between US and Britain to acquire no more Central American territory - US would join Britain to build or fortify a canal only by mutual consent

pools

- agreement between companies to keep production and prices at specified levels to reduce competition - rarely worked because participants usually violated the agreement

Kellogg-Briand Pact

- agreement signed between French foreign minister, Aristide Briand and US Secretary of State, Frank B. Kellogg - both countries agreed to never to go war against each other - Kellog planned to have all nations sign the pact where all signatories renounced war - 62 nations, including all of the great powers, signed the pact but all reserved the right of "self-defense" - US Senate ratified agreement by vote of 85 to 1 Agreement signed in 1928 in which nations agreed not to pose the threat of war against one another

Treaty of Portsmouth

- agreement that ended the Russo-Japanese War - Russia acknowledged Japan's predominant political, military and economic interests in Korea - both nations agreed to leave Manchuria

Territories

- all adult white males could vote, hold office, and write constitutions for territorial governments - when population equaled smallest existing state, it would be eligible for statehood - western territories would not be treated as American colonies but as future states governed by republican principles

English colonies

- all took part in enslavement of Native Americans/ Africans - self governed religious utopias based on Calvin made of middle-class families - healthier place due to colder climate (no diseases) led to higher population

Natural Aristocracy

- arises out of work and competition rather than birth, education, or special privilege - many leaders worried uneducated and illiterate men were replacing social and political elite in state legislatures

New England Colonies

- all took part in slavery of Native Americans and Africans - much more compact and had larger populations - viewed Indians as threats that needed to be removed - had two goals: provide valuable raw materials like wood, tobacco, fur pelts; to develop a market for English goods - began as committed colonies to Christianity but tension of pursuing profits and preaching religion between new colonists ruined Puritan utopia

Tea Act of 1773

- allowed East India Company to send tea directly to America without taxes

Neutrality Act of 1937

- allowed Roosevelt to sell nonmilitary goods to warring nations on a "cash-and-carry" basis: a nation would have to pay cash then carry the US made goods in its own ships - preserved America's profitable trade with warring nations without being drawn into the fighting

salutary neglect

- allowed colonies greater freedom from trade laws and to pursue economic interests - created independent attitude in colonies that would result in a revolution

Textile Industry

- allowed for industrialization of New South - produced cotton thread, bedding, and clothing - more cotton mills were built and demand for cotton products increased - New South surpassed New England as largest producer of cotton fabric in the nation - many poor farm folk (many were children) rushed to take jobs in mills - mill owners hired village schoolteachers, doctors, and ministers; they organized dances, concerts, and sports leagues to create a sense of community so that workers would not be tempted to organize labor unions

Jefferson's Inauguration

- allowed for more democratic political culture where common people played bigger role - first democratic election that resulted in orderly transfer of power from one political party to another - marked emerging dominance of nation's political life by Republicans - Jefferson emphasized connection to "plain and simple" ways of "common: people

Grandfather Clause

- allowed illiterate whites to vote if their fathers or grandfathers had been eligible to vote on January 1, 1867 when African Americans were still not allowed to vote

Commuter trains/trolleys

- allowed middle class of business executives and professionals to live in "streetcar suburbs" and commute to their work place - working poor could not afford to leave inner cities

Separate but equal

- allowed states to segregate public facilities as long as facilities were equal in quality

Judicial Review

- allows Supreme Court to determine whether acts of Congress and president are constitutional

German Immigrants

- almost as numerous as Irish but were skilled craftsmen and well educated people - brought variety of religious preferences

Redeemers

- also called Bourbons by their opponents - conservative, pro-business, white Democratic politicians who had embraced idea of industrial progress grounded in white supremacy - supposedly saved the south from Yankee domination and "black rule" during Reconstruction - included lawyers, merchants, railroad executives, and entrepreneurs who wanted more diversified economy - sought cuts in state taxes and expenditures including public schools systems

Bracero Program

- also called Emergency Farm Labor Program - system create in 1942 that permitted seasonal farm workers from Mexico to work in the US on year-long contracts - Mexican workers were not considered immigrants since they were supposed to return to Mexico when the war ended but the success of the program led to its extension after the war

Battle of Britain

- also called Operation Sea Lion - Germans sought to destroy Britain's Royal Air Force - Nazis deployed some 2,500 warplanes from their air force (Luftwaffe), outnumbering RAF 2 to 1 - in July and August of 1940, Germans launched raids against military targets across south-east England and RAF pilots employed radar, a secret new technology to fed of the assault which allowed them to destroy many German warplanes - Hitler then ordered his bombers to target civilians and cities (especially London) in night raids designed to terrorize civilians and force a surrender - British success in defending their nation proved decisive and Hitler scrapped his invasion plans and turned his attention to the Soviet Union - it was the first battle that Hitler had lost and was Britain's finest hour

Island Hopping

- also called leapfrogging - a military strategy used during World War II in the Pacific theater that involved selectively attacking specific enemy-held islands and bypassing others

Revenue Act of 1935

- also called the "Wealth-Tax Act" or "soak-the-rich" tax - raised tax rates on annual income over $50,000

Wagner Act

- also called the National Labor Relations Act - legislation that guaranteed workers the right to organize unions, granted them direct bargaining power with management, and barred employers from interfering with union activities - created a National Labor Relations Board to oversee union activities and to ensure that management bargained with them in good faith

Seven Year's War 1756-1763

- also known as French and Indian war and first world war - sparked by French and British competition over control of Ohio Valley - whichever country controlled valley could control entire continent because of Ohio and Mississippi River - ended in big victory for Britain

Immigration Act of 1924

- also known as Johnson-Reed Act; intended to reduce immigration and to favor northern and western European immigrants over those from southern and eastern Europe - reduced number of visas from 3% to 2% of the total number of people of each nationality in US as of 1890 national census instead of 1910 - banned almost all immigrants from Asia - did not place quota on immigrants from countries in Western Hemisphere, particularly Mexico in order to keep adequate supply of low-paid laborers

Aztec Empire

- also known as Mexica - took control of central Mexico - built the city of Tenochtitlan in Lake Tetzcoco - extremely religious(focused on connections between nature and human life) and worshiped many gods - offered live human sacrifices - warfare was sacred and warriors fought with wooden swords to wound instead of kill

Incas

- also known as Quechua - diversity and multiple (20) languages spoken - extended from Andes Mountains and western part of South America - irrigated farms, stone buildings, interconnected networks of stone roads

Separatists

- also known as pilgrims - wanted to separate from Church of England

Edmond Charles Genet

- ambassador of French revolutionary government who was invited to America - violated U.S. neutrality by recruiting 4 American privateers to capture English and Spanish merchant vessels - threatened to appeal to American people about U.S. joining war on French side

Benjamin Franklin

- ambassador to France in 1776 along with nephew William Temple - major American peace negotiator in Treaty of Paris

Monroe Doctrine

- an American foreign policy opposing interference in the Western hemisphere from outside powers - reaction to doctrine was mixed - doctrine has no official standing in international law but has been important statement of Americans intentions to prevent European involvement in Western Hemisphere

William Graham Sumner

- an advocate of Social Darwinism claiming that the rich were a result of natural selection - argued that it was a mistake for government to try and promote equality since doing so would interfere with "survival of the fittest"

Iroquois League

- an alliance between Iroquois Nations and became so powerful that English were forced to work with them

City Manager Plan

- an appointed administrator ran a city or county government in accordance with policies set by elected council and mayor

Patronage System

- an approach to managing the bureaucracy whereby people are appointed to important government positions as a reward for political services they have rendered and because of their partisan loyalty - corruption associaed with system eventually drew criticism from civil service reformers

transcendentalism

- another diverse religious awakening but promoted radical individualism and personal spirituality - came from emphasis on thoughts and behaviors that rose above limits of reason and logic - inner life of the spirit took priority over hard facts of science and rigidities of organized religion - rejected religious orthodoxy and rationalism of Unitarianism; reality was not simply what could be touched, seen, and analyzed; it included innate promptings of the mind and spiritual world - wanted individuals to look within themselves for spiritual insights and nurture a romantic spirituality in harmony with nature

Age of Reason

- another name for the Enlightenment - caused by scientific revolution in 16th century

Timothy Fuller

- anti-slavery Democratic Republican who declared that it was both "the right and duty of Congress" to stop spread " of the intolerable evil and the crying enormity of slavery"

William Seward

- anti-slavery Whig senator - gave intentionally provocative speech declaring that any compromise with slavery was "radically wrong and essentially viscous" - insisted that there was a higher law than Constitution which demanded abolition of slaver through civil disobedience - encouraged New Yorkers to defy federal fugitive slave law by helping escaped slaves - speech angered southerners, who called him a lunatic

The Liberator

- anti-slavery newspaper created by William Lloyd Garrison and became voice of nation's first civil rights movement

Naturalization Act of 1790

- any "free white person" would gain citizenship after living in U.S. for 2 years (later changed to 5 years) - established important principle that immigrants were free to renounce their original citizenship to become American citizens - did not include people of African or Asian descent and Native Americans were excluded too; individual states had to determine whether free blacks were citizens - began system of immigration

Dillingham Commission

- appointed by Congress to examine changes in immigration patterns - released in 1911 and concluded that immigrants from southern and eastern Europe posed social and cultural threat to America's future - claimed new immigrants were far less intelligent than the old and 1/3 of those over 14 were illiterate

Ely Parker

- appointed by Grant to Commissioner of Indian Affairs - first Native American to hold the position

Gifford Pinchot

- appointed head of Department of Agriculture's Division of Forestry by Roosevelt - believed in economic growth as well as environmental preservation - used Forest Reserve Act to protect 172 million aces of federally owned forests from loggers

Radical Republicans

- argued that Congress should supervise Reconstruction, not president - favored drastic transformation of southern society that would grant ex-slaves full citizenship - believed all people were equal in God's eyes - wanted no compromise with "sin" of racism - wanted to replace white Democratic planter elite with new generation of small farmers

Margaret Fuller

- author of Woman in the Nineteenth Century - organized transcendentalist discussion group that were designed to embolden city's brightest women to think and act for themselves - helped launch and edit the Dial, and experimental transcendentalist magazine that introduced European Romanticism to American readers

Indian Removal Act

- authorized Jackson to grant unsettled lands west of Mississippi in exchange for Indian lands withing state borders - federal government would pay for Indian exodus and give them initial support in new lands - proposal created controversy and act barely passed - many Indian tribes tried to resist the act but ultimately failed

Force Bill

- authorized Jackson to use army to force South Carolina to comply with federal law - caused angry reaction in Calhoun

Winfield Scott

- authorized by Polk to assault Mexico City - captured Veracruz then Mexico City after 4 battles - was extremely brutal with prisoners

John C. Calhoun

- avid supporter of Mexican-American War and was an expansionist - protested against taking more than northernmost Mexican territories because he did not want to Indian race; wanted US to stay government of the white

Keating-Owen Act

- banned products made by child workers under fourteen from being shipped across state lines - was ruled unconstitutional in Supreme Court case, Hammer v. Dagenhart, which stated that only states had right to regulate working hours

Battle of Tippecanoe

- battle between Native Americans and Americans - William Harrison led American troops and burned the village of Prophetstown and destroyed its supplies - ended Tecumseh's Indian Confederacy

Battle of Thames

- battle between Tecumseh and William Henry Harrison - British fled during battle leaving Tecumseh and 500 Indians to face Americans - enabled Americans to recover control of most of Michigan and seize Western District of Upper Canada

Battle of Cowpens

- battle fought in South Carolina where Daniel Morgan lured Banastre Tarleton into charging forwards but British were ambushed by Morgan's cavalry - most complete victory where two sides were evenly matched for America - turning point in conquest of South Carolina

F. Scott Fitzgerald

- became "voice of his generation" - coined term "Jazz Age" - wrote best-selling novel, This Side of Paradise, which portrayed rowdy student life at Princeton University - defined flappers as "young things with a splendid talent for living" - writer of Lost Generation and used his writings to depict frivolity of "upper tenth" of American society and to reveal his own shortcomings and failures

William Howard Taft

- became Philippines' civil governor after Filipinos gave way to civilian control

Queen Elizabeth

- became Queen of England after Queen Mary - was one of the greatest rulers and ruled for a long time - during her reign, the Church of England became Protestant again while retaining much of the details of Catholicism

Henry Clay Frick

- became chief executive of Carnegie Steel Company and was left in charge of handling negotiations with workers at Homestead mill - prided himself as the most anti-labor executive - determined to have "absolute control of our plant and business" - ordered construction of "Fort Frick" and hired Pinkertons to defend it - refused to resume negotiations with strikers and hired strikebreakers to operate the mill - was almost killed by Alexander Berkman

movies

- became chief form of mass entertainment - helped expand consumer culture by setting standards and tastes in fashion, music, dancing, and hairstyles - helped stimulate sexual revolution as young Americans became more "sex-wise, sex-excited, and sex-absorbed"

Cotton

- became dominant force driving national economy and efforts to expand slavery - brought enormous wealth to southern planters - widespread use of cotton gins caused cost of producing cotton to drop - became America's largest export product - was labor-intensive crop which caused demand for slaves so price of slaves increased and slaves became extremely valuable

advertising

- became huge enterprise especially with invention of the radio - became most potent influence in adopting and changing habits and modes of life - visibility of ads helped shape how people behaved and how they defined pursuit of happiness - radio programs were often sponsored by national companies to advertise their products

Geroge III

- became king after George II - led Britain to victory in French and Indian war - encouraged economic regulations in colonies and wanted more tax

Terence V. Powderly

- became leader of the Knights of Labor - stressed winning political control of the communities where union workers lived

movie theater

- became most popular form of entertainment for working women

Theater

- became most popular form of indoor entertainment where people from all walks of live attended - audiences were predominantly men and women were kept at home

Brigham Young

- became next leader of Mormons and settled Mormons near Great Salt Lake in Utah - organized their own state, Desert, and was elected governor - after Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Young became territorial governor - was strict ruler and prohibited dissent and defying federal authority

Teaching

- became one of the fastest-growing professions - public schools preferred men as teachers and pay was extremely low - offered independence and social status and an alternative to rural isolation of farming - common stepping-stone for men who became lawyers

Chester A. Arthur

- became president after Garfield's assassination - many had doubts about his presidency - distanced himself from Conkling and Stalwarts and became a civil service reformer - throughout presidency, he kept his promise not to remove federal officers purely for political reasons - elected cabinet members based on merit rather than partisanship - had his official papers and correspondence burned so he died in obscurity

Andrew Johnson

- became president after Lincoln's assassination - pro-Union Democrat who hated white southern elite and idea of racial equality; white supremacist - insisted federal government be as small and inactive as possible and opposed Republican economic policies designed to spur industrial development - had a feud with Radical Republicans in Congress and vetoes a bill renewing funding for Freedmen's Bureau and Civil Rights Act - began to lose public and political support

Millard Fillmore

- became president after Zachary Taylor died - wanted to make peace between South and North - had entire Taylor-appointed cabinet resign and named Webster as secretary of state

Calvin Coolidge

- became president after death of Harding and won election of 1924 - emphasized that "America must be kept for Americans" and signed immigration restriction bill - believed in ideals of personal integrity and devotion to public service and supported minimal government regulation of business - represented postwar political conservationism and believed in Big Business - wanted to shrink federal government - was shy and awkward and rarely spoke publicly - supported gender roles and demanded his wife be subordinate to him - championed self-discipline and hard work - was determined not to be an activist president - linked nation's welfare with success of Big Business - continued Harding's efforts to lower tax rates and focused on promoting industrial development by limiting federal regulation of business and industry - wanted to reduce federal spending

Harry S. Truman

- became president when FDR died - ordered that the atomic bomb be dropped if Japan did no surrender before August 3, even though he knew nothing about the devastating effects of radiation poisoning

George Grenville

- became prime minister of England and forced colonies to pay for soldiers defending them - tightened enforcement of Navigation Acts and sent warship to capture smugglers - issued sugar act, currency act, quartering act, stamp act

David Barkley Hernandez

- became the first person of Mexican descent in the U.S. Army to win the Congressional Medal of Honor.

Romanticism

- began in Europe as a rebellion against well-ordered rational world promoted by scientific objectivity - believed people were justified in having faith and preferred stirrings of the heart over calculations of the head

Women Pioneers

- began participating in "unladylike" tasks while on Oregon Trail due to harsh reality of the trails - collected buffalo dung for fuel, drove wagons, worked to dislodge wagons stuck in mud, helped construct makeshift bridges, and pitched tents

Washington Duke

- began tobacco industry - dried tobacco and sold it in small pouches - eventually started a modern cigarette factory

Sack of Lawrence

- beginning to Bleeding Kansas; pro-slavery force shot up and burned part of Lawrence - led by David Atchison - ignited vengeance of white abolitionist John Brown

Martin Van Buren

- called Little Magician and was 8th president of US - New York lawyer, secretary of state and excelled at turning out voters and steering them to Jackson - disliked John C. Calhoun and used Peggy Eaton affair against him

Republican Simplicity

- belief that citizens in a republic should live as simply and independently from country and depend upon themselves to provide for their needs - Jefferson wanted Americans to note difference between Federalists and Republicans; he did not wear fancy clothes or host elegant parties

Liberalism

- belief that government must exercise greater power on behalf of society in regulating behavior of businesses and ensuring welfare of the people - wanted to reform and regulate capitalism, not destroy it - most were Christian moralists who felt that politics had become contest between good and evil, honesty and corruption - shared assumption that governments must become more active in addressing problems created by rapid urban and industrial growth

Social Darwinism

- belief that only the fittest survive in human political and economic struggle - advocated by Herbert Spencer - implied need for hands off, laissez-faire government policies - argued against regulations of business of require minimum standards for sanitation and housing

Social Gospel

- belief that religious institutions and individual - major forces behind movement were Protestants and Catholics who charged that Christianity had becometoo closely associated with upper and middle class - Christians must help bring "Kingdom of God" on earth - offered hope for unity among all classes - churches began emphasizing community service to address needs of unfortunate - solution to economic tensions was social solidarity

Deists

- believed God created the world and designed its "natural laws" which govern the universe - evil was a result of human ignorance to rational laws of nature - best way to improve society and human nature is culticate Reason

race-based slavery

- believed God determined one's "station in life" so slavery was not a social evil but a "personal misfortune"

race-based slavery

- believed God determined one's "station in life" so slavery was not a social evil but a "personal misfortune" - created social unity among whites that bridged class differences

J. Pierpont Morgan

- believed in freewheeling capitalism but hated competition - thought high profits required order and stability, and stability required consolidating competitors into trusts that he could own and manipulate - recognized that railroads were essential to nation's economy and growth, and controlled 1/6 of nation's railway system by 1890s - bought Carnegie's steel and iron holdings and formed U.S. Steel Corporation

Roger Williams

- believed in individual liberty and criticized forced worship and treatment of Indians - loved and supported Indians - did not believe true church was possible - was banished to England but escaped to Narragansett Indians and bought Providence

anarchists

- believed that powerful capitalists bribed elected officials to oppress the working poor - dreamed of eliminating government altogether and some were willing to use bombs and bullets to achieve their goal - many European anarchists immigrated to US; most disavowed violence and dreamed of labor unions replacing the government, enabling workers to rule

James VI of Scotland

- came into power after Queen Elizabeth - only ruled by "divine right" and only answered to God - embraced Anglican Church and wanted to banish Puritans

McNary-Haugen Bill

- bill created by Senator Charles L. McNary of Oregon and Representative Gilbert N. Haugen of Iowa - sought to secure "equality for agriculture in the benefits of the protective tariff" - called for surplus American crops to be sold on world market - goal was to raise prices at home so that farmers would have the same purchasing power relative to te prices during WW1 - passed Congress but vetoed by President Coolidge

Tariff of Abominations (Tariff of 1828)

- bill passed by Congress that taxed British clothing companies into U.S. markets which hurt southern cotton growers by reducing British demand for raw cotton and raising prices for imported products - many South Carolinians blamed the Panic of 1819 on this tax

Budget and Accounting Act of 1921

- bill that created a Bureau of the Budget to streamline process of preparing an annual federal budget to be approved by Congress - created General Accounting Office to audit spending by federal agencies - fulfilled long-held progressive desire to bring greater efficiency and nonpartisanship to budged preparation process

Bland-Allison Act

- bipartisan effort to increase supply of silver coins - vetoed by Hayes

Scottosboro Boys

- black boys and young men ranging in age from 13-21 - were convicted of raping two white women while riding a freight train - all were sentenced to death - injustice of the case sparked protests throughout the world - Alabama eventually dropped te charges - prompted two important rulings in cases Powell v. Alabama and Norris v. Alabama

Nat Turner

- black overseer - believed God had instructed him to proclaim liberty for slaves

Charles Deslondes

- black overseer who led group of slaves in revolt in Louisiana, early 1811 - broke into owner's plantation house and seized weapons, horses, and militia uniforms - reinforced by more slaves and burned houses, killed whites, and gathered more recruits - territorial governor mobilized angry whites and free blacks to stop slaves; dozens of slaves were killed or wounded

John Parker

- captain of the Lexington minutemen - leader at the Battle of Lexington in April 1775, where the first shots of American Revolution were fired

Wilmington Insurrection

- black voters elected African Americans to offices which angered the white elite - November 10, 1898: 2,000 armed white men and teens rampaged through city streets and destroyed offices of Daily Record, black owned newspaper, then moved into African American neighborhoods, killing dozens and destroying homes and businesses - mob then stormed city hall and declared Colonel Waddell as new mayor and forced African American business leaders and elected officials to resign - first time that lawfully elected government had been overthrown

Convict Lease System

- blacks who were not apprenticed or employed were jailed, and those who could not pay the vagrancy fine were forced to work for whites as convict laborers - exploitive labor system where African American convicts were hired out by county and state governments to work for individuals and businesses - disguised form of neo-slavery - increased government revenue and cut expenses of housing prisoners

Gabriel Prosser

- blacksmith in Virginia who planned a revolt involving hundreds of slaves; planned to seize key points in the city, capture the governor, and overthrow the whites - expected "poor white people" to join their effort, but whits only alerted others of the scheme - rainstorm forced his army to scatter and his army was caught; 26 soldiers including himself were hanged

Sylvester Graham

- blamed most of Americans' problems on bad eating, drinking habits, and too much sex - gave up preaching and became nation's leading health reformer after massive cholera epidemic - preached against dangers of alcohol, coffee, white flour, meat, gluttony, obesity, and body odor - system for healthier America called for diet of whole grains, fresh fruits, and nuts; diet banned all meats, spices, butter, cream, soups, alcohol, tobacco, excessive sexual intercourse, and masturbation

War Production Board

- board created by Roosevelt which directed the conversions of industries to war production - by 1945, America would be manufacturing half the good produced in the world - by end of 1942, US war production exceeded the combined output of Germany, Japan, and Italy

Sojourner Truth

- born to enslaved parents and renamed herself after having a conversation with Gold who told her to "travel up and down the land" preaching "the truth" - spoke about evils of "peculiar institution" as well as inequality of women

relations with Britain and Spain

- both nations retained trading posts, forts, and soldiers on American soil and both encouraged Indians to resist - British refused to remove troops due to failure of Americans to pay off prewar debts - Americans had seized Loyalist property during and after war - disputes with Spain about location of southern border and the right for Americans to use Mississippi River

Flatboats

- carried people and goods far more cheaply than horse-drawn wagons but could only travel downstream

Daughters of Liberty

- boycotted British clothes and tea - began making their own cloths with hand made yarn

Methodists

- branch of Protestant church that met to form a distinct new denomination that was committed to aggressive conversion of all people - abandoned predestination of Calvinism in favor of "cheerful activism" - believed in free will and sent "circuit rider" on horseback to convert frontier settlements - made up the largest denomination in nation

Rutherford B. Hayes

- brought controversy over disputed election results - appointed a Democrat as postmaster general to clean up an agency infamous for trading jobs for political favors - was the compromise presidential nominee of 2 factions fighting for control of Republican party: Stalwarts and Half-Breeds - tried to stay away from dispute and tried to eliminate corruption from politics - took on civil service reform: appointed committee to consider merit system for hiring government employees; fired Chester Arthur for abusing patronage system - commitment to cleaning up politics enraged Republican leaders - refused to expand nation's money supply and vetoed Bland-Allison Act - believed only in "hard money" (gold coins)

Central Pacific Railroad

- built eastward from Sacramento, California and through Sierra Nevada - crew was mainly young Chinese workers lured to America by California gold rush or by railroad jobs - most of the "coolie" laborers were single men eager to earn money to bring back to China

clipper ships

- built for speed and ocean transport and traveled twice as fast as older merchant ships - American thirst for Chinese tea prompted clipper ships - lacked ample space for cargo or passengers

Union Pacific Railroad

- built westward from Omaha, Nebraska and across the prairie - crew was largely composed of young, unmarried former Civil War soldiers, both Union and Confederate - also consisted of ex-slaves and Irish and German immigrants

Dwellings and daily life

- built wooden-frame houses with steep roofs; houses were not painted until 18th century - interior was dark and candles and oil lamps were expensive, so most people went to bed after sunset

American Tobacco Company

- business founded in 1890 by James Buchanan and other cigarette companies - controlled 90% of nation's cigarette production and was the biggest tobacco manufacturers of the time

open shop

- business policy of not requiring union membership as a condition of employment - weakened unions and diminished workers' rights - the anti-union efforts paid for employers as union membership dropped from 5 million to 3.5 - large groups of hourly workers saw their income drop as executives used company profits on other things - the new economy was not benefiting enough working-class Americans to be sustainable

Marbury v. Madison

- case went to Supreme Court presided by Chief Justice John Marshall, Federalist - involved appointment of William Marbury as justice of peace - because Marbury's commission was undelivered when Madison became secretary of state, so Madison withheld Marbury's commission - Judiciary Act of 1789 was repealed and granted Supreme Court power to declare laws unconstitutional

staple crops

- cash crops that were important in Europe - tobacco, rice, sugarcane, and indigo - demand for crops and increase in plantations caused demand for slaves to increase

James II

- catholic king of England who defied Parliament - birth of royal Catholic son caused revolt - overthrown by daughter and forced to flee

Erie Canal

- caused Western New York to experience revival - construction of and traffic on the canal caused many towns to become wild with gambling. prostitution, public drunkenness, and crime

Panic of 1873

- caused by withdraw of greenbacks from circulation - railroads stopped paying their bills, forcing Jay Cooke and Company (nation's leading business lender) to go bankrupt and close business which cause other hard-pressed banks to shut down - deep depression and thousands of businesses closed, millions of workers lost their jobs, and those with jobs saw their wages slashed - Treasury began printing money again but Grant vetoed a bill to issue more greenbacks - many criticized Grant for vetoing bill

Graham cracker

- centerpiece of Sylvester Graham's vegetarian diet - made of coarsely ground wheat bathed in molasses and baked - daily meals of cracker needed to be precisely 6 hours apart with no snacking in between

James Madison

- central figure of constitutional convention - Virginian planter who owned tobacco plantation - ensured "supremacy of national authority" - logic of his arguments and willingness to compromise helped shape constitution - came up with Virginia Plan and concept of separation of powers - proposed idea of Bill of Rights

Henry Cabot Lodge

- chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and was a leader in the fight against participation in the League of Nations - claimed League of Nations would potentially involve sending US troops to foreign conflicts without Senate approval and was a threat to America's independence - proposed resolution to Senate to not accept League of Nations - was against Treaty of Versailles and delayed a vote on the treaty in hopes that public opposition would grow - belonged to group of "reservationists"

Realism

- challenged sentimentality and nature-worshiping of Romanticism era - depicted actual aspects of urban-industrial America: scientific research and technology, factories and railroads, cities and immigrants, labor unions and social tensions (realistic view of life) - Civil War changed people's view of life - told life as it is, rather than how it should be - worship of money was most common theme - emphasized closely observing everyday life

Lewis Cass

- democratic senator who viewed Hispanics with inferiority: "We do not want the people of Mexico, either as citizens or as subjects. All we want is their...territory"

Frederick Winslow Taylor

- champion of progressive efficiency and "scientific management"; was nation's first "efficiency expert" - industrial engineer who became celebrated business consultant by helping factory owners implement "scientific management" - wrote book The Principles of Scientific Management which influenced business organizations for decades - showed employers how to cut waste and improve productivity - broke work activities down into sequence of mechanical steps and used stopwatches to measure the time it took to perform the activities, then established detailed performance standards determining how fast people should work and when they should rest

Mother Jones (Mary Harris Jones)

- champion of the working poor who used fiery rhetoric to excite crowds and attract attention - she led marches, dodged bullets, served jail terms, and confronted business titans and police - viewed as the "most dangerous women in America" - declared herself the "mother" of the fledgling labor movement and joined Knights of Labor as an organizer and public speaker - became most famous woman in labor union movement - promoted higher wages, shorter hours, safer workplaces, and restrictions on child labor

Radio

- changed patterns of everyday life - almost two third of homes had at least one radio - transformed jazz music into national craze

Geronimo

- chief of the Chiricahua Apaches whose capture in 1886 virtually ended Indian wars

General Court of Plymouth Plantation

- chose governors and council - property owners were admitted as members but only church member eligible to join General Court - as colony grew, General Court became legislative body of elected representatives

Assemblies

- chosen by popular vote but only male property owners could vote - power and influence expanded: controlled budget through vote on taxes and held power of legislation - had leverage over royal governors by controlling their salaries - colonies had become self-governing

Chlorea

- claimed many lives on Oregon Trail because of dirty drinking water and contaminated food

Jonathan Edwards

- claimed that young people were obsessed with making and spending money and that Enlightenment ideas were eroding religious life - rekindled spiritual intensity in colonies and delivered sermon, Sinners in the Hands of and Angry God

Masonic Order

- claimed to be natural leaders of communities and were scattered across US

Pequot War

- colonists accused a Pequot of murdering white traders so English men burned a Pequot village and killed the people - Sassacus, Pequot chief, organized a counterattack but was defeated and resulted in more villages burned and Pequot Nation dissolving - survivors of Pequot were sold as slaves - Sasscus seeked refuge with Mowhaks but was killed

John Jay

- co-author of the Federalist papers - first chief justice of the Supreme Court - delegate of New York - was American ambassador in Spain and served as secretary of foreign affairs

Aframerican

- coined by James Weldon Johnson - designate Americans with African ancestry and to emphasize that blacks were no longer divided by their heritage and that they were proud to be Americans who happened to have African ancestry

Red Summer

- coined by James Weldon Johnson; summer of 1919 full of race riots - began when mob of whites invaded black neighborhood in Longview, Texas over rumors of interracial dating; mob burned shops and houses and ran several black residents out of town - people blamed riots on socialist and communism

complex marriage/free love

- coined by John Humphrey Noyes - every man in the community was married to every woman, and vice versa

manifest destiny

- coined by John L. O'Sullivan - represented taking control of entire continent and liberty - God-given mission to extend Christian republic and capitalist civilization - took for granted superiority of American ideals and institutions - offered moral justification for territorial growth and expansion of slavery

Henry Woodfin Grady

- coined the term "New South" and strongly supported it - editor of Atlanta Constitution newspaper - was glad that Union was saved and slavery abolished but insisted that South has nothing to apologize for nor anything to take back - claimed New South was becoming a perfect democracy of small farms and would no longer be dominated by planter aristocracy or dependent upon cotton and slave labor - many southerners shaded his beliefs of New South

The Federalist Papers

- collection of 85 essays published in New York papers - written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay - defended concept of strong national government and outlined major principles and assumptions about Constitution - stressed greatest threat to rule by the people was the rise of organized groups whose goals conflict with the interests of the greater community

royal colonies

- colonies controlled by the British king through governors appointed by him and through the king's veto power over colonial laws.

Religious Freedom

- colonies insisted on complete freedom of religious

Currency Act 1764

- colonies lacked hard money so a new currency of paper money was created - British creditors feared payment of fluctuating value so Currency Act was implemented by Grenville - prohibited colonies from coining or printing money and all payments must be paid in gold/silver or commodities

Colonial resentment towards navigation Acts

- colonies resented Navigation Acts especially New England - Charles II took away royal charter for Massachusetts after rebellion

John Collier

- commissioner of Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) - steadily increased number of Native Americans employed in the BIA and ensured that all Indians gained access to New Deal relief programs - his primary objective was passage of Indian Reorganization Act, designed to reinvigorate Native American cultural traditions by restoring land to tribes,granting them the right to start businesses, establishing self-governing constitutions, and receiving federal funds for vocational training and economic development

James Buchanan

- committed to states' rights and territorial expansion - believed that saving Union depended upon nation ignoring abolitionists and making concessions to South - 3 major events caused bad presidency: 1) economic distress; 2) Supreme Court decision in Dred Scott case; 3) new troubles in Kansas - failed to take action after South Carolina seceded and instead declared secession as illegal but did not have constitutional authority to force a state to rejoin Union

National Defense Research Committee

- committee made by Roosevelt to coordinate a top-secret effort, the Manhattan project, to develop an atomic bomb before the Germans did

Settlement Houses

- community centers located in poor areas that gave aid to the poor, especially immigrants and offered education, recreation, and social activities

mass production

- companies used new technologies to produce greater quantities of products that were sold at lower prices to more people

Roger Taney

- compliant Secretary of the Treasury who drew on government accounts with Biddle's bank but deposited the money into favored state banks, "pet banks"

Committee on Public Information

- composed of secretaries of state, war, and navy - executive director was George Creel - Creel convinced Wilson that best way to influence public opinion was with propaganda - Creel organized public relations campaign to explain the allies' war aims to people - Creel organized committee into 4 divisions: The Speaking Division, which recruited public lecturers also known as "Four-Minute Men" for their ability to compress war's objectives into a few words; The Film Division produced short films celebrating US war effort; The Foreign Language Division monitored US newspapers published in languages other than English; Division of Pictorial Publicity recruited artists to produce patriotic posters

Stephen Foster

- composer of popular minstrel tunes

natural selection

- concept developed by Charles Darwin - individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than others - was shocking because most people still embraced literal interpretation of the Bible where God created all species at the same moment and they remained the same after - many accused Darwin of atheism, denial of existence of God, while others questioned their faith

One Big Union

- concept in the late 19th and early 20th centuries among trade unionists to unite the interests of workers and offer solutions to all labor problems - disproportionately immigrants and migrant workers, the unskilled, unorganized, unrepresented, and unwanted among the working poor

Philippine-American War

- conflict between the Philippines and the United States for Filipino independence - war fought in tropical heat and humidity - racism against Filipinos spurred numerous atrocities by Americans - US troops burned villages, tortured and executed prisoners, and imprisoned civilians in overcrowded concentration camps - both sides used torture to gain information - war ended when Aguinaldo swore oath accepting authority of US over Philippines

David Crockett

- congressman from Tennessee who join Whig party - during speech in 1835, he lamented terrible economic calamity resulting from Jackson's policies

England's control on Ireland

- conquered Ireland and planted Protestant settlements to control Catholic Ireland - inflicted cruelties on "wild Irish"

The New England Primer

- schoolbook used by the New England Colonists to teach reading and writing

Plain white folk (yeomen)

- consisted of half of white Southerners who were often illiterate and forced to scrap by - typically lived with their families and raised few livestock, grew enough crops to live on, and traded with neighbors - women worked in fields during harvest time but spent most of their days doing household chores and raising children - farm children grew up fast and could help by carrying water buckets to and from well, collecting eggs, feeding livestock, plant, weed, and harvest crops - tended to be fiercely independent and suspicious of government and identified as democrats of Jackson

Republicansim

- consisted of representative democracy and majority rule - America would be governed by authority of the people, whose elected representatives would make decision on their behalf

Sixteenth Amendment

- constitutional amendment endorsed by William Howard Taft which legalized a progressive income tax

Nineteenth Amendment

- constitutional amendment that granted women the right to vote - Tennessee's legislature was last of the states to approve amendment; initial vote was 48-48 but Republican Harry T. Burn changed his vote from no to yes at the insistence of his mother

Separation of powers

- constitutional division of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, with the legislative branch making law, the executive applying and enforcing the law, and the judiciary interpreting the law

Boston Associates

- constructed first textile mill where spinning yarn and weaving cloth were brought together - developed another mill along Merrimack River - became model for textile mill towns throughout New England

Dutch West India Company

- controlled political life and appointed governor and advisory council and prohibited any elected legislature - all commerce with Netherlands had to be carried in company's ships and company controlled beaver trade -awarded wealthy colonists with large estate (patroonship) to share with 50 settlers - tolerated slavery and imported Africans for labor - expanded too fast and could not control their possessions - conquered by James Stuart (English) and renamed it New York

George Washington

- convinced Continental Congress to create Continental army with full time soldiers - learned hard lessons and changed his war strategy - used limited army to launch surprise attacks, hit-and-run campaigns which would extend war so that Britain were weary of expenses

Pinckney's Treaty

- convinced Spanish to accept southern American boundary at 31st parallel in west Florida and also to allow Americans to ship goods down Mississippi River to New Orleans

Home Owners' Loan Corporation

- corporation which helped people refinance their mortgages at lower interest rates

Battle of Guilford Courthouse

- costly win for British and Cornwallis abandons Carolina plan and moves to Virginia

Mississippi River

- cotton highway that transported millions of bales of cotton downriver to New Orleans through steamboats

Steamboats

- could travel upstream and opened nearly half the continent to water traffic - created transcontinental market and commercial agriculture empire due to two-way travel - price for shipping goods dropped and increased profits and stimulated demand - transformed St. Louis, Missouri into river port - were risky, dangerous, and unsanitary

James L. Martin

- county sheriff who was sent to disperse striking workers at Lattimer mine - organized a group of 150 men and confronted several hundred unarmed strikers marching peacefully to Lattimer mine who carried an American flag - ordered marchers to disperse and tried to seize their flag and when a scuffle ensued, a deputy told the soldiers to fire at the crowd, killing 19 unarmed miners and harming 39 others - was tried for murder along with 73 of his deputies

Writ of Assistance

- court document allowing customs officers to enter any location to search for smuggled goods

John Smith Pemberton

- created Coca-Cola - former Confederate officer who had become addicted to morphine to relieve pain - experimented with various opium free pain relievers in liquid form - turned it into a tasty drink and sold it at the soda fountain - to boost sales, he boasted that Coca Cola would serve as a "valuable brain tonic": it would cure headaches, relieve exhaustion, and calm nerves

Aaron Montgomery Ward

- created Montgomery Ward and Company - decided that he could reach more people by mail than on foot and thus eliminated the middlemen - sold goods at 40% discount through mail-order catalogs

Beulah Louise Henry

- created around 50 inventions and patented them - most were improvements on household goods

Civil Works Administration

- created by Congress and was the first large-scale federal effort to put people directly on government payroll at competitive wages - provided 4 million federal jobs and organized variety of useful projects: repairing roads, laying sewer lines, constructing or improving airports and public schools, and providing teaching jobs - when program's cost soared, Roosevelt had the program dissolved so millions of workers were left unemployed again

Freedmen's Bureau

- created by Congress to assist "freedmen and their wives and children" - first federal effort to provide help directly to people rather than to states - provided former slaves with medical care, food, and clothing, and helped set up schools - helped former slaves reestablish connection with their family members and legalized marriages that had been banned

Open Door Policy

- created by Secretary of State, John Hay - without consulting China, Hay announced that Chinese trade should remain open to all European and American trade and that other nations should not try to take control of Chinese ports or territory - none of European powers except Britain accepted Hay's policy but none rejected it either, so Hay announced that all major powers involved in China had accepted the policy - rooted in desire of American businesses to exploit and dominate Chinese markets - appealed to those against imperialism because it pledged to keep China from being cared by powerful European nations - policy had little legal standing because US was not prepared to enforce the policy

Securities and Exchange Commission

- created by Securities Exchange Act of 1934 - federal agency established to regulate the issuance and trading of stocks and bonds in an effort to avoid financial panics and stock market "crashes" - enforced new laws and regulations governing issuance and trading of stocks and bonds

National Association of Colored Women

- created by leaders of women's clubs - organization's first president was Mary Church Terell who told members they had an obligation to serve the "lowly, the illiterate, and the vicious" and put forth every effort to uplift and reclaim them - declared that black men were not providing sufficient leadership

Declaration of White Independence

- created by mob in North Carolina - stripped blacks of their jobs and voting rights

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)

- created by the Glass-Steagall Banking Act of 1933 - independent government agency, established to prevent bank panics, which guaranteed the safety of deposits in citizens' savings accounts - insured customer bank accounts up to $2,500 thus reducing likelihood of future panics

Religious Colleges

- created during the Great Awakening and were founded to train evangelical ministers - Harvard, College of William and Mary, and Yale college all had religious origins

Andrew Carnegie

- created largest steel company - rose to wealth from boyhood poverty; worked his way up from telegraphy to railroading to bridge building to steelmaking and investments - insisted upon newest machinery and equipment - expanded production quickly and cheaply by purchasing struggling companies and preached continuous innovation to reduce operating costs - declared the "man who dies rich dies disgraced" and devoted himself to dispensing his $400 million fortune; "distributor" of wealth

Thomas Edison

- created phonograph (1877) and a long-lasting electric light bulb (1879) - light bulbs removed distinction between night and day - was forced to switch from direct current to alternating current - was nation's foremost inventor - created and perfected hundreds of devices

Charles Darwin

- created the theory of natural selection - claimed that individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than others - disagreed with Spencer's social theories and did not believe that evolutionary process

Foreign-Speaking Soldier Subsection

- created to bridge communication gap between recruits

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

- creole priest from Dolores, Mexico - convinced Indians and Hispanics to revolt against Spanish rule in Mexico but poorly organized uprising failed

Dissenters

- criticized Anglican Church - Puritans believed that Church of England needed further purification - believed all papists(Catholic) rituals, holy water, candles, incense, pipe organs, priest robes, and many more should be eliminated

Agriculture unrest

- crop prices had fallen dramatically because of overproduction and international competition in world food markets - new lands were used for cultivation due to new rail lines and new farm machinery - too much crops were being put into world food markets which drove the prices down - farmers had become increasingly reliant on local banks or merchants who loaned them money at high rates in order to buy farming supplies - as prices for crops went down so did their incomes making it harder for them to pay their debts; farmers had no choice but to increase production which only lowered prices and incomes even further - years of parched summers and bitterly cold winters destroyed harvests

Black Nationalism

- cultural and political movement in 1920s led by Marcus Garvey that praised blackness, black cultural expression, and black exclusiveness - promoted black separatism from mainstream American life - became largest black political organization in US history

Sugar Act 1764

- cut tax on molasses down to half to reduce smuggling - also added new taxes on sugar, wine, coffee, spices being imported - failed to bring money and only brought more debt

Pocahontas

- daughter of Chief Powhatan - Saved John Smith after he is caught trespassing; convinces Powhatan to let him go in exchange for muskets, hatchets, beads, trinkets - friends with Smith and saved him more than once - joined English and embraced Christianity; baptized and renamed Rebecca - married John Rolfe and had a boy, Thomas, but died after contracting lung disease

Compromise of 1850 (Omnibus Bill)

- debate on slavery in California and New Mexico went to Senate who staged nearly year-long debate over series of resolutions to end crisis between North and South - created by Henry Clay and included 8 resolutions: 1) admit California as a free state; 2) let residents of territories of New Mexico and Utah decide on slavery; 3) deny Texas its claim to much of New Mexico; 4) compensate Texas by having federal government pay pre-annexation Texas debts; 5) retain slavery in District of Columbia but abolish sale of slaves in nation's capital; 6) adopt more effective federal law designed to recapture fugitive slaves; 7) deny congressional authority to interfere with interstate slave trade - extremists (northern abolitionists or southern secessionists) did not accept compromise

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

- debate over Illinois Senate race - dispute laid in Douglas's indifference to immorality of slavery - differed in personality and politically - Lincoln stated that American government can not endure permanently half slave and half free and that it will be all one thing or all the other - Douglas disagreed and thought US could tolerate both slavery for blacks and freedom for whites - Douglas accused Lincoln of being two-faced - Lincoln won popular vote but Douglas won Senate seat because of Democratic-controlled state legislature - made Lincoln a national figure

John Schrank

- deranged man who believed any president seeking third term should be killed - shot Roosevelt on his way to deliver a speech - Roosevelt refused medical attention until after giving his speech

money probelm

- debate over US currency and whether to use gold or silver - supporters of a fixed gold standard were generally money lenders and preferred to keep value of money high - supporters of silver coinage were people who owed money and wanted to keep value of money low by increasing currency supply - split Democratic party in half - would determine the election

Nationalism vs. Sectionalism

- debated on how to balance economic and social needs of the nations's three regions-Northeast, South , and West - could never solve the problem of slavery

War Guilt Clause

- declared Germany as nation responsible for WW1 and demanded that they paid the entire expense - clause offended Germans that it became major factor in rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazi party

Act of Supremacy

- declared Henry VIII the supreme head of the Church of England in 1534

Philippine Government Act

- declared Philippines as "unorganized territory" meaning it was an American colony not a territory eligible for statehood

Griswold v. Connecticut

- declared that women had constitutional right to use contraceptives as form of birth control

Free Soil Party

- dedicated to banning slavery in western territories and stopping spread of slavery, but not abolition - attracted northern Democrats and Whigs - nominated Martin Van Buren as candidate

John Calvin

- deepened and broadened the Protestant Reformation by developing a strict way of life for Protestants - believed that humanity is sinful and God had predetermined who would be saved - ruled Geneva with strict rules and those who did not abide were exiled

Henry Day

- delivered a lecture titled "The Professions" at Western Reserve School of Medicine - declared that most important social functions in life were professional skills - claimed that society had become dependent on "professional services"

Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God

- delivered by Jonathan Edwards - reminded congregation that hell is real and that God will judge them over pits of hell to see if they are worthy of heaven

Pony Express Company

- delivered mail across country and established 150 relay stations to enable riders to change horses

Potsdam Declaration

- demanded that Japan surrender by August 3 or face "prompt and utter destruction"

Stephen Douglas

- democratic Illinois senator; "Little Giant" - suggested best way to salvage Clay's compromise was to break it into several proposals and vote on them one at a time

David Wilmot

- democratic congressmen from PA who proposed Wilmot Proviso - opposed slavery in Mexican territory due to desire to keep southern political power in Congress from expanding

Episcopalians

- descendants of Anglican Church who renamed themselves after American Revolution - lost leadership position in South due to newer denominations that promoted more-democratic principles

Social Security Act

- designed by Frances Coralie Perkins, first woman cabinet member in history - legislation enacted to provide federal assistance to retired workers through tax-funded pension payments and benefit payments to the unemployed and disabled - set up shared federal-state unemployment insurance program, financed by payroll tax paid by employers - was conservative and regressive because it taxed the earnings of workers with a single withholding tax rate for everyone regardless of income level, thus hurting the poor and the effort to revive the economy because it removed from circulation a significant amount of money - excluded nearly half the national workforce: low-paid farm laborers, domestic workers, and self-employed

John Burgoyne

- designed invasion scheme to move south from Canada in order to split New England led - lost at Saratoga when encircled by Patriot troops in

War Relocation Camps

- detention camps housing thousands of Japanese Americans from the West Coast who were forcibly interned from 1943 until the end of WWII - the Nisei, people of Japaneses descent living in US, were especially targeted - camps were hastily constructed tent cities in remote areas that were essentially internment camps guarded by sentry towers and soldiers with machine guns

New Jersey Plan

- developed b William Paterson of New Jersey - sought to keep existing equal representation of states in one national legislature - gave Congress power to collect taxes, regulate commerce, name a chief executive and a supreme court - did not have right to veto state laws

Refrigerator Car

- developed by Gustavus F. Swift and Philip Armour - enabled processed meat to be shipped rather than hogs and cattle - enabled Chicago to add beef packing along with hogs

Mellon Plan

- developed by Secretary of Treasury Andrew Mellon to generate economic growth - called for reducing federal spending and lowering tax rates - to implement plan, Mellon persuaded Congress to pass Budget and Accounting Act of 1921

New Orleans

- developed extremely fast; population had grown over tenfold - was the wealthiest American city due to trade with Caribbean islands and Latin American republics

Barbados

- developed profitable sugar plantations based on labor of enslaved Africans - had huge numbers of slave due to high mortality rat

Martin Van Buren

- developed sophisticated strategies for mobilizing voters and orchestrated campaigns with rallies, barbecues, and parades for Democratic party

ariplanes

- development advanced slowly until outbreak of war when Europeans began using them as military weapons - industry rose during war but collapsed in postwar demobilization

Capitalism

- economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state.

Subtreasury Plan

- devised by Charles Macune - farmers would store their crops in federally funded and government-run warehouses and obtain cash loans for up to 80% of the crops' value - subtreasury warehouses provided immediate cash and would allow farmers the option of storing crops in ope of getting a better price later - Congress nixed the plan

Ordinance of Nullification

- disavowed the "unconstitutional" federal tariffs of 1828 and 1832 - if authorities tired to use force to collect tariffs on foreign goods, South Carolina would secede

George Fitzhugh

- disliked democratic ideals and asserted that "some were born with saddles on their backs, and others booted and spurred to ride them"

Puritans

- dissenters who believed Church of England needed purification - wanted to simplify religion to most basic elements - believed Church of England was so corrupted that it could not be reformed - created their own congregations separate from Anglican - only saints, chosen by God, allowed to join Church - wanted to provide example of righteousness for England

Hyphensim

- diversion of patriotic loyalties - many Americans chose different sides: German and Irish born Americans supported Central Powers, while others largely of British origin supported Allied Powers

Church of England

- divided into Puritans and Anglican establishment - Anglicans led by archbishops and bishops - Persecuted any puritans who refused ANglicanism

Armory Show

- divisive and sensational art exhibition in 1913 that introduced European-inspired modernism to American audiences - officially known as International Exhibition of Modern Art and featured 1,200 works and created immediate sensation - after art show, many people discovered new faith in powers of art

Powhatan Confederacy

- dominated Indians along Virginia coast and had several hundred villages - focused on raising corn and conquering other Indians - lived in family clusters and men avoided woman's work

Mayan

- dominated central america for 600 years - developed written language and art - collapsed due to destruction of the rain forest, and its ecosystem, and also overpopulation

Granger Laws

- established state commissions to regulate prices charged by railroads and grain warehouses (elevators) - many warehouse operators were corrupt and secretly conspired with their competitors to "fix" storage rates - railroads had a monopoly over agricultural communities so they could charge whatever they wanted

Revenue Act of 1916

- doubled income tax rate from 1 to 2 percent - created a 12.5% tax on munitions makers - added new tax on "excessive" corporate profits - culmination of progressive legislation that Wilson had approved to strengthen his chance in upcoming election

Virginia Plan

- drafted by James Madison for framework of Constitutional Convention - suggestion to delete original instructions to revise Articles of Confederation and create a new constitution - called for "national government with a supreme legislative, executive, and judiciary" - Congress was divided into 2 houses: lower House of Representatives chosen by the people of the states and upper house of senators elected by state legislatures - more populous states had more representatives in Congress than smaller states - sparked furious disagreements

Emergency Baking Act of 1933

- drafted by Roosevelt's financial experts which restored confidence in banks and injected $2 billion of new cash into the economy

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

- drafted by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison - described Sedition Acts as "alarming infractions" of constitutional rights and threatened disunion and encouraged state legislatures to nullify acts of Congress that violated freedom of speech

Buffalo Soldiers

- due to increased violence in response to Sand Creek Massacre, government dispatched African American cavalry units to western frontier - 18 won Congressional Medals of Honor - mostly Civil War veterans; built and maintained forts,mapped vast areas of the Southwest

Modernism

- early 20th century intellectual and artistic movement that rejected traditional notions of reality and adopted radical new forms of artistic expressions - widespread awareness that new ideas and ways of doing things were were breaking with tradition and that new technologies, modes of transportation and communication, and scientific discoveries were transforming nature of everyday life and the way people saw the world - based on 3 assumptions: 1) God did not exist; 2) reality was not rational, orderly or obvious; 3) in aftermath of WW1, social progress could no longer be taken for granted - applied Einstein's ideas about relativity to a world in which reality no longer had an objective or recognizable basis

Auburn Penitentiary

- early model of penitentiary system in NY in 1816 - prisoners had separate cells and gathered only for meals and group labor; only Bibles were permitted for reading; prisoners were chained together and marched in lockstep when being led; never put face-to-face or allowed to talk; those who talked were whipped - advocates argued that system had beneficial effect on prisoners and saved money

American System

- economic plan by Henry Clay that included national bank, federal tariffs, federally financed roads, bridges, ports, and canals - Clay wanted to free America's economy from dependence on Britain while tying together diverse regions of nation - sought to give each region its top economic priority - argued that high tariffs on imports were needed to protect industries - called for federal government to use tariff revenues to build infrastructure in western states - raise prices for federal lands sold to public and distribute revenue to states to help finance - endorsed strong national bank to create national currency - Clay's program depended on region's willingness to compromise but critics argued that higher prices for federal lands discouraged western migration and tariffs benefited North at expense of other regions and "common" people -westerners and southerners feared second B.U.S. would become too powerful and corrupt

Panic of 1857

- economy was growing too fast - failure of Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company caused worried customers to begin withdrawing their money from banks, which forced banks to call in loans, causing many businesses to go bankrupt - President Buchanan refused to intervene with economic depression

Tariff Reform

- effort led by the Democratic party to reduce taxes on imported goods, which Republicans argued were needed to protect American industries from foreign competition - Cleveland argued that Congress should reduce both tariff rates and number of imported goods subject to tariffs which would allow European companies to compete in American marketplace and bring down prices for consumers

George Washington

- elected as presiding officer at Federal Convention - participated little in debates - became first president of U.S. but only had 2 staff members - named Thomas Jefferson as head of Department of state; Alexander Hamilton as head of Department of Treasury, John Jay as first chief justice of Supreme Court

Rutherford B. Hayes

- elected by Republicans for president - eager to reduce number of federal jobs subject to political appointment but h was neither a Radical nor a reformer

Corrupt Bargain

- election of 1824: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, William Crawford, and Henry Clay all ran for president - Jackson won popular vote and electoral college but did not have necessary majority of electoral votes - House of Representatives would make final decision between Jackson and Clay under Henry Clay's influence as Speaker of the House - Adams agreed with most of Clay's policies so Clay and Adams made a deal and convinced House of Representatives to elect Adams - bargain crippled Adams's administration before it began and Jackson supporters launched campaign to undermine Adams

Social drinking

- estimated that 3/4 of nation's laborers drank at least 4 ounces of liquor daily

dynamos

- electric motors that makes direct electricity - dramatically increased power, speed, and efficiency of machinery - enabled factories to be located anywhere; factories and mills no longer had to cluster waterfalls and coal deposits to have ready supply of energy - spurred urban growth by improving lighting, facilitating development of trolley and subway systems, and stimulating creation of elevators that enabled construction of taller buildings

Ralph Waldo Emerson

- embodied transcendentalist gospel - believed self-knowledge opened doors to self-improvement and self-realization - became nation's most popular speaker during 1840s - encouraged US to create its own distinct literature, art, and thought - turned away from religion because it stifled free thinking and he sought to cultivate personal spirituality in communion with nature - celebrated virtues of self-reliance and individual's unlimited potential - published book Nature, which helped launch transcendental movement

Public institutions (asylums)

- emerged for the treatment of social ills - underfunded and understaffed asylums often became breeding grounds for brutality and neglect

The American Party (The Know-Nothing Party)

- emerged in opposition of surge of immigrants - embraced nativism and denied citizenship to newcomers

Hirohoto

- emperor of Japan in WWII

economic nationalism

- emphasis on domestic control and protection of the economy

buying "on margin"

- enabled many people to invest in stocks - investor could make a small cash down payment (the "margin") on shares of stock and borrow the rest from a bank or stockbroker, who held to stick certificates as security in case the share price plummeted - if stock prices rose the investor made enough profits to pay for the "margin loan" and reinvest the rest - if stock price declined and buyer failed to pay off broker's loan, the broker could sell the stock at a much lower price to cover the loan

consumer culture

- encouragement of carefree spending - in order to keep people buying, business developed ways for consumers to finance purchases overtime rather than pay cash up front - traditional notions like paying with cash and staying out of debt were dismissed as old-fashioned; consumer debt almost tripled

Treaty of Paris 1763

- ended French and Indian war - Britain gained French colonies around the war and became ruler of world empire

Slave Trail

- forced resettlement of slaves along tobacco South to cotton South - 20 times longer than Trial of Tears

Theodore Roosevelt

- endorsed progressivism and confronted business leaders - had outsized personality and was always busy - decided Congress had grown too dominant and corrupt and therefore abandoned Gilded Age tradition where presidents had deferred to Congress - believed that problems caused by explosive industrial growth required substantial responses and he was unwilling to wait for Congress to act - believed in power and strong president and during his administration, the president became primary source of policy making - believed that great presidents must take "noble risks" even if it meant stretching limits of the Constitution - first president to use executive power to rein in Big Business and to referee a dispute between management and labor - ordered his attorney general to break up Northern Securities Company, immense holding company of railroads and steamships by J. Pierpont Morgan - was environmentalist and set aside millions of acres of federal land for conservation purposes and created national forests and parks

neurasthenia

- energy-draining psychological and physical disorder whose symptoms include insomnia, hysteria, headaches, depression, and a general state of fatigue - male physicians often diagnosed women who tried to escape the cult of domesticity with this condition - some doctors sought to use this disease to force women back into the cult of domesticity - epidemic was responsible for Coca-Cola business

Oregon fever

- enthusiasm for emigration to Oregon Country - swept across nation especially after federal government promised 160 acres of free land to any settler who worked the property for 4 years

Henry Wells and William Fargo

- entrepreneurs who created delivery service, Wells Fargo & Company

An Era of Good Feelings

- era for Monroe's administration - embarked on tour of New England and Federalists complimented Republican president for trying to "harmonize feelings, annihilate dissentions, and make us one people"

The Gospel of Wealth

- essay written by Andrew Carnegie - argued that great wealth brought great responsibility - insisted that those who had wealth use their money on the greater good

Self-Reliance

- essay written by Ralph Waldo Emerson - expressed idea of intellectual independence: "Whoso would be a man must be a nonconformist...nothing is at last sacred but the integrity of your own mind" - "the great man is he who in the midst of a crowd keeps with perfect sweetness the independence of solitude"

Foraker Act

- established a government in Puerto Rico - residents were declared citizens of Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, not Spain; they were made dual citizens of US in 1917

Oneida Community

- established by John Humphrey Noyes in NY - survived by promoting free sex - perfectionists who practiced "complex marriage" or polygamy - separated couples that grew too fond of each other "sticky love" - had access to effective birth control methods - were famous for their fine silverware - banned private property and work was shared and rotated among community

Presbygational

- established denomination that unified due to same theology - formed unified congregations and recruited a minister from either denomination - resulted in New Englanders becoming Presbyterian through "Presbygational" churches

Charles Grandison Finney

- evangelist who preached in Rochester at time of canal boomtown in upstate NY - became most celebrated minister in country and perfected religious revivals as orchestrated spectacles - attracted audience of higher class: "The Lord was aiming at the conversion of the highest classes of society" - focused on one question: What role can the individual play in earning salvation? - believed everyone could choose to be saved and claimed that Christians had an obligation to improve society by perfecting themselves - combined embracing faith and doing good works

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin

- exiled Marxist radical who returned to Russia who wanted to withdraw Russia from WW1 and establish a communist society - mobilized the Bolsheviks - pledged to hang, shoot, and destroy anyone who opposed revolution

Thomas Reade Cobb

- explained that because of race-based slavery, every white "feels that he belongs to an elevated class. It matters not that he is no slaveholder; he is not of the inferior race; he is a free-born citizen"

Wells Fargo & Company

- express delivery serve created by Henry Wells and William Fargo - Wells Fargo stagecoaches delivered passengers, mail, and "strongboxes" filled with gold - established regular twice-a-week mail service

Buchanan-Pakenham Treaty

- extended border between US and British Canada westward to Pacific coast along 49th parallel

Naturalization Act of 1870

- extended process which immigrants had gained citizenship to include "aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent" - efforts to include Asians and Native Americans in new naturalization law were defeated

Roosevelt Corollary

- extension of Monroe Doctrine over the crisis of the Dominican Republic's debts - stated that in certain circumstances, the US was justified in intervening in Latin America to prevent Europeans from doing so - subsequently allowed US presidents to repeatedly use force to ensure that Latin American nations paid their debts

Stalwarts

- faction of the Republican party and fought with Half-Breeds over control of Republican party - led by Roscoe Conkling of NY - loyal to their support of President Grant during controversy of his cabinet members - mastered patronage system of distributing political jobs to party loyalists - was blamed for inciting Guiteau to kill president Garfield

Half-Breeds

- faction of the Republican party and fought with Stalwarts over control of Republican party - led by James G. Blaire of Main - half loyal to Grant and half committed to reform of patronage system - favored tariff reform and social reform, major issues from the Democratic and Republican parties

economies of scale

- factors that cause total cost to fall as output rises - created by technological advances - larger business enterprises could afford expensive new machinery and large work forces to boost productivity

George Washington

- failed to take fort Duquesne and failed at Battle of Great Meadows - chosen to lead Continental Army due to experience in French and Indian war and because he was highly respected - refused to get paid for leading Army

Daniel Boone

- famous early pioneer who cleared Wilderness Road, a new route to the west - led settlers into Kentucky and built settlement of Boonesborough

Atlanta Compromise

- famous speech given by Booker T. Washington - stated that African-Americans should not focus on civil rights or social equality but concentrate on economic self-improvement - urged whites and African Americans to work together for the progress of all - was widely interpreted as approving racial segregation

Greenback Party

- farm organizations across nation organized party to promote benefits of paper money over gold and silver coins - won 15 seats in Congress in 1878, illustrating significance of currency issues to voters - died out in 1889, but demands for increasing money supply survived

Commercial Agriculture

- farmers began engaging in commercial farming and producing surplus crops and livestock to sell for cash in regional and international markets

Okies and Arkies

- farmers who moved from Oklahoma and Arkansas because of the Dust Bow - most lost their land due to foreclosure so they headed toward California, where jobs were said to be plentiful

market-based economy

- farming for sale rather than consumption was first stage and produced boom-and-bust cycles which was built by slaves, immigrants, and displaced Mexicans - standard of living rose and Americans gained opportunities for economic gain and geographic mobility - needed internal improvements to improve flow of goods

Edgar Allan Poe

- fascinated by menace of deaths and had stormy life - moved to NYC and published "The Raven" which gave him widespread fame - wife died of tuberculosis and became alcoholic and drug addict - used horror to explore darkest corners of human psychology and satisfy his obsession with death - fear was the most powerful emotion, so he focused on making the grotesque and supernatural seem real

Sam Houston

- fate of Texas Revolution was in his hands - controversy surrounded his reputation and his honor was questioned - was about to commit suicide when he saw an eagle swoop towards him and decided that "great destiny waited for me in the West" - joined Cherokee and adopted their culture - helped Indian tribes negotiate among themselves and federal government

Nativism

- favoring native-born individuals over foreign-born ones

The Gathering Crisis

- fear among wealthy leaders that social classes were disappearing - political culture was changing; more men could vote and hold office due to reduction of property-owning qualifications - state legislatures increased taxes to pay off war debt and Americans objected taxation with representation

Palmer Raids

- federal agents rounded up alien "radicals", most of whom were law-abiding Russian immigrants, and deported them to Russia without a court hearing - arrested many suspects - raids were disaster due to poor communications, faulty planning, and murky intelligence

internal improvements

- federal financing of infrastructure (construction of roads, bridges, canals) -

Contract Labor Act of 1864

- federal government helped pay for immigrants' travel expenses - used to bring low-wage workers to US - was repealed in 1868, but not until 1885 did government stop companies from importing foreign laborers

Reconstruction Finance Corporation

- federal program established under President Hoover to loan money to banks and other corporations to help them avoid bankruptcy - made emergency loans - critics called the corporation a "breadline" for businesses while the unemployed went hungry

Mary Elizabeth Lease

- fiery speaker for farm protest movement - became one of Kansas' first female attorneys - gave rousing speeches on behalf of struggling farmers - viewed eastern financiers as the enemy; was against Wall Street

Triangle Shirtwaist Fire

- fire at a factory in NYC due to cramped, unventilated work areas and escape routes were limited because the owners kept stairway door locked to prevent theft - 146 workers trapped on upper floors died or leapt to their deaths - workers were mostly young, foreign-born women in their teens - dozens of city and state regulations dealing with fire hazards, dangerous working conditions, and child labor were enacted after this accident

J. Pierpont Morgan and Company

- firm that invested European money with American businesses - grew into a financial power by helping competing corporations merge and by purchasing massive amounts of stock in American companies and selling them

Bill of Rights

- first 10 amendments to the Constitution - protected freedom of speech, assembly, religion, press, right to bear arm, right to refuse housing soldiers, protection against unreasonable searches and seizures, right to refuse to testify against oneself, right to speedy public trial with attorney present, protection against cruel punishments - only applied to property-owning white males - did not protect Native Americans, slaves, or females - major flaw: did not protect citizens from states violating civil rights

Religious Freedom

- first amendment prohibited enforced religion funded by government - U.S. became first nation to not enforce a religion - most states still had official religion

Edmund Randolph

- first attorney general of US - one time governor of Virginia

Alain Locke

- first black Rhodes Scholar - was guiding spirit of "new" African American culture and played big role as champion of Harlem Renaissance - argued that blacks could shape their future by using the arts to transform their present

Rainbow

- first clipper ship

John Cabot

- first explorer to sight North America - sponsored by King Henry the 7th and allowed England to claim all of North America - Cabot and his ships disappeared

Interstate Commerce Commission

- first federal agency designed to regulate business activities - law allowed members of commission to ensure that railroad freight rates were "reasonable and just" - received criticism because members tended to be former railroad executives - commission's actual powers were weak when challenged in courts by railroads - over time, commission came to be ignored and railroads continued to charge high rates while making secret pricing deals with large shippers

Battle of Belleau Wood

- first hard fought American victory over Germans in France in 1918 - month long battle: US forces were commanded by General John J. "Black Jack" Pershing - American and French forces drove Germans back

Atlantic Seaboard

- first highways in colonial America which provided access to interior and resources - Hudson River was the most important waterways for trading

Virginia Company

- first joint-stock company in the colonies; founded Jamestown; promised gold, conversion of Indian to Christianity, and passage to the Indies - Charter guaranteed new colonists same rights as people back in England.

Battle of Bunker Hill

- first major battle of the Revolution that showed Americans' perseverance - British marched in straight line but were forced back by volleys - Colonists had to retreat due to lack of gunpowder but Britain won at extremely costly price

Battle of Midway

- first major defeat for Japanese navy and a turning point of Pacific war - Admiral Yamamoto steered his main Japaneses fleet toward Midway, the westernmost of Hawaii's inhabited islands from which he hoped to strike Peal Harbor again - Americans had cracked Japanese military radio code, allowing Admiral Chester Nimitz, commander of the US central Pacific fleet, to learn where Yamamoto's fleet was heading - Americans surprised Japanese and used their warplanes to destroy the Japanese fleet - American victory blunted Japans military momentum, eliminated threat to Hawaii, and bought time for US to organize its industrial productivity

Securities Act of 1933

- first major federal legislation to regulate sale of stocks and bonds - required every corporation that issued stock for public sale to disclose all relevant information about operations and management of the company so investors could know what they were buying

Emergency Relief Appropriation Act

- first major initiative of Second New Deal - largest peacetime spending bill of $4.8 billion in history to that point - included an array of job programs managed by a new agency, the Works Progress Administration

Charles Lindbergh

- first man to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean - led the America First Committee - openly sympathized with Nazism and fascism - claimed that Roosevelt's efforts to help Britain were driven by Jews and claimed that were it not for Jews in America then America would not be on the verge of war - assured Americans that Britain was doomed and that they should join hands with Hitler - claimed "democracy as we know it is a thing of the past" and "one of the first step must be to disenfranchise the Negro"

King William's War

- first of four major wars fought in Europe and colonies that pitte Britain and European allies against Frand or Spain - conflicts centered on intense struggle for power between British and French and shifted balance of power in Europe

Selective Training and Service Act

- first peacetime conscription in American history - barely passed Congress by a single vote - required all 16 million men ages 21-35 to register for the draft at one of the 6,500 local draft boards

Plymouth Plantation

- first permanent English settlement in New England - abundant natural resources - had a "starving time" and half died during first winter - discovery of buried Indian corn allowed for survival - local Indian Squanto taught colonists basic survival skills

Jamestown

- first permanent English settlement in North America - many died of disease and famine - refused to grow crops, so they stole Indian corn - experienced such famine colonists even ate dead corpses and cannibalism - many have migrated but many died of disease or Indian massacre; lead to bankruptcy - became a royal colony and Sir William Berkeley became royal governor

Providence

- first permanent settlement in Rhode Island and first in America to allow complete freedom of region - democratically government where all male landowners could vote and no church membership requirement - viewed as "Rogue Island" and a place for rebels and radicals

Richard Lawrence

- first person to attempt to assassinate a U.S. president - was insane and confined to asylum

Maryland

- first proprietary colony, an individual owned company - founded by Cecilius and first proprietary governor: Leonard - wanted diversified agriculture, fortified towns, and conversions - bought land from Indians to avoid war - Calverts could make laws with consent of property holders - Catholics and Protestants feuded violently and led to Calvert appointing Protestants in ruling council and Toleration Act - Catholic ism ended up being banned

Carlo Valdinoci

- first suicide bomber - Italian anarchist who filled a suitcase with dynamite to blow up Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer's home in Washington, D.C. - bombing plan failed when he tripped and fell, causing explosion that shook the whole neighborhood

Battle of Golden Hill

- first violent incident caused by tension - group of Patriots captured 2 British soldiers and angry crowd formed around the British troops - reached Golden Hill and troops attacked colonists but both sides were injured

War of 1812

- first war declared by Congress - US declared war on Britain and Ireland and wanted to stop impressment of sailors and stop Indian-inspired attacks on western frontier - US was unprepared financially and militarily for war and Madison lacked leadership skills - an embarrassing situation based for US based off the lopsided military strength of the British vs. US

Miriam "Ma" Ferguson

- first woman governor of Texas - outlawed school textbooks that included sections on Darwinism - "I am a Christian mother who believes that Jesus Christ died to save humanity"

Amelia Earhart

- first woman to cross Atlantic as a passenger - launched national organization of female pilots - solo piloted a plane non-stop coast to coast across US and set several speed records for women pilots - tried to fly around the globe at the equator but disappeared

Elizabeth Blackwell

- first woman to receive medical degree in U.S. - attended Geneva Medical college and finished first in her class - started New York Infirmary for Women and Children

National Labor Union (NLU)

- focused on improving workplace conditions than bargaining for wages - group promoted 8 hour workday, workers' cooperatives(workers would create and own heir own large-scale manufacturing and mining operations), "greenbackism", and equal voting rights for women and African American - did not allow women as members and discriminated against African American workers

People's Party

- followers were called Populists - rose from discontent from farmers in South and West - swept across poorest rural regions of nation - tied South and West together in an effort to take political control from Republicans in Northeast and Midwest

Olive Branch Petition

- following battle of Bunker Hill - Continental Congress sent King George a petition in hopes of negotiation - was dismissed by King and called Americans enemies

Nathanael Greene

- forced Cornwallis to abandon Carolinas and head for Virginia - known as the "fighting quaker" - took up "hit and run" strategy and sent Daniel Morgans to fight British in South Carolina - lost Battle of Guilford Courthouse but inflicted heavy losses for Cornwallis' army - used guerrilla bands to target British units and forced British back into Charleston and Savannah

Magna Carta

- forced king to approve - everyone had fundamental rights and liberties - nation ruled by laws - everyone equal before law, and no one is above it

American society during war

- forced people to choose sides and split families - colonies were split between those Patriots, loyalists, and those who remained neutral - some Americans switched sides

Ezra Pound

- foreign editor of Chicago-based Poetry magazine - became cultural impresario of modernism - displayed uncompromising urgency to transform literary landscape - recruited, edited, published, and reviewed best modernist writers, improving their writing, bolstering their courage, and propelling their careers - in his poetry, he expressed feeling that WW1 had wasted generation of young men who died in defense of "botched civilization"

Colonies' alliances

- forged crucial military alliances with France, Spain, Netherlands who wanted to decrease Britain's empire - provided colonies with money, supplies, weapons, soldiers, warships

World Court

- formally known as Permanent Court of International Justice created by the League of Nations - intended to arbitrate disputes between nations - US repeatedly refused by the Senate to approve American membership in the court because it did not want US to be bound in any way by an international organization

People's Party (Populists)

- formed at convention led by Alliance leaders - delegates wanted unlimited coinage of silver, a progressive income tax whose rates would rise with income levels, and federal ownership of railroads and telegraph system - also endorsed 8 hour workday and new laws restricting "undesirable" immigration, for fear that immigrants were taking Americans' jobs - nominated James B. Weaver for presidential election of 1888

American Woman Suffrage Association

- formed b Julia Ward Howe and Lucy Stone - insisted that pursuing multiple issues hurt their cause - based in Boston and focused solely on voting rights and included men among its leaders

Anti-Debris Association

- formed by California farmers in Central Valley who protested the damage of industrial mining operations - tried to pass state legislation restricting hydraulic mining but failed because mining companies controlled the votes - turned towards courts and won the case Woodruff v. North Bloomfield Gravel Mining Company

American Protective Association

- formed by Protestant activists in Iowa - secret organization whose members pledged never to employ or vote for a Roman Catholic - worked within local Republican party organizations and helped shape 1894 election results

Liberty Party

- formed by activists in an effort to elect American president who would restrict spread of slavery - nominated James Gillespie Birney - found few supporters

Farmers' Holiday Association

- formed by frustrated farmers after sheriffs began showing up at farms with foreclosure paper - farmers made their case for government assistance and if their demands were not met, they threatened to go on a strike, withholding their crops, milk, and livestock from nation's markets - before association could mobilize, scattered groups of farmers took action and blockaded roads and prevented movement of milk and grains

America First Committee

- formed by isolationists who opposed "military preparedness" - led by Charles Lindbergh

Francis P. Blair

- former Union general who attacked Grant for exercising military tyranny - unapologetic racist and denounced Republicans for promoting equality

South Carolina Secedes

- seceded when Lincoln is elected; fear that Lincoln would prevent expansion of southern cotton economy

Alexander Hamilton

- former aide of Washington who was co-author of The Federalist papers - congressman from New York - became head of Department of the Treasury - advocate for "energetic government" and promoted trade, banking, finance, investment, and manufacturing - called for a national bank

Lewis Cass

- former democratic senator and territorial governor of Michigan - created popular sovereignty to try and remove controversy over slavery

sharecropping

- former slaves had no land, so they had to become farm workers - white landowners would provide land, seed, and tools to poor laborers in exchange for a share of the crop - re-enslaved the workers because farmers could not leave without permission of the owner, or else they would forfeit their portion of the crop - workers who violated the terms of the contract could be evicted from the plantation, which left them jobless and homeless, subject to arrest

Freetown

- former slaves were freed for fighting in war - some resettled in Canada while others went to Sierra Leone where British abolitionists helped them create experimental colony

Battle of Fallen Timbers

- fought between Indians and Americans due to American settlement in Northwest Territory - Americans won and destroyed their crops and villages, and built fort

James Otis

- fought for black and women rights - argued that any colonists born in America were free British subjects and deserve all cvil rights

George Rogers Clark

- fought in northwest frontier during Revolution - Leader of small Patriot force called rangers that captured British-controlled Fort Vincennes in Ohio Valley in 1779 - secured the Northwest Territory for America and took over fort at Kaskaskia

Mary McLeod Bethune

- founded Bethune-Cookman College and served as head of the National Associationn of the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) - was named by Roosevelt as director of the Division of Negro Affairs withing National Youth Administration, an agency that provided jobs to unemployed young Americans - worked with other black staffers in New Deal agencies to form an informal "Black Cabinet"to ensure that African Americans had equal access to federal programs

Mennonites

- founded Germantown and represented first wave of German migrants

Thomas Hooker

- founded Hartford, Connecticut - resented Winthrop's grip on politics and believed all men should be able to vote

Samuel de Champlain

- founded Port-Royal in Acadia ad established Quebec - governed New France on behalf of trading companies - sent people to live with natives in order for colony to survive; fur trade was developed

Shakers

- founded by "Mother" Ann Lee - devoted to Second Coming of Christ - adopted life of strict chastity and developed eccentric forms of worship - had many rules: no pets, no rugs, no mixing of garden plants, no more than one rocking chair in a room, no "scuffing along, but lift your feet squarely and properly" - all property was held in common; life and labor were communal and all men and women were equal - people of color were welcomed - known for producing furniture

Comstock Lode

- founded by Henry Comstock near Gold Hill, Nevada - a seam of gold and silver more than 50 feet wide and thousands feet deep; was the most profitable mine in history at that point

Singer Sewing Machine Company

- founded by Isaac Merritt Singer - initially only produced industrial sewing machines for textile mills but eventually offered machines for home use - revolutionized "women's work" by reducing time needed to make clothes at home

Standard Oil Company

- founded by John D. Rockefeller - became largest oil refiner in the nation; controlled more than 90% of the nation's oil refining business

Mormons

- founded by Joseph Smith - believed that God, angels, and people were all members of the same flesh-and-blood species - criticized sins of the rich; preached universal salvation; denied that there was a hell; urged followers to avoid liquor, tobacco and caffeine; asserted that Second Coming of Christ was coming - stood out with their secret rituals, refusal to abide local laws and conventions, and their clannishness

Granger Movement

- founded by Oliver H. Kelley who wanted to address problem of social isolation of people living on small farms - Kelley created National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry also known as the Grange - started out offering social events and educational programs for farmers ad their families - as it grew, it began to promote cooperatives where farmers could come together to store and sell their crops to avoid high fees charged by brokers and other middlemen - convinced state legislatures to pass Granger laws to prevent unfair fees from grain warehouses and railroad companies

African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church

- founded by Richard Allen due to racial discrimination - grew quickly and even initiated first civil rights movement and promoted economic and educational opportunities for people of color

Sears, Roebuck and Company

- founded by Richard Sears and Alvah Roebuck - located in Chicago and was one of the largest businesses in the nation - catalog featured groceries, drugs, tools, furniture, household products, musical instruments, farm implements, shoes, clothes, books, and sporting goods - company's ability to buy goods in high volume from wholesalers enabled them to sell items at prices below those offered in general stores - transformed the lives of millions; families on farms or in small towns could purchase by mail products that had once been wither too expensive or only available to city dwellers

New France/Quebec

- founded by Samuel de Champlain - French government only allowed Catholics to live in New France causing colon's growth to suffer - much less colonizers than British and most were men - royal colony under Louis xiv and had no political rights or elected legislature - had one advantage over British: had access to rivers which allowed for great fur system

Salvation Army

- founded in London in 1878 and came to US - centers offered soup kitchens to feed the poor and day nurseries for children of working mothers

National Woman Suffrage Association

- founded in NYC by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton - promoted women's suffrage amendment to the Constitution - Anthony and Stanton condemned both 14th and 15th amendment for limiting voting rights to men only - campaigned for new laws requiring higher pay for working women and making it easier for abused wives to get divorces

Henry Ford

- founder of Fort Motor Company - pledged to build a car for the multitude and vowed to democratize the automobile - sold millions of identical cars at small profit to keep prices low and wages high - most celebrate model, Model T (Tin Lizzie), came in one color and was sold everywhere

Jane Addams

- founder of Hull House - served on governmental and community boards in Chicago and focused on improving public health and food safety - pushed for better street lighting, police protection in poor neighborhoods, and to reduce misuse of narcotics - ardent pacifist and outspoken advocate for women suffrage rights (voting rights) - first American woman to win Nobel Peace Prize

Joseph Smith Jr.

- founder of Mormonism - was 18 when an angel named Moroni appeared and told him that God needed his help and led him to a hillside where he unearthed a box containing golden plates which had a lost gospel etched on them - translated inscriptions on plates which most of it came from the Bible - began gathering thousands of converts and formed Mormons - denied legitimacy of civil governments and Constitution - became religious dictator of Nauvoo - lust for power and women grew and declared that God wanted men to have multiple wives - intended to be president of US and proclaimed that nation should peacefully acquire Texas, Oregon, Mexico and Canada

John Humphrey Noyes

- founder of Oneida Community - announced that he was "perfect" and free of all sin and that God had singled him out as his divine instrument on Earth - announced doctrine, "complex marriage" - "In a holy community there is no more reason why sexual intercourse should be restrained by law than why eating and drinking should be"

Ann Lee

- founder of the Shakers - trauma of childbirth and loss of her children convinced her that sexual activity was "indecent" and sinful - took shelter among Shaking Quakers and became devoted to creating a utopia for God - believed God and Jesus spoke to her directly and others believed that "the candle of the Lord was in her hand" - moved followers to upstate NY and pursued Christian perfection isolated from rest of the corrupt world

Battle of Leyte Gulf

- four battles fought in Philippine Sea from October 23-26 for Allied forces trying to invade the Philippines - largest naval engagement in history and the worst Japanese defeat of the war - around 216 US warships engaged with 64 Japaness ships and in the end 36 Japanese warships including 4 aircraft carriers had been destroyed - included the first Japanese kamikaze attacks

Free Persons of Color

- free African Americans - uncertain and vulnerable social status and lived in fear of being kidnapped into slavery - could enter into contracts, marry, own property, and pass on their property to children - were not viewed or treated equal to whites - could not vote, own weapons, attend white churches, or testify against whites in court

Thomas Jeremiah

- free black man who was executed for supposedly inciting rebellion by telling slaves that British troops were coming to save them - trial had no judge, jury, or attorney - Henry Laurens convicted him and sentence him to death

Jarena Lee

- free black who lived in Philadelphia - was the first African American woman to become a minister in AME - "If man may preach, because the Saviour died for him, why not the woman? Seeing [as] he died for her also"

William Still

- free black who sheltered runaway slaves as they made their way into Canada - helped 800 fugitive slaves make their way to freedom

David Walker

- free black who was radical figure among Garrisonians - published his "Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World" which denounced hypocrisy of white Christians in South for defending slavery - urged slaves to revolt and challenged African Americans to gain their freedom - pamphlet was secretly brought to South, and was even banned in some Southern states - was murdered

public schools

- free schools that served all children to give them equal chance to pursue American dream - by 1840s, most states in North and Midwest had joined public school movement - funds for buildings, books, and equipment were limited and teachers were poorly paid and unprepared - in 1827, Massachusetts required every town of 500 or more residents to have a high school but not every state was as progressive - southern states did not establish public schools until after Civil War because enslaved children were prohibited from learning and children were needed to do farm work

Solomon Northup

- freeborn African American who was kidnapped and sold to Louisiana cotton planter - after he regained his freedom, he wrote Twelve Years a Slave describing his living and work conditions

Denmark Vesey

- freed slave in Charleston who planned slave rebellion to first capture city's arsenal and distribute it to free and enslaved blacks; all whites would be killed along with any blacks that refused to join rebellion - plan never got off the ground because a slave told his owner about the rebellion and Vesey and 135 others were captured, arrested, and convicted - Vesey and 34 others were executed

Richard Allen

- freed slave in Philadelphia who was a Methodist - "there was no religious sect or denomination that would suit the capacity of the colored people as well as the Methodist" - created and created new denomination and Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church and

Jethro Woods

- from New York and introduced iron plow which eased laborious job of tilling soil

Mountain Men

- fur trappers who embraced rough-hewn and solitary existence in wilderness of northwest

Fifteenth Amendment

- gave African American men the right to vote - prohibited states from denying a citizen's right to vote on grounds of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude" - deepened southern resentment for Reconstruction and many former Confederate states tried to restrict black voting by placing poll taxes and troublesome registration procedures

Treaty of Greenville

- gave America all of Ohio after General Mad Anthony Wayne battled and defeated the Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers - established clear boundaries between Indian and American territories

Thomas Gates

- governor of Jamestown in the English colony of Virginia - brought new colonists to Jamestown - was about to abandon Jamestown - rebuilt Virginia settlements and imposed system of laws

William Jennings Bryan

- gave final speech at Democratic convention before presidential balloting began - spoke passionately about unlimited coinage of silver and attacked Cleveland's "do-nothing" response to the depression - in his convention speech, he claimed that two ideas about the role of government were competing for American voters - claimed Republicans believed that if they made laws to make the wealthy prosperous, their prosperity will leak through to the poor - claimed Democrats believed that if you made laws to make the masses prosperous their prosperity will find its way up through the social classes - identified himself with Jesus Christ and included Christian imagery in his speech - Republicans were not amused by his speech and Democratic party was fractured - won the presidential nomination - championed the poor and called for expansion of federal government to help working class

democratized Christianity

- gave people the path to salvation and people could choose to be saved simply by embracing Jesus's promise of salvation

Popular Sovereignty

- gave voters in each territory right to vote - appealed those eager to protect states' rights because it solved debate over slavery - did not allow African Americans to vote for their fate and allowed majority of whites to take away their freedom

Charles Cornwallis

- general of British army who had most of Georgia and South Carolina under British control - sent lieutenants into countryside to organize loyalists and assault Patriots; led to many neutral rural folks joining Patriots - encouraged loyalists to wage war against patriots

Frontier Revivals

- generated intense emotions as people experienced on-the-spot conversions - not everyone was for overwrought religious emotionalism - dominated by Baptist and Methodist factions

Jacksonian Democracy

- goal was to "poor and humble" from rich and gave laboring classes the right to vote - campaigning became popular form of mass entertainment and Jackson sought votes among people

California Gold Rush

- gold discovered in Sutter's mill and news of gold spread across nation - many men set off for California to find gold (greatest mass migration in American history at that point) - affected economy and Native Americans - transformed San Francisco into largest city west of Chicago and was a masculine society

Civil Service Commission

- government agency created by the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act - George H. Pendleton convinced Congress to establish the commission - purpose was to fill federal jobs on the basis of merit - first regulatory agency

Works Progress Administration

- government agency established to manage several federal job programs created under the New Deal - became the largest employer in the nation - built

Liberty Bonds

- government certificates that guaranteed the purchaser a fixed rate of return - purpose was to raise taxes to finance war efforts - government recruited celebrities to promote bond purchases, arguing that they were both patriotic and smart investments

British Colonial System

- governments were headed by royal governor who appointed officials - could elect legislatures and assemble - only adult males with property could vote -assemblies had influence over royal governors and colonists could self-govern

William Henry Harrison

- governor of Indiana Territory who gathered troops and defeated Native Americans at Battle of Tippecanoe

Lecompton Constitution

- governor of Kansas resigned and Buchanan replaced him with Robert Walker - Walker pledged to Kansas (free-state) that new constitution would be submitted to a fair vote but pro-slavery convention drafted constitution where Kansas would become a slave state and exclude free blacks - opponents of slavery boycotted voting for constitution which allowed pro-slavery constitution to be approved - Buchanan urged Congress to approve constitution which caused outrage across northern states

DeWitt Clinton

- governor of New York who took lead in Erie Canal project

Wiliam Berkeley

- governor of Virginia and one of the Lords Proprietors Carolina - After Bacon's rebellion, Berkeley refused to act against Indians and had 23 of rebels hanged - king denounced him a fool for hanging rebels

Samoans

- granted US a naval base at Pago Pago and extraterritoriality for Americans, exchanged trade concessions, and called for US to help resolve any disputes with other nations - worked out similar agreement with Germany and Britain - civil war broke out in 1887 and a peace conference established a protectorate system with Germany, Britain and US in partnership in administering island nation

patroonship

- granted cast estates to influential men - patroons controlled large domains farmed by tenants(renters who paid living fees), warehouses, smokehouses, and docks

Pennsylvania Backcountry

- great distribution for ethnic groups of European origins - had reached Appalachian mountain range and went southwards toward Shenandoah Valley and into Carolina and Georgia - Germans were first white settlers in Upper Shenandoah Valley

Spanish Armada

- greatest invasion fleet in history at that time - consisted of 132 warships, 8000 sailors, and 18000 soldiers

Panama Canal

- greatly debated; would enable ships to travel from Pacific Ocean directly to Gulf of Mexico and cut travel distance between San Francisco and NYC by 8,000 miles - one of the greatest engineering feats in history - took over 10 years and some 60,000 workers - used dynamite and steam shovels to gouge out canal - a third of workers died from malaria or yellow fever and others get killed or injured from construction

Baptist theology

- grounded in biblical fundamentalism and that every word and story in the Bible were divinely inspired and literally true - believed that everyone could gain salvation by choosing to receive God's grace and being baptized as adults - stressed social equality of all regardless of wealth, status, or education

Mayflower Compact

- group contract to form just and civil laws - pilgrims granted themselves right to vote and hold office - inferiors (strangers/servants) had to wait for civil rights - government grew out of church government and members of each were equal

railroads

- had the largest form of transportation that played a large role in developing interconnected national marketplace - symbolized impact of innovative technologies on industrial development and maturation of national economy - compressed time and distance; could move masses of people and goods faster, farther, cheaper - prompted creation of uniform national and international time zones and spurred use of wristwatches - first truly big business and catalyst for America's to urban-industrial economy - were expensive and require enormous investments; first to contract with "investment banks" to raise capital by selling shares of stock to investors - were corrupt and cared more about money than safety; dangerous working conditions killed many laborers

State Government

- had written constitution which granted limited authority to state governments - colonial governments could elect governors and senates - constitution included bill of rights

Republic of Hawaii

- haoles, elite sugar planters, was against President Cleveland's attempt to restore power back to Hawaiian queen so they turned Hawaii into one-party state - included in its constitution a standing provision for American annexation - was annexed into US by President McKinley which set in motion efforts to create larger American presence in Asia

Exeter Riot

- hard-pressed farmers in New Hampshire surrounded the legislative building, demanding that the representatives print paper money to ease their plight

Valley Forge

- harshest winter for Washington's troop and any left or were too ill - to create distraction, Washington put Steuben in charge of a rigorous training program

Dr. Walter Reed

- head of the Army Yellow Fever Commission - proved that mosquitoes carry yellow fever - his experiments led the way in effective control of disease worldwide

Federal Emergency Relief Administration

- headed by Harry L. Hopkins - was Roosevelt's first effort to deal with massive unemployment - sent money to states to spend on unemployed and homeless

National Recovery Administration

- headed by Hugh S. Johnson and was part of NIRA - primary purpose was to promote economic growth by ignoring anti-trust laws and allowing executives of competing business and labor unions to negotiate "codes of fair competition", which set prices, production levels, minimum wages, and maximum hours within each industry - administration codes also included "fair labor" policies: a national 40 hour workweek with a maximum 8 hour workday, minimum weekly wages of $13, and a ban on employment of children under the age of 16 - also guaranteed right of workers to organize unions - represented radical shift in federal government's role in economy: they had never take charge of setting prices,wages, and standards for working conditions - small business owners complained that the fixed pricing robbed small producers of the chance to compete with large corporations - Supreme Court declared administration unconstitutional for assigning lawmaking powers to the administration in violation of the Constitution which granted that power only to Congress

steam radiator

- heating innovation that made construction of larger apartment buildings financially feasible - replaced expensive coal-burning fireplaces and chimneys, which were no longer required in each apartment

Scopes Trial

- highly publicized 1925 trial of a high school teacher in Tennessee for violating a state law that prohibited the teaching of evolution - John T. Scopes, a 24 year old substitute high-school science teacher, was arrested for teaching Darwin's theory of evolution - jury found Scopes guilty but Tennessee Supreme Court waived Scopes's $100 fine on a technicality so both sides claimed victory - the trial was seen as the climax of the fundamentalist war on Darwinism. - symbolized waning of an old order in America and rise of a modern outlook

Bartolomé de Las Casas

- horrified by the treatment of the Indians by Spaniards - resolved in 1514 to spend rest of his life aiding Indians and was called "Protester of the Indians" - tried to change the Spanish approach claiming it was "unjust and tyrannical" - advocated for peaceful means of converting Indians - was banished from the island by angry colonists

Phoebe Worrall Palmer

- hosted revival meetings in her NYC home - traveled across the United States as camp meeting exhorter, assuring listeners that they could gain life without sin - claimed a woman's right to preach by citing the biblical emphasis on obeying God rather than man - "It is always right to obey the Holy Spirit's command and if that is laid upon a woman to preach the Gospel, then it is right for her to do so; it is a duty she cannot neglect without falling into condemnation"

Hell on Wheels

- huge mobile camps built to house the crew building transcontinentals and moved with them - included tents for dance halls, saloons, gambling, and prostitution; was wild and dangerous - were many murders

Township Grants

- huge tracts of land awarded to organized groups of settlers who already had a church congregations - divided land but those who had invested more, had larger families, had a greater status would receive more land

Nullification

- idea popular in South Carolina that John Quincy Adams declared would lead to "organized civil war" - states could veto a federal law it found unconstitutional - was the ultimate weapon for those who wanted to protect state rights

Puritan work ethic

- idea that work is a gift from God and a means of glorifying Him - celebrated American newness, idea that newness was the prime creator of culture

Utopian Communities

- ideal communities with innovative social and economic relationships - in 19th century, more than 100 were created - religious motives prompted many of these communities while others reflected faith in the Enlightenment ideal that every social problem had a solution discoverable by scientific study

Naturalization Act

- immigrants had to live in America for 7 years, swear a loyalty oath, provide proof for Protestant religion to become official subjects in British Empire - excluded Roman Catholics but made exceptions for Jews

New Immigrants

- immigrants who came after 1890 - immigrants came from southern and eastern Europe - languages and cultural backgrounds were different from previous immigrants or native-born Americans - dominant religions were Judaism, Eastern Orthodox, and Roman Catholicism

Chinese Immigrants

- immigrated to America due to discovery of gold - hired to build transcontinental railroads and earned low wages in America - hostility of whites forced them from jobs during recession - were ineligible for citizensip

Dorothea Lynde Dix

- important figure in boosting awareness of mentally ill - pious Boston schoolteacher and was asked to instruct a Sunday-school class at East Cambridge House of Correction but she found roomful of insane people - began researching jails and almshouses and sent report of mistreatment of the mentally ill to state legislature - won support of leading reformers and carried out one-woman campaign on behalf of the insane - helped transform social attitudes toward mental illness

Lowell system

- improve industrial efficiency and ideal industrial communities - hired mostly young women to operate spinning machines and looms for $2.50 per week - provided "Lowell girls" with tolerable work, prepared meals, comfortable boardinghouses, and education - Lowell became industrial city and mill owners began cutting wages and quickening pace of work - began hiring Irish immigrants who were desperate for jobs so they rarely complained

Isaac Merritt Singer

- improved sewing machine and created Singer Sewing Machine Company

Sand-Lot Incident

- in California, national railroad strike gave rise to a working class political movement - meeting held to express sympathy for railroad strikers ended with white laborers attacking Chinese workers out of belief that Asians had taken their jobs - anti-Chinese sentiment led to Workingmen's Party of California, whose goal was for US to stop Chinese immigration

Bacon's Rebellion

- in Virginia many whites were landless and tension led to rebellion - argument over hogs between white planter and Indians led to murder of planter's herdsman; so white vigilantes killed 24 Indians and 5 chieftains - Indians took revenge on frontier settlements but governor Berkeley refused to take action against Indians - Bacon allied with servants, farmers, slaves against Indians - "Declaration of the People of Virginia" to accuse Berkeley of corruption and ended up burning Jamestown - Bacon later died and 23 of rebels were hanged but Berkeley was denounced a fool

Erie Canal

- in central New York that connected Great Lakes and Midwest to Hudson River and New York City - drew eastward much of Midwestern trade and developed Chicago into bustling city - longest canal in the world and built by immigrants - brought unending stream of lumber, grain, flour, and goods that allowed western settlement - reduced cost of moving a ton of freight and was extremely profitable - had political consequences as it isolated the Southern economy from the Midwest and East

Indian Peace Commision

- in charge of removing causes of wars with Indians and relocated them - moved Kiowas, Comanches, Aprapahos, and Cheyennes to western Oklahoma - moved Sioux to Black Hill Reservation through Treaty of Fort Laramie

Rutherford B. Hayes

- in his annual message in 1877, he said that Indian wars were result of broken promises by Americans

child labor

- in late nineteenth century, millions of children took up work outside the home - increased as parents desperate for income put their children to work - many worked in factories, mills, mines, and canneries; were especially dangerous and many suffered 3 times as many accidents as adult workers

Tonnage fees

- in response to Britain banning U.S. trade - state governments imposed special taxes on British vessels arriving in American ports and levied taxes on British goods - British responded by sending ships to states with lower tariff rates - different tariffs caused commercial wars between states and made it evident that national government needed to regulate interstate trade and foreign relations

Newspapers

- increase in AMerican literature coincided with massive expansion in newspaper readership - rapid improvements in printing technology and availability of mass-produced newspapers for only a penny transformed daily reading into from of popular entertainment - forged network of communication across nation

King Philip's War

- increase of English settles and decline of beaver population led to Indians in poverty - Metacom (King Phillip) of Wampanoags resented English effort to convert and take land - 3 Wampanoags killed after accused of murder so Wampanoag warriors burned Puritan farms - back and forth wars of violence - war resulted in half of Indian population dead

Federal Trade Commission

- independent agency created by Wilson administration that replaced Roosevelt's Bureau of Corporations as a tool to combat unfair trade practices and monopolies - assumed powers to define "unfair trade practices" and to issue "cease and desist" orders when ti found evidence of such practices

Spanish Influenza

- infectious disease that produced far more casualties than the war - originated from Kansas and spread across the globe - strained public health system to breaking point: hospitals ran short of beds, nurses, and doctors; funeral homes ran out of coffins - fear seized population: schools and churches closed and people stayed at home - no disease in human history had killed so many in such a short time

Transcendental Club

- informal discussion group that met in Boston to discuss philosophy, literature, and religion - included cultural rebels, social critics, liberal clergymen, Utopian reformers, militant abolitionists, innovative writers, and women

John Randolph

- initial Jeffersonian but emerged as most conservative "Old Republicans" - senate's most flamboyant character and the wittiest insulter in Congress (told opponents to sit down and shut up) - described himself as "aristocrat. I love liberty. I hate equality" - opposed any compromise with Federalists, any expansion of federal authority at expense of states' rights, new taxes or tariffs, any change in South's way of life in slavery

Henry VIII

- initially supported the Catholic Church but turned against them over divorce - wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon due to no male heir - pope refused so Henry separated England from the Catholic Church - was excommunicated from the Catholic Church and became the head of the Church of England

Westward Expansion

- inspired by profits, freedom, possibilities - by 1840 40% of population lived west of Appalachian Mountains -settlers and farmers bough acres of government-owned land - Native Americans resisted expansion but succumbed to federal government's determination to relocate them

Deism

- inspired leaders like Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin - believed in rational God who created universe and that all people were created as equals - prized science and reason over traditional religion and unquestioning faith - did not believe that every statement in Bible was literally true and questioned divinity of Jesus - defended free speech and opposed religious coercion

Horses

- instilled fear in the Indians and made them respect the leaders of the Spanish army

Selective Service Act

- instructed local boards to register men ages 21-30 for the draft - community draft boards were supposed to be unbiased but many were not

Navigation Acts 1651, 1660, 1663

- intended to increase control over colonial economies - 1651: all goods going to and from colonies must be carried on English owned ships; meant to stop trade between Dutch - 1660: certain colonial products (ex:tobacco) were only to be shipped to England or other colonies 1663: also called Staples Act and required all shipments from Europe to America first stop in Britain to be taxed

Mabel Puffer and Arthur Hazzard

- interracial couple between a black and a white - news caused uproar that no mayor would approve the marriage - Boston Evening Globe ran provocative story - Hazzard was arrested on charge of "enticement" and Puffer was taken into custody because she was deemed "insane"

Virginia Resolves

- introduced by Patrick Henry - Virginians should be treated like Englishmen so only legislature could tax people - spread through colonies and many legislatures followed

Nikola Tesla

- invented alternating current motor (dynamos)

Telegraph System

- invented by Samuel F. B. Morse. - major cities benefited from telegraph lines and allowed people to communicate faster and easier across long distances - triggered many changes

Bessemer conveter

- invented by Sir Henry Bessemer - could make high-quality steel more quickly by blasting oxygen through the molten iron in a furnace - made steel inexpensive to produce

George Westinghouse

- invented railway air brake and developed first alternating-current electric system (1886) - established Westinghouse Electric Company - improved upon alternating-current motor and sold them

Elisa Howe

- invented sewing machine and patented his design

James Watt

- invented the stea engine that mechanized production of textiles

Robert Fulton

- invented the steamboat

Samuel F.B. Morse

- invented the telegraph - sent first intercity telegraph from Washington, D.C. to Baltimore, Maryland - took lead in anti-Catholic/anti-Irish crusade

Alexander Graham Bell

- invented the telephone in 1876 - experimented with concept of a "speaking telegraph" or talking through wires - patented his device and started American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) - developed long distance telephone lines that revolutionized communication

Charles Goodyear

- invented vulcanized rubber, making it stronger, more elastic, waterproof, and winter-proof - patented process for vulcanizing rubber

Election of 1912

- involved 4 strong candidates: Democrat Woodrow Wilson, Republican William Howard Taft, Socialist Eugene V. Debs, and Progressive Theodore Roosevelt - candidates all shared basic progressive assumption that modern social problems could be resolved only through active governmental intervention - Taft quickly lost ground and essentially gave up, leaving contest between Roosevelt's New Nationalism and Wilson's New Freedom - Wilson won easily, collecting 435 electoral votes to 88 for Roosevelt and just 8 for Taft - had the Republicans not divided their votes between Taft and Roosevelt, Wilson would have lost

The Great War (WWI)

- involved more nations and caused greater destruction than any previous conflict - resulted from long-simmering national rivalries and ethnic conflicts in Europe as imperial nations competed for foreign colonies and military supremacy - 2 alliances pledged to come to defense of their members, thus dividing Europe into 2 armed camps - fighting began in Balkan Peninsula, when heir of Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his pregnant wife Sophie, were assassinated on visit to Sarajevo by Gavrilo Pincip, a Serbian nationalist - Austria-Hungary issued unreasonable ultimatums to avenge the murders and prepared for war anyways - Russia responded to Austria-Hungary's preparation for war by mobilizing its army to defend Serbia, triggering other members of European military alliances - Germany, expecting a short war, declared war on Russia and France, and German troops invaded neutral Belgium to get France, causing Great Britain to enter the war - more destruction due to powerful new weapons, which changed nature of warfare - at first, both sides talked about "glory" and "glamour" of war, but as casualties soared, notions of romantic glory died

Royal Proclamation of 1763

- issued by George III to create peace with Indians - settlers were not allowed to cross imaginary line from Appalachian Mountains to Canada - enraged settlers like Washington who wanted land

Proclamation of Amnesty

- issued by Johnston that excluded ex-Confederates that Lincoln had banned from voting along with those with property worth more than $20,000 - determined to keep wealthiest southerners from gaining political power

Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction

- issued by Lincoln and part of his plan for reconstruction - former Confederate states could re-create Union government once 10% of those who voted in 1860 swore allegiance to the Constitution - Confederates received presidential pardon from treason except for government officials, senior officers of army and navy, judges, congressmen, military officers of US who had left their posts to join Confederacy, and those who abused captured African American soldiers

Wade-Davis Manifesto

- issued by Radical Republicans in response to Lincoln vetoing Wade-Davis Bill - accused Lincoln of exceeding his constitutional authority

Proclamation of Neutrality

- issued by Washington that declared the U.S. neutral during French Revolution - "friendly and impartial toward the belligerent powers" and warned U.S. citizens that they might be prosecuted for "aiding or abetting hostilities"

Susan B. Anthony

- joined women's crusade in 1850s - was unmarried therefore able to devote most of her attention to the movement - focused on women's suffrage (the right to vote)

Atlantic Charter

- joint statement crafted by Franklin D. Roosevelt and British prime minister Winston Churchill that listed the war goals of the Allied Powers - agreement pledged that after destruction of Nazi, the victors would promote self-determination of all peoples, economic cooperation, freedom of the seas, and a new multination system of international security to be called the United Nations - within weeks, 11 anti-Axis nations, including the Soviet Union, had endorsed the charter

Virginia Colony

- joint-stock enterprise ordered by James I to Christianize Indians - owned by investors ("adventurers") who wanted gold and silver

National Prohibition Act of 1919

- known as Volstead Act - outlined rules and regulations needed to enforce Eighteenth Amendment - had many loopholes that it guaranteed failure - never stated that drinking alcohol was illegal, only the manufacture, distribution, and sale of alcoholic beverages - people were allowed to keep and drink any liquor owned on January 16, 1919 so people stocked up before the law took effect - loss of liquor taxes cost federal government 10% of its annual revenue and closing of breweries eliminated thousands of jobs

Anasazi

- known for their southwest pueblo cultures - also known as Basketmakers - did not have rigid class structure - religious leaders and warriors worked like the rest of the people

Lost Generation

- label given to modernist writers and authors, such as F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway, who had lost faith in the values and institutions of Western civilization in the aftermath of WW1 - were frantically looking fora new god to worship

Industrialization

- labor saving and water-and-steam powered industries reshaped Northeast's economic and social life - improvements and new machines in agriculture led to increase in productivity - mills and factories transformed every aspect of life - changed politics, legal system, family dynamics, and social values which helped expand prosperity and freedom for whites and free blacks - sparked vigorous debates over economic policies, transportation improvements, and extension of slavery in new territories

Continentals

- lack of state support for budget forced Congress to print paper money - value plummeted as more were printed

Articles of Confederation

- land gained from Revolutionary war that was outside the boundaries of 13 original states became owned and administered by national government - created loose alliance of 13 independent states - state governments acted on their own; "each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence" - national government only had one-house legislature - state legislatures, not voters, appointed members of Congress - each state only had one vote regardless of population - could not regulate trade, create taxes to pay off war debts - could approve treaties but couldn't force men to serve - could not enforce laws and budget relied on voluntary contributions from states

headright system

- land grant program to attract more colonists - Englishman who bought a share in company and could pay for passage to Virginia would have 50 acres of land and 50 more for each servant he brought

headright system

- land grant that gave 50 acres to colonists who brought indentured servants into America - were used by the Virginia Company to attract more colonists.

seigneuries

- large grants of land issued by Louis XIV

Bonanza Farms

- large scale farms owned by giant corporations - hired hundreds of migrant workers to use equipment to harvest crop - in west, farms used latest machinery and scientific techniques and became internationally famous for their productivity - stimulated industrial sector

Carnegie Steel Company

- largest industrial company in the world - due to frenzied pursuit of progress, no safety regulations were established which led to dangerous working conditions

Stono Rebellion

- largest slave uprising in colonial period - 20 slaves led by Jemmy attacked a store in Stono and killed 2 shopkeepers and seized weapons - headed south and gathered recruits, burned plantations, and killed whites - militiamen caught the slaves and killed them - rebellion frightened plantation owners and importations of African slaves was baned for 10 years and Negro Act of 1740 was placed

Bad Axe Massacre

- last battle of Black Hawk War - militiamen murdered hundreds of women and children as they tried to escape and scalped dead Indians and used their flesh as strops to sharpen razors

War of 1898 (Spanish-American War)

- lasted only 114 days but transformed role of US in the world - conflict was barely under way when US Navy won big victory at Manila Bay: George Dewey, commander of US Asiatic Squadron, engaged Spanish warships in Manila Bay, Philippines, with modern warships - with help of Emilio Aguinaldo, leader of Filipino nationalist movement, Dewey's forces entered Manila and accepted surrender of Spanish troop

Gag Rule

- law passed by Southern congress which made it illegal to talk of abolition or anti-slavery arguments in Congress

Helpburn Act

- law that gave federal Interstate Commerce Commission power to set maximum freight rates for railroad industry

Espionage Act of 1917

- law where anyone who helped the enemy, encouraged insubordination, disloyalty, refusal of duty in armed services, or interfered with war effort could be imprisoned for up to 20 years

Slave Codes

- laws of each state that regulated treatment of slaves in order to prevent runaways or rebellions - slaves could not leave their owner's land or household without permission or stay out after dark without an identification pass - slaves could not read and write, testify in court, legally marry, own firearms, or hit a white man

slave codes

- laws regulating most aspects of slaves' lives - included rules that declares Africans who were sold were slaves for life as well as their children

Eugene V. Debs

- leader of American Railway Union - spokesmen for labor radicalism and worked to organize all railway workers, skilled or unskilled, into American Railway Union - was impossible to dislike; was a truly good person - intervened in Pullman controversy and urged angry workers to bey the laws and avoid violence - pleaded with Pullman for negotiated settlement but was denied, so Railway union stopped handling trains containing Pullman railcars - was convicted for violating the injunction signed by a federal judge, which prohibited the labor union from interfering, and was sentenced to 6 months in jail - mobilized a socialist-based working-class movement, Western Federation of Miners

Francis Cabot Lowell

- leader of Boston Associates who launched first textile mill

Marcus Garvey

- leader of black nationalism - claimed to speak for all 400 million blacks worldwide - insisted that blacks had nothing in common with whites and called for racial separation - stressed that "black skin is not badge of shame, but rather glorious symbols of national greatness" - urged African Americans to cultivate black solidarity and "black power" - goal was to build all-black empire in Africa and called himself "Provisional President of Africa" and raised funds to send Americans to Africa and expelled any member who married a white - message of black nationalism and racial solidarity appealed to poor blacks in northern cities but he also had supporters across rural south - his movement appalled some black leaders who called him a lunatic or traitor - was convicted of fraud for overselling shares of stock in steamship corporation, and was sentenced to 5 years in prison but later pardoned by President Calvin Coolidge on condition that he be deported to Jamaica

Samuel Gompers

- leader of the American Federation of Labor - focused on concrete economic gains: higher wages, shorter hours, and better working conditions - never opposed industrial unions

A. Philip Randolph

- leader of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters - planned a march on Washington, D.C. to demand an end to racial discrimination in defense industries and struck a deal with Roosevelt administration: he would call of the march in return for a presidential order requiring equal treatment in hiring of workers

Emilio Aguinaldo

- leader of the Filipino independence movement against Spain - proclaimed the independence of the Philippines and was chosen by Filipinos to be their president - forced to surrender to US in Philippine-American War

Thaddeus Stevens

- leader of the Radical Republicans in Congress - believed in harsh punishments for the South - resented Johnston's efforts to bring South back into Union as quick as possible

Samuel Adams

- leader of the Sons of Liberty - organized Committee of Correspondence in response to Gaspee incident - wrote letter that stated illegality of taxation without representation

Josef Stalin

- leader of the Soviet Union who rose to power after death of Vladimir Lenin - launched a Great Purge, where some 8 million "critics" of his rule were executed and millions were exiled to forced labor camps

Ida Tarbell

- leading muckraker who led the promotion of reforms - after her father's small oil business was destroyed by John Rockefeller, she spent years investigating and writing about unethical and illegal means by which Rockefeller had built gigantic Standard Oil Trust - stressed that it was "the people of the United States, and nobody else, [who] must cure whatever is wrong in the industrial situation"

General Stephen Van Rensselaer

- led US troops at Battle of Queenston Heights - was a major defeat and many troops surrendered

General Zebulon Pike

- led US troops at Battle of York, causing British and Canadian militiamen to surrender - died during battle, so soldiers sought to gain naval control of Great Lakes

Coxey's Army

- led by "General" Jacob S. Coxey, a wealthy Ohio quarry owner who joined Populists and demanded federal government provide unemployed with meaningful work - marched to Washington, D.C. where Coxey was arrested and army was dispersed

Battle of Monongahela

- led by Edward Braddock and British and failed to take Fort Duqesne - British were ambushed by French and severely defeated

Donner Party

- led by George Donner who led family and 74 other settlers from Illinois to Oregon Trail - made several fatal mistakes: starting too late in the year, overloading their wagons, and taking shortcut to California across Wasatch Mountains - discipline broke down: after challenges mounted - in Wasatch Range, party got lost and had to backtrack, losing 3 weeks in the process - lost 100 oxen and had to abandon several wagons when crossing desert - blizzard trapped them in Truckee Pass - facing starvation, cannibalism became only form of survival

Continental Army

- led by George Washington - soldiers needed intensive training and discipline; those who violated rules were jailed, flogged, sent home,or hanged - many found army life hard and left so army was always shifting

Food Administration

- led by Herbert Hoover - slogan was "food will win the war" - purpose was to increase agricultural production while reducing civilian food consumption because Britain and France needed massive amounts of corn and wheat - Hoover organized huge group of volunteers to urge families and restaurants to participate in "Wheatless" Mondays, "Meatless" Tuesdays, and "Porkless" Thursday and Saturdays

Jeffersonian Republicans

- led by Jefferson, but eventually broke into warring factions - more moderate, pragmatic, and nationalistic - willing to compromise state rights principle to maintain national tariffs on imports, preserve a national bank, and stretch "implied powers" of Constitution to accommodate Louisiana Purchase

Franciscans

- led by Junipero Serra - established Catholic mission in San Diego and more missions were built - missions were larger, more influential, and longer lasting - by 19th century Spanish Catholic missionaries controlled mos of Native Americans - friars(priests) enticed Indians into missions by offering gifts or impressing them with "magical" religious rituals

Battle of Kings Mountain

- led by Major Ferguson - experienced frontiersmen destroyed loyalist army in wooded ridge - Ferguson was killed and battle caused many family feuds. - American victory undermined British strategy to gain loyalists in the south

Liberal Republicans

- led by Senator Carl Schurz - embraced free trade and opposed any government regulation of business and industry while - advocated gold coins as the only reliable currency - wanted to oust "tyrannical" Grant from presidency and end Reconstruction - wanted to lower tariffs and promote "civil service reforms" to end the tyranny of the patronage system - accused Grant of making policies to solely benefit himself - opposed Grant's efforts to suppress racism and Ku Klux Klan terrorism

United Automobile Workers

- led by Walter Reuther - successfully ran a "sit-down" strike against General Motors, afterward General Motors recognized the UAW - company officials responded by turning off heat to the plant, calling police to harass strikers with tear gas, cut off their food supply, and threatening to fire them - strike lasted more than a month and was dubbed "strike heard round the world"

English colonization in Americas

- led by churches and companies - for people who wanted freedom from religious persecution, land and wealth - was expensive, so investors bought joint-stock companies - some immigrants were forced to migrate and were shipped to America as servants

Francisco Pizarro

- led conquest of Inca Empire of Peru in 1531 - killed thousands of Inca warriors, and took all of their possessions including women and gold/silver

Rene-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle

- led expedition from Montreal and into Mississippi to Gulf of Mexico; first European to explore that far - claimed land for France and named it Louisiana

Hernán Cortés

- led expedition to Mexico in 1519 - allied with Totomacs against Aztecs - held Montezuma hostage who was killed - attacked Tenochtitlan by cutting off its access to resources, so smallpox killed majority of Aztecs - became first governor general of "New Spain' and replaced Aztec leaders

General Anthony Wayne

- led military expedition into Northwest Territory where Indians formed Western Confederacy to stop American settlement - led Battle of Fallen Timbers again Indians and won

Oliver Cromwell

- led parliamentary forces and captured King Charles - convicted Charles of high treason and contempt of Parliament and executed him - ruled like a dictator and outlawed Catholics and Anglicans

John Tyler

- left democratic party and joined Whigs after Jackson's "condemnation" of South Carolina's attempt to nullify federal laws - believed states had constitutional right to secede from nation - never truly embraced Whigs and opposed everything associated with Henry Clay's program of economic nationalism - agreed to repeal Independent Treasury Act and signed higher tariff bill but vetoed new national bank - rival with Henry Clay and was expelled from Whigs party

Articles of Confederation

- legalized way things had been operating before independence - reflected fear of monarchy by not allowing for president or chief executive - Confederation Congress had full power over foreign affairs and disputes between states but had no national courts and power to enforce resolutions; congress could not levy taxes and budget needs depended on requisition from states which state legislature ignored - were not willing to create strong central government that might threaten their liberties

Lend-Lease Act

- legislation that allowed the president to lend or lease military equipment to any country whose own defense was deemed vital to the defense of the US - was a bold challenge to the isolationists - US would provide everything the British needed while doing the same for China so that Americans would not have to go to war themselves

Clayton Anti-Trust Act

- legislation that exempted labor unions from anti-trust laws and revived Populists' demand that companies be prohibited from charging different prices to different customers - also banned corporate directors from serving on boards of competing companies

Agricultural Adjustment Act

- legislation that paid farmers to produce less in orders to raise crop prices for all - money came from a tax on the businesses that processed food crops and certain agricultural commodities - was later declared unconstitutional by Supreme Court in case United States v. Butler

Platt Amendment

- legislation that severely restricted Cuban government's independence by required that 1)Cuba never sign a treaty with a third power, 2) that it keeps its debt with the government's power to repay it out of ordinary revenues, 3) acknowledge the right of US to intervene whenever they saw fit, and 4) to sell or lease lands to the US for coaling or naval stations

Congress

- legislative branch of government - divided into House of Representatives and Senate - could write laws, fund other branches of government, approve judges and members of executive branch, impeach and remove president, declare war or make peace

De Lome Letter

- letter sent from Dupuy de Lome, Spanish ambassador to US, to a friend in Havana summarizing McKinley's annual message to Congress - Lome called McKinley "weak and a bidder for the admiration of the crowd, besides being a would-be politician who tries to leave a door open behind himself while keeping good terms with the jingoes (warmongers) oh his party"

Sound Money Policy

- limited currency supply as a means of increasing creditors' profits - farmers and people who had to borrow money to make ends meet claimed that policy lowered prices for their crops and drove them deeper into debts - farmers and miners demanded more paper money and increased coinage of silver, which would inflate the currency supply, raise product prices, and bring them more income

State Constitutions

- most states had their own constitution to spell out the rights of citizens and set limits on the government power

Five Power Treaty

- limited the size of navies in US, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy - first disarmament treaty in history - divided the world into spheres of influence: US naval power became supreme in western hemisphere, Japanese power in western Pacific, and British power from North Sea to Singapore

Emergency Immigration Act

- limited total immigration to 150,000 a year - restricted newcomers from each European country to 3% of the total number of that nationality represented in the 1910 census

Western Front

- line of fighting in northern France and Belgium - Great Britain entered war on front due to "rape of Belgium"

Fourteen Points

- list of provisions developed by Woodrow Wilson intended to shape the peace treaty and postwar world - first 5 points endorsed open conduct of diplomacy rather than backroom deals and secret treaties, recognition of neutral nations' right to continue maritime commerce in time of war, removal of international trade barriers, and worldwide reduction of armaments - most of the other points dealt with territorial claims - point 13 created a new nation for Poland - point 14 created a permanent "league" of nations to preserve global peace

Algonquians

- lived in wigwams (multifamily longhouses) - villages along Atlantic coast were skilled at fishing and gathering shellfish, while inland villages excelled at hunting - traveled using waterways and foraged for wild food - practiced agriculture to some extent

Joseph G. McCoy

- livestock dealer who established Abilene, the first successful cowtown - transformed cattle industry by driving cast herds of cattle northward to Kansas where they would be loaded onto freight cars and transported to rest of the nation - bought 250 acres in Abilene and started cycle of loading cattle onto railcars headed towards Chicago stockyards

Squanto

- local Indian who taught pilgrims how to grow corn, cathc fish, gather nuts and berries, and negotiate with Wampanoags

House of Representatives

- lower legislative house of Congress - seats and votes based on state population and size - represented voters at large and the democratic principle of government - members would be elected by voters every 2 years - could impeach chief executive and civil officers for treason, bribery, or other crimes

Underwood-Simmons Tariff Act

- lowered tariff rates on almost 1,000 imported products - to compensate for reduced tariff revenue, the bill created first income tax

Cotton Gin

- machine that used nails attached to a roller to remove seeds from cotton bolls - was 50 times more productive than hand labor and made cotton America's most profitable crop - transformed southern agriculture, northern industry, race-based slavery, national politics, and international trade

Walker Tariff of 1846

- made by secretary of the Treasury Robert J. Walker - reduced the average rates of the Tariff of 1842 - lower tariffs allowed more foreign goods to compete in American marketplace and help drive consumer prices down

Elkins Act

- made it illegal for railroads to give secret rebates (cash refunds) on freight charges to high-volume business customers

buffalo and bison

- main food source for tribes in the Great Plains - Indians used every part of a buffalo

Overseers

- managed the slaves and were responsible for maintaining buildings, fences, and grounds - usually white farmers or skilled workers, sons of planters, or poor whites eager to rise in stature - tolerated no excuses or explanations and punished slaves

death rate in early settlements

- many died of disease, starvation, or were killed by Native Americans - 50% of early settlers died - more death occurred in young children than any other age group

African American religion

- many former-slaves identified with biblical Hebrews, who were led out of slavery into the "promise land" - former slaves established their own churches that became backbone for black community life - many African Americans became Baptists or Methodists

How did Native Americans deal with Europeans?

- many resisted and retreated - others developed trade relationships - found ways to live by adopting English way of life

bawdy or disorderly houses

- many servants took part in prostitution so port cities were filled with brothels - sailors, soldiers, and men from all walks of life visited brothels - prostitution was looked down upon and many prostitutes were persecuted; men who were seen with prostitutes were looked down on

Africans fighting in war

- many slaves decided to fight in the war in order to gain freedom while others used it to promote freedom

William Hull

- marched disorganized army into Canada, but were pushed back to Detroit by British army - was tricked by British commander's threats to unleash Indian warriors and surrendered without firing a shot - his surrender shocked nation and opened western frontier to raids by British troops - was tried and sentenced to death but pardoned by Madison

Teller Amendment

- marked US entry into war with Spain and denied any intention to annex Cuba

mass culture

- marketplace of retail stores and national brands - created department and chain stores where national retailers bough goods in such large quantities that they were able to get discounted prices for consumers - people saw the same advertisements and bought same products at same store - mass advertising and marketing campaigns

working women

- married women had even less free time than working men - worked to pay themselves - married women often used streets and alleys as their public space washing clothes, supervising children at play, or shopping at local markets - single women often worked as housekeepers and had more leisure time

Dunkirk Evacuation

- mass effort to evacuate British, Belgian, Canadian, and French soldiers from beaches of Dunkirk - despite attacks by German warplanes many soldiers escaped in warships and privately-owned vessels volunteered for the emergency - which evacuation was unfolding, German forces decimated remaining French armies

Great Migration

- mass exodus of African Americans from rural South to Northeast and Midwest during and after WW1 - immigration continued throughout 20s, as African Americans boarded trains bound for "promised land" up north and many landed in large cities - African Americans were lured by better living conditions, better-paying jobs, ability to speak more freely and were treated better than in the South, and educational opportunities for children

Battle of Wounded Knee

- massacre of 300 unarmed Native Americans by U.S. soldiers - US soldiers ordered Indians to surrender weapons but convinced there were more, they began searching tipis when a shot rang out - overeager soldiers began firing indiscriminately into Indians and many were killed including US soldiers

Yalta Conference

- meeting of the "Big Three" Allied leaders, Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin to discuss how to divide control of postwar Germany and Eastern Europe - leaders agreed that once Germany surrendered, the Soviets would occupy eastern Germany, and the American and British would control western Germany; Berlin, the German capital within the Soviet zone would be subject to joint occupation - all 3 leaders also agreed to hold organizational meetings for the United Nation, but to get Stalin's approval, Roosevelt had to agree to his demands for territory held by Japan in northeast Asia

forty-niners (Argonauts)

- men who rushed to California to find instant riches in gold

Thomas Jefferson

- mentioned concern for slavery in "Notes on the State of Virginia" - elected governor of Virginia and appointed Minister to France

triangular trade

- merchants shipped rum and goods to Africa which was exchanged for slaves - slaves were shipped to Caribbean to sell then ships returned back to New England with new goods like molasses which was manfactured to rum

Assault in Canada

- military expedition to Canada to gain alliance with French Canadians - Smallpox weakened the army - attacked British forces defending Quebec but failed miserably and were forced to retreat

African religion

- mixture of African, Caribbean, and Christian elements - provided slaves relief and release for their emotions - belief in a Creator, whom they recognized as God - believed in spirits, magic, charms, and conjuring - white planters assumed Christianized slaves would be more passive and obedient

Negro Act of 1740

- more oversight of slave activities and harsher punishments for rebellion - slaves could not grow food, gather in groups, learn to read and write, earn money on the side, and penalty for white killing a slave was reduced

Harriet Tubman

- most celebrated member of Underground Railroad - escaped to Philadelphia but returned to South 19 times to help some 300 fugitive slaves to freedom - never lost a "passenger" and carried pistol with her - when a fugitive slave would panic and have second thoughts about escaping, she would pull out her gun, point it at the slave, and say "You'll be free or die a slave" - worked as northern spy and scout during Civil War - slave owners had $40,000 bounty for her arrest - "There was two things I had a right to, liberty or death: if I could not have one, I would have the other"

George Whitefield

- most celebrated promoter of Great Awakening and claimed congregations were lifeless because "dead men preach to them" - began 14 month tour to preach crowds to restore religious intensity - urged listeners to experience "new birth", a sudden moment of conversion and salvation

Brook Farm

- most celebrated utopian community because it grew out of transcendental movement - first secular utopian community however the main building burned down and community spirit died

Walt Whitman

- most controversial writer during 19th century - New Yorker who was a Democrat devoted to Andrew Jackson's celebration of the "common man" - wrote about industrial development, urban life, working men, sailors, and "simple humanity" - published Leaves of Grass which emphasized defying tradition sexually - book expressed details of American democracy, "immense in passion, pulse, and power"

Battle of Quebec

- most decisive British victory during French and Indian war - troops attacked French defenders on hilltop fortress - turning point in French and Indian war

Carrie Nation

- most famous member of Women's Christian Temperance Union - known for her attacks on saloons: argued saloons stripped married women of everything by turning husbands into alcoholics

Chinese Immigrants

- most lived in California - first non-European and non-African group to migrate in large numbers to America - easy targets for discrimination: were not white, were not Christian, and many could not read or write - were resented by whites for taking their jobs although many were willing to do menial work that whites refused to do

Emily Dickinson

- most original New England poet - never married and lived with her parents and sister from birth to death - expressed herself through poetry remarkable verses with simplicity and brevity - wrote abut abstract themes: life, death, fear, loneliness, nature, and withdrawal of God

Saloons

- most popular leisure destinations for urban wage workers - were the workingman's social club and were especially popular among immigrants seeking companionship - customers were disproportionately Irish, German, and Italian Catholics - politics was often the topic of intense discussions - men also went to check job postings, participate in labor unions, cash paychecks, mail letters, read newspaper, and gossip - were heated and had restrooms so they served as refuges for the homeless, especially in winter - mainly for men, but women and children could buy beer and use separate rooms especially for them

Ladies' Home Journal

- most popular magazine among women - Edward Bok became editor of magazine and under his direction, magazine provided a "great clearing house of information" to the rapidly growing urban middle class including sewing, cooking, religion, politics, and fiction

Native Americans

- most sided with Britain due to longstanding relationships and promise to protect Indian land - some sided with colonists but some remained neutral

Civilian Conservation Corps

- most successful New Deal jobs program managed by the War Department - built 2,500 camps in 47 states to house up to half a million unemployed, unmarried young men ages 17-24 - men worked as "soil soldiers" in national forests, parks, recreational areas, and on soil-conservation projects - recruited jobless military veterans and Native Americans, housing them in separate camps - women were excluded from working in the program

Peter Cartwright

- most successful circuit rider - grew up in violent and lawless region of Kentucky - attended frontier revival meeting which inspired him to become Methodist circular rider at 18 - preached for many years before moving to Illinois to avoid living in slave states - first to inject evangelical preaching into politics and ran in election against Abraham Lincoln

Homesteaders

- mostly landless folk eager to try farming - many had never used farming equipment before - although land was essentially free, horses livestock, wagons, wells, lumber, fencing, seed, machinery, and fertilizer were not - declining crop prices produce chronic indebtedness leading farmers to pay off their debts with inflated currency - had to deal with tornadoes, hailstorms, windstorms, droughts, prairie fires, blizzards, wolves, and hostile Indians

Mining Life

- mostly unmarried men of varied ethnicity and cultural backgrounds - dirty and lawless land filled with murder - mining camps sprang up and disappeared whenever gold was found - suicides were common and disease was rampant

Initial settlers in colonial America

- mostly young, male, single, poor, and almost half were indentured servants or slaves

Car Culture

- mot significant economic and social development - motor car came to symbolize machine age, which transported people into modernity - first cars were handmade, expensive, and designed for the wealthy but Henry Ford changed that - industry was propelled by discovery of vast oil fields and by 1920, US produced 2/3 of world's oil and gasoline - became leading example of modern, mechanized, mass-production techniques - changed social life and enabled people to live farther away from their workplace, encouraging suburban sprawl

Jedediah Smith

- mountain men who was first American to enter California from the east

abolition

- movement to end slavery immediately - reason for movement was largely religious: reformers from Second Great Awakening saw slavery as a sin and Christians had obligation to purge all sins

Preparedness Movement

- movement to prepare US for war by strengthening army and navy - led by Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge - created National Security League to convince Congress and president to begin preparing for war - many Americans opposed effort to prepare for war and saw it as a propaganda campaign to benefit businesses that made weapons and military equipment - some accused that Wilson was secretly plotting to enter the war while others insisted that Wilson's proposal feel short of what the nation needed for war

Birth of a Nation

- movie was set during Reconstruction era and based on novel, The Clansman: An Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan, written by Thomas Dixon - endorsed by Woodrow Wilson and became most popular movie up to that time - film rewrote southern history, portraying Klansmen as crusading heroes and newly freed slaves as working with carpetbaggers and scalawags to corrupt state governments - inspired creation of revived Ku Klux Klan

Operation Barbarossa

- name for German invasion of Soviet Union - Hitler's objective was to destroy communism, enslave the vast population of Soviet Union, open up new lands for German settlement, and exploit Russia's considerable natural resources - defining moment of the European war - at first, the invasion seemed a great success, as entire Soviet armies and cities were destroyed - German forces surrounded Leningrad and lay siege to the city; many Russians died of hunger - Roosevelt insisted on including Soviet Union in Lend-Lease agreement so that Nazis could not concentrate on Britain - US sent thousands of trucks, tanks, guns, warplanes, food, blankets, shoes, and boots - gradually Stalin slowed the Nazi advance by forcing Russian people to fight or be killed

Operation Torch

- name for the North Africa campaign - American and British troops landed in Morocco and Algeria and were led by US general Dwight D. Eisenhower - after the Americans lost badly in early battles, Eisenhower found General George Patton and made him the filed commander - Patton showed American troops how to fight a modern war of speed and daring which led to the surrender of Germans and Italians, leaving North Africa in Allied control

Mugwumps

- name given to anti-Blaine Republicans - name came from an Algonquian Indian word meaning "big chief" - self-appointed groups of reformers dedicated to promoting honest government - sought to reform patronage system by declaring all federal jobs be filled solely on basis of merit - mostly professors, editors, and writers

Carpetbaggers

- names for whites who served in new Republican southern state governments - critics argued that Carpetbaggers were Northerners who rushed South in cheap suitcases to grab political power or buy plantations - some of the northerners who migrated south were corrupt opportunists, however most were Union military veterans who wanted to rebuild the region's devastated economy - other northerners migrated due to genuine desire to help free blacks and poor whites improve their lives

Harlem Renaissance

- nation's first self-conscious black literary and artistic movement - centered in New York City's Harlem district which had a largely black population due to Great Migration - Harlem became cultural capital of African American life that featured movement, color, gaiety, singing, dancing, laughter, and loud talks - writers celebrated African American culture, especially jazz and the blues, which had emotional roots in black history

Clarence Darrow

- nation's foremost defense attorney and defender of rights of working class - volunteered to defend Scopes in the Scopes Trial; Darrow called Bryan as an expert witness on biblical interpretation and Darrow asked him about biblical stories

Niles' Weekly Register

- nation's leading business journal - reported that economy was "approaching a momentous crisis"

Prohibition

- national ban on the manufacture and sale of alcohol that lasted from January 1920 to 1933 - law was widely violated and too difficult to enforce - movement to ban alcohol forged alliance between Protestant evangelicals and urban political progressives who opposed drinking as sinful and were convinced that prohibition would reduce prostitution, domestic abuse, and workplace violence - largest social reform movement since abolitionism - movement was caused by need to use grain for food rather than booze and backlash against beer brewers because of their German background - many leaders of the movement also supported immigration restrictions - many attempted to make their own liquor yet tens of thousands were killed by deadly batches of illegal liquor whose alcohol content exceeded - loss of liquor taxes cost federal government 10% of its annual revenue and closing of breweries eliminated thousands of jobs - spurred dramatic increase in size and scope of federal government - generated widespread police corruption and boosted organized crime

Knights of Labor

- national labor union that endorsed most of the reforms by previous workingmen's groups, including elimination of convict-labor competition, establishment of 8 hour workday, and greater use of paper currency - pursued equal pay for equal work by men and women - wanted to transform capitalism and did not believe in organizing members according to their particular trade

Confederation Congress

- national legislative body formed by the Articles of Confederation - biggest achievements were policies detailing how lands in the West would be surveyed

Parliament

- national legislature composed of appointed members of House of Lords and elected members of House of Commons - could impose taxes and gave great leverage over monarchy

Progressivism

- national movement that responded to the pressures of industrialization and urbanization and widening gap between rich and poor - attacked problems created by political corruption, unregulated industrialization, and unplanned urbanization - insisted that something be done to control powerful corporations that dominated economy and corrupted US political life - supporters were liberals, not revolutionaries - shared assumption that governments must become more active in addressing problems created by rapid urban and industrial growth - became most dynamic social and political force in nation - based in large cities but popular in rural areas and included people from all walks of life - drew upon "social sciences": sociology, political science, psychology, public health, and economics and wanted to appoint social scientists to "investigate, educate, and legislate"

Quasi War

- naval conflict between France and America over Jay's Treaty with Britain - French were capturing U.S. ships headed for British ports - Washington commanded army again and French and American ships engaged in undeclared naval war in Caribbean Sea

Cahokia

- near Mississippi and Missouri Rivers - largest advanced regional center city - created large farming settlements and earthen mounds - reason for collapse is unknown but over cutting trees may have caused ecological changes during a earthquake

Root-Takahira Agreement

- negotiated by Secretary of State Elihu Root and Japanese ambassador to US and reinforced Open Door policy by supporting the independence and integrity of China

Whigs

- new political party that dubbed Jackson as a monarch - anti-Jackson group that grew directly out of National Republican party - were economic nationalists who wanted federal government to promote manufacturing, a national bank, and national road network

Invisible Empire of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan

- new version of Ku Kluz Klan - led by Hiram Wesley Evans - a nationwide organization devoted to "the maintenance of White Supremacy" and "100 percent Americanism" - only "natives" (white, Anglo-Saxon, evangelical Protestants born in the US) could be members - at its peak, it had more than 4 million members, making it the largest far-right movement in history - embraced militant patriotism, restrictions on immigration and voting, and strict personal morality - opposed illegal liquor and labor unions - became infamous for its blanket assaults on various categories of Americans

William Randolph Hearst

- newspaper publisher of New York Journal - explained that role of newspapers was not simply to report on events but to shape public opinion and legislation - boasted that newspapers had the power to "declare wars" by their sensational story making - wanted a war against Spain to propel US to world-power status

Molly Pitcher

- nickname for Mary Ludwig - tended to injured soldiers - took her husband's place at a cannon in the Battle of Monmouth after he fell

Lone Star Republic

- nickname for Texas - legalized slavery, banned free blacks, elected Sam Houston as president, and voted for annexation to US - statehood for Texas involved sectional dispute over slavery

William Haywood

- nicknamed "Big Bill" - most outspoken leader of Western Federation of Miners - featured a face "like a scarred battlefield" - promoted industrial unionism and recruiting both skilled and unskilled workers - most controversial was his advocacy for strikes over negotiations, a militant stance that few unions adopted - held IWW together and recruited thousands of members

Edward M. House

- nicknamed "Colonel"; was Wilson's companion and closest advisor - one of eh most skilled political operators in history, working behind the scenes to excite and mobilize others - helped steer Wilson's proposals through Congress

Robert M. La Follette

- nicknamed "Fighting Bob" - progressive Republican governor who pursued idea of efficient government run by nonpartisan experts - declared war on "vast corporate combinations" and political corruption by creating a nonpartisan state government - created Legislative Reference Bureau, which provided elected officials with nonpartisan research, advice, and help in drafting legislation

Theodore Roosevelt

- nicknamed "Mr. Imperialism" - greatly supported Spanish-American War - became president after McKinley's assassination - infusion of "manly energy" would transform modern presidency - stretched Constitution and executive power to the limit and pushed US into center stage of world affairs - transformed himself from a frail, puny boy to intellectual athlete who championed "strenuous life" - fearless "he-man" who displayed extraordinary intellectual curiosity - zealous moralist who divided world into good and evil - disaster struck his life when his mother and wife both died and he took a break from politics to live on a ranch - became youngest man to become president and was the first truly activist president - argued US had to conquer other regions to bring law, order, and righteousness to "backward peoples" - believed American imperialists would be missionaries of civic virtue, spreading merits of their "race" to "savages"

Alphonse Capone

- nicknamed "Scarface" - son of poor Italian immigrants who shined shoes on streets as a teenager - was hired by neighborhood gangster as bartender and bouncer - took control of mob in Chicago and led empire of bootlegging, prostitution, and gambling which brought him and annual income of $60 million - was seen as a hero to many

John Fremont

- nicknamed "the Pathfinder", army officer and explorer - mapped eastern half of Oregon Trail and published in newspapers excerpts from his explorations - became instant celebrity for his stories of Oregon Trail - led second expedition to map difficult half of Oregon Trail from South Pass, and became the first to cross Sierra Nevada in winter - report of expedition and maps spurred massive migrations - encouraged by president to cause uprising in California in order to rid of Mexican control - resigned from army to cover his efforts to start revolution among Americans in California

Herbert Hoover

- nicknamed the "Great Humanitarian" - declared himself a Republican "progressive conservative" and wanted to increase efficiency and production - began planning to be president in his twenties - after outbreak of WW1, he began working in public service: he organized evacuation of tens of thousands of Americans stranded in Europe and led massive program to provide food to starving civilians in Belgium - helped with Food Administration and served with US delegation at Versailles peace conference - wanted to promote "rugged individualism" directed at promoting greater good; wanted government officials to encourage business leaders to stop competition and cooperate by forming trade associations - as secretary of commerce in 1920s, he transformed the small department into government's most dynamic agency - at first tried to let economy "cure" itself during Depression but realized that that wasn't going to work - was ineffective at helping Depression and only gave uplifting words that weren't enough - tried to raise taxes and cut budgets to balance federal budget, which made economy slow down even more - unwilling to address Depression reflected his fear that nation would plunge into socialism if government provided direct support to the poor - hoped that "natural generosity" of Americans and charitable organizations would be sufficient

Abraham Lincoln

- nominated by Republicans to run for Senate in Illinois - believed Henry Clay's leadership and promotion of American System - hated slavery but was not an abolitionist; did not believe that nation should force South to end slavery but insisted that slavery not be expanded - did not want to give social and political equality to blacks and believed whites were the superior race

Ulysses S. Grant

- nominated by Republicans to run for presidency - slogan: "Let us have peace" - promised that if elected, he would enforce laws and promote prosperity for all - was the youngest president up to that time - defender of Congressional Reconstruction - was not a great leader and had to change cabinet members frequently - brought diversity to federal government

Great Migration

- northern businesses sent recruiting agents to southern states to find workers for factories - employment efforts were directed at African Americans and more than 400,000 black southerners moved to the north

Slavery and the Constitution

- northern states abolished slavery and viewed it as an embarrassing contradiction to Declaration of Independence - southern delegates defended slavery; "Religion and humanity have nothing to do with this slavery question" - compromise where 3/5 of all slaves would be included in population count

The Jungle

- novel by Upton Sinclair which told story of Lithuanian immigrant working in filthy Chicago meatpacking plant - opened nation's eyes to unsanitary and dangerous food preparation factories - inspired Roosevelt to pass Meat Inspection Act of 1906

Margaret Sanger

- nurse and midwife in working-class tenements of Manhattan thought that problems of unwanted pregnancies was birth control - joined Socialist party with her husband and began to distribute birth-control information to working-class women and resolved to spend her life helping women gain control of their bodies - began publishing magazine, Woman Rebel, which promoted women's suffrage, workers' rights, and contraception - was arrested and charged with disseminating obscenity through the mail but case was dropped - opened nation's first birth-control clinic in Brooklyn - organized American Birth Control League , later changed to Planned Parenthood, which distributed information - did not succeed in legalizing distribution of contraceptives and contraceptive information through mail, but laid foundation for such efforts

first camp meeting

- occurred in August 1801 in Cane Ridge - Scots-Irish Presbyterian minister, James McGready, invited Protestants to attend - goal was to help people see heaven's "glories and long to be there" while reminding them of "hell and its horrors"

Irish Immigrants

- often took the hardest and dangerous jobs - Irish men built canals and railroads while Irish women worked in textile mills and served as maids - Southern planters often hired Irishmen to do hazardous work rather than slaves - were racist and rude to free African Americans who competed with them for low wage jobs - energized American trade unions and became most important ethnic group supporting Democratic party

Sherman Anti-Trust Act

- passed by Congress against corporate trusts - declared that efforts to monopolize industries and thereby "restrain" competition were illegal - bill's language was so vague that its regulations were useless

Old Light, New Light

- old lights were members of the clergy who believed that the new ways of revivals and emotional preaching were unnecessary - new lights were the more modern-thinking members of the clergy who strongly believed in the Great Awakening

breeding and selling slaves

- once African slave trade was outlawed, slave-trading network within US became significant and profitable - slave owners bred and sold slaves and average price of slaves quadrupled - in Virginia, slave breeding became the most profitable industry and primary cash crop

Jeffersonian Republicans

- one of nations first political parties called Republicans and led by Thomas Jefferson - stemmed from the anti-federalists and were mostly southerners - wanted country to remain rural nation of small farmers dedicated to republican values - distrusted national government and defended state rights

Native American Party

- one of the first secret societies, who held prejudices against immigrants, was founded in 1837, and in 1850 it joined with other nativist groups to limit the capabilities of immigrants in society.

Ida B. Wells

- one of the most outspoken African American activists - born into slavery and attended school staffed by white missionaries - moved to Memphis where she taught in segregated schools and became middle class - filed a suit for discrimination after losing her seat on a railroad car because she was black and circuit court decided in her favor, but Tennessee Supreme Court overturned the ruling - used her love for journalism to fight for justice; became editor of Memphis Free Speech, newspaper that focused on African American issues - after 3 of her friends were lynched, she launched crusade against lynching; whites destroyed her office and threatened to lynch her - moved to Chicago and continued to criticize Jim Crow laws and fought for black voting rights

Andrew Carnegie

- one of the prominent anti-imperialists - footed bills for Anti-Imperialist League and even offered $20 million to buy independence for Filipinos

Boston English High School

- opened nation's first free public secondary school in 1821

the spoils system (rotation in office)

- opponents term for Jackson's practice of replacing federal officials with his own supporters

naturalization policies

- opportunity for colonists to gain citizenship and civil rights - each colony had different policies but naturalization rights included owning property, voting, holding office, and receiving royal grants of land

Underground Railroad

- organization and systems of safe houses and shelters in border stats for runaway slaves - "conductors" helping runaway slaves included free blacks, white abolitionists, former slaves, and Native Americans

Anti-Saloon League

- organization based in churches that pioneered strategy of single-issue political pressure group - initially focused on closing down saloons rather than abolishing alcohol but eventually decided to force prohibition

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

- organization founded in 1910 by black activists and white progressives that promoted education as a means of combating social problems and focused on legal action to secure rights supposedly granted by Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments - created during Great Migration and W.E.B. Du Bois was organization's director of publicity and research and editor of its journal, The Crisis

League of Nations

- organization of nations formed in aftermath of WW1 to mediate disputes and maintain international peace - despite President Wilson's intense support for league, Republican controlled Congress lead by Henry Cabot Lodge did not ratify the treaty and US failed to join

labor unions

- organizations of workers in their individual skill or trade - pressured politicians for tariffs to protect industry - sought to control number of tradesmen to maintain wage levels - faced legal obstacles and were labelled as unlawful conspiracies but Massachusetts court issued landmark declaring that trade union is legal

Sarah Monroe

- organized New York Tailoresses' Society and participated in trade unions - argued that if it was "unfashionable for men to bear [workplace] oppression in silence, why should it not also become unfashionable with the women?" - women tailors went on strike demanding a "just price for labor"

Land Ordinance of 1785

- organized Northwest Territory into townships that would by surveyed and sold for less than a dollar per acre - townships was divided into 36 sections, which were then divided into 4 farms (640 acres) - sections of "public land" were sold at auctions and proceeds would go to national treasury

Seneca Falls Convention

- organized by Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton to discuss "the social, civil, and religious condition and rights of women" - issued clever paraphrase of Declaration of Independence: Declaration of Rights and Sentiments - represented important first step in campaign for women's rights

Union League

- organized by Republicans throughout former Confederacy to ensure black suffrage - had formal initiations, rituals, and secret meetings to protect the freedpeople from being persecuted - became largest black social movement in history and 90% of southern freedmen registered to vote

Committee of Correspondence

- organized by Sam Adams - organization that spread political ideas through colonies - issued statement of American rights and grievances and inspired other committees todo the same - colonies formed a unified network of resistance

Western Federation of Miners

- organized by militant labor unions in the west and represented smelter workers and "hard-rock" miners who worked deep underground in minds - was viewed as a radical labor union - was at the center of violent confrontations with unyielding mine operators - demanded abolition of wage system and became most militant labor organization in the country - most outspoken leader was William "Big Bill" Haywood - promoted industrial unionism and recruiting both skilled and unskilled workers - welcomed embers of all races and ethnic groups and men and women

General Guy Carleton

- organized mass evacuation after war and purposely violated treaty by refusing to return slaves

Farmers' Alliance

- organized social and recreational activities for small farmers and their families while also emphasizing political action and economic cooperation to address hardships caused by indebtedness, declining crop prices, and droughts - emerged first in Texas, starting Southern Alliance movement led by Charles W. Macune - refused to let blacks join not only because of racism but also because most black farmers were tenants and sharecroppers rather than landowners - called on federal government to take ownership of railroads and create income tax on the wealthy

Plessy v. Ferguson

- originated in New Orleans when Homer Adolph Plessey refused to leave a whites-only railroad car and was convicted of violation the law - Plessey's attorney contended that Louisiana law sought to "debase and distinguish against the inferior race" - Court ruled that states had right to create laws segregating public spaces - only justice to dissent was John Marshall Harlan who stressed that Constitution is "color-blind" and does not tolerate classes among citizens - Harlan argued that case ruling violated 13th and 14th amendments - ruling legitimized widespread practice of racially separate but equal facilities

First Red Scare

- outbreak of anti-Communist hysteria that included the arrest without warrants of thousands of suspected radicals, most of whom (especially Russian immigrants) were deported - fueled by violent actions of militants - many plots to kill President Wilson and other government officials; postal workers intercepted many homemade mail bombs addressed to government officials - Attorney General Palmer appointed J. Edgar Hoover to lead new General Intelligence Division within Justice Department to collect information on radicals

Sedition Act

- outlawed saying, writing, or printing anything "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive" about American form of government, the Constitution, or the army and navy - brought sharp criticism, saying why nation should fight a war for democracy abroad if Congress was going to interfere with their rights

Battle of Lake Champlain

- outnumbered Americans at Plattsburgh were saved by US naval squadron led by Thomas Macdonough - British soldier attacked Plattsburgh and British navy attacked Macdonough's warships - defeat for Britain and entire British fleet either destroyed or captured - forced British to abandon northern campaign and retreat to Canada

tenements

- overcrowded apartments that housed several families of immigrants or poor laborers - usually 5-6 stories tall with now elevators and everything was so packed that there was no natural light or fresh air - typically housed 24-32 families with children - on average 1 toilet served 20 people

Victoriano Huerta

- overthrew Francisco Madero and established dictatorship over Mexico - had Madero and other political opponents murdered

Mary and William

- overthrew King James and ruled England as joint monarchs

Lever Act

- passed by Congress and gave president authority to manage nation's supplies of food and fuels, and to take over factories, railroads, mines, warehouses, and telephone and telegraph systems - federal agencies could also set prices for wheat and coal

Bolshevik Revolution

- overthrow of Russian Empire and the monarchy - Russian people launched revolution due to widespread starvation and desire for change - crowds of women factory workers gathered in streets of the capital and more workers joined - rebels formed "provisional government" eventually led by Alexander Kerensky, who demanded that Nicholas II give up the throne - fall of the tsar created illusion that all major Allied power including Russia were now fighting for ideals of constitutional democracy - Vladimir Lenin led Bolsheviks, Communist group, to overthrow provisional government and establish communism - Bolsheviks took over train stations, post offices, and telegraph offices and stormed Petrograd Winter Palace and seized power from provisional government - Bolsheviks announced that it was infallible and rooted in atheism - triggered chaotic civil war throughout Russia with anti-Bolshevik White army fighting Communist Red army - Wilson intervened and tried to stop communist party but failed

Tripartite Pact

- pact signed between Japan and Germany and Italy - each nation pledged to declare war on any nation that attacked any of them

Greenbacks

- paper money issued by federal Treasury during Civil War to help pay for the war - caused inflation - debate over whether to take greenbacks out of circulation and use hard-money (gold and silver)

Pullman Strike

- paralyzed economies of multiple states and territories in the western half of the nation - involved a dispute at Pullman, Illinois, a "model" industrial suburb of Chicago owned by Pullman Palace Car Company - during depression of 1893, Pullman laid off 3,000 of his 5,800 employees and cut wages 25-40% but he did not lower rents for housing or price of food in company store - after Pullman fired 3 members of a workers' grievance committee, the workers went on strike - Eugene Debs tried to convince Pullman to negotiate a settlement but Pullman refused so the Railway Union workers stopped handling trains containing Pullman railcars - to keep the trains running, railroad executives hired strikebreakers but angry workers assaulted them and destroyed property - President Cleveland sent in federal troops and attorney general convinced federal judge to sign an injunction prohibiting labor union from interfering; union finally called off the strike

Mesoamerica

- part of mexico and central america - had sophisticated communities(pyramids,palaces, bridges) through agriculture

party bosses

- party leaders, usually in an urban district, who exercised tight control over electioneering and patronage - decided role of candidates and commanded loyalty and obedience by rewarding and punishing members - helped settle local disputes, provided aid for poor, and distributed government jobs and contracts to loyal followers and corporate donors

Patrick Henry

- passed "Stamp Act Resolutions" in Virginia and wrote Virginia Resolves - first to declare that war was necessary and said "give me liberty or give me death"

Deborah Simpson

- passed as a man and served as a soldier for a year - became high ranking officer until her identity was discovered

Page Act

- passed by Congress - first federal law intended to restrict "undesirable" immigration - prohibited Asian prostitutes, convicts, and anyone entering US under arrangement of "forced labor"

common folk

- planters and merchants who dominated the legislatures, bought luxury goods, built brick manisons

Tariff of 1816

- passed by Congress in response to British companies flooding U.S. markets with cheaper goods which undercut American competitors - placed a 20-25% tax on imported goods which benefited the Northeast region more than South - debates over tariffs would dominate national politics because they benefited manufacturers rather than consumers

Fourteenth Amendment

- passed by Congress to remove doubt about legality of Civil Rights Act - guaranteed citizenship to freemen and immigrant children born in US - prohibited any efforts to violate civil rights of "citizens" white or black, to deprive anyone "of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law", or to "deny any person...the equal protection of the laws" - gave federal government responsibility for protecting and enforcing civil rights

Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798

- passed by Federalists amid war fervor with France - gave President extraordinary powers to violate civil liberties protected by Bill of Rights - limited freedom of speech and press, as well as liberty of immigrants who had not gain citizenship - 3 of 4 acts reflected hostility to French and Irish immigrants, and naturalization act lengthened from 5 years to 14 years - empowered president to jail and deport aliens and outlawed writing, publishing, or speaking anything of bad nature against the government - clumsy effort to stamp out criticism of administration

Judiciary Act of 1801

- passed by John Adams - intended to ensure Federalist control of judicial system by creating 16 federal circuit courts with new judge for each - reduced number of Supreme Court justices from 6 to 5 to prevent next president from appointing new member - Adams appointed Federalists to all new positions

Civil Rights Act

- passed by Radical Republicans - declared that "all persons born in the United States" including children of immigrants except Native Americans were citizens entitled to "full and equal benefit of all laws"

Wade-Davis Bill

- passed by Radical Republicans to try and take charge of Reconstruction - required that majority of white male citizens declare their allegiance to Union before a Confederate state could be readmitted - bill never became law because Lincoln vetoed it

Chinese Exclusion Act

- passed in 1882 by Congress - first federal law to restrict immigration of free people based on race and class - barred Chinese laborers from entering US for 10 years and later extended to indefinitely - began stopping foreigners to US

National Defense Act

- passed in response to Black Tom Explosion - provided expansion of US army from 90,000 to 223,000 men over net 5 years - some complained that Wilson wanted to drag nation into war, but president said that he was determined not to be rushed into war

Crittenden Compromise

- passed to find compromise to avoid civil war - John Crittenden of Kentucky offered series of resolutions which allowed extension of slavery into western territories south of Missouri Compromise line and guaranteed preservation of slavery where it exists - Lincoln opposed any plan that would expand slavery and Senate did not pass compromise

Washington Gladden

- pastor in Springfield, Massachusetts - published Working People and Their Employers, which argued that true Christianity was based on principle that "you should love your neighbor as yourself" - rejected view of social Darwinists that poor and disabled deserved their fate and should not be helped - argued that helping the poor was essential element of Christian faith - became first prominent religious leader to support rights of workers to form unions - condemned racial segregation and discrimination against immigrants - helped launch new era which churches engaged with problems created by rapidly urbanizing and industrializing society

Struggles during winter

- patriots camped in Morristown and many fled after enlistment - smallpox caused more death than enemies so Washington ordered inoculation which was a success

Nonimportation movement

- patriots signed nonimportation agreements to not buy British goods - colonies boycotted British goods and used it as a weapon against Britain - enabled women to play a role in resistance

Treaty of Versailles

- peace treaty that ended WW1, forcing Germany to dismantle its military, pay immense war reparations, and give u its colonies around the world - Wilson yielded to French demands that Germany transfer territory to France on its west and to Poland on its east and north - Wilson had to abandon his principle of national self-determination - transformed Europe from a continent of empires to one of nations but assigned former German colonies to Allied nations - Britain and France wanted Germany to take responsibility for war and pay entire cost of war, and Wilson eventually agreed - when treaty was presented to German delegates, they called treaty's terms "unrealizable and unbearable" but when France threatened to launch new military attack, Germans gave up and signed treaty - US failure to ratify treaty was defining moment and helped trigger chain of events that would contribute to second world war - US did not join League of Nations and Britain and France were too exhausted to keep Germany weak and isolated

Nativists

- people born in the U.S. who resented newcomers and flood of Irish and German caused anger - organized to stop tide of immigrants and created Native American party

Mulattoes

- people of mixed racial ancestry - made up 10% of black population and were able to build substantial fortunes

democratic republic in America

- people should govern themselves through elected representatives - "pursuit of happiness": everyone has equal opportunity to prosper - government exists to protect liberty and promote public good

Anti-Federalists

- people who opposed the Constitution - led by Patrick Henry, George Mason, Richard and Henry Lee, James Monroe - diverse group; some wanted to retain Confederation, others wanted to start over while others wanted to revise proposed Constitution - feared government would become corrupt and tyrannical - criticized lack of "bill of rights" to protect rights of individuals and states from government

Gilded Age

- period between end of Civil War to beginning of the twentieth century which witnessed a widening social, economic, and political gap between rich and poor - famous for its greed and vulgarity, as newly rich flaunted their personal wealth

Progressive Era

- period of social activism and political innovation during which public issues forced profound changes in role of government and presidential leadership - people thought that America was experiencing disruptive crisis of democracy because of urban-industrial revolution - widespread inner-city poverty, child labor in unregulated mines and factories, tainted food, horrible working conditions, and low pay required bold actions by churches, charities, experts, and individuals as well as expanded role for government

"Critical Period"

- period where U.S. was governed by Article of Confederation - leaders develop economic policies, international relations, and proper relationship between states and national government - created America's first political parties

"Not worth a Continental"

- phrase used to describe the worthlessness Continentals and how it lost so much of its value that no one would accept it.

Medicine

- physicians had little formal training and most were self-taught - many physicians but many were frauds - resulted in lost of public's confidence in medical profession until formal medicinal schools

Heinrich Steinweg (Steinway)

- piano make who changed last name to Steinway - became famous for quality of his instruments

James McGready

- pioneered the camp meeting revival - believed purpose of Christianity was to convince sinners to convert themselves to saints to assure eternal bliss

Barbary pirates

- pirate preyed upon European and American merchant ships and blackmailed U.S. government into paying in exchange for captured merchant ships and crew - ruler of Tripoli declared war on U.S. so Jefferson sent warships to blockade Tripoli which started naval war - Lieutenant Stephen Decatur set fire to captured boat, Philadelphia, and U.S. Marines assaulted Derna - Tripoli ruler agreed to $60,000 ransom and release of Philadelphia crew

Homestead Steel Strike

- pitted Carnegie Steel Company against the trade union, the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers - Steel Workers had a contract with Carnegie which needed renewal, but Carnegie wanted to break the union - Henry Clay Frick, the new chief executive was left to handle negotiations with workers; Frick stepped up production demands and cut wages and locked workers out of the mill - Frick hired Pinkertons but when they arrived, thousands of armed unionists were waiting for them and a 14 hour gun battle ensued - Pinkertons surrendered but Pennsylvania governor dispatched 4,000 state militiamen to Homestead and dispersed the workers - Frick then hired strikebreakers to operate the mill and refuse to negotiate - union was dead and its leaders had been charged with murder and treason

commission system

- placed ultimate authority in a board composed of commissioners who combined both legislative and executive powers in heading up city departments

Mary Boykin Chesnut

- plantation mistress in South Carolina and complained that she was like a slave - admitted she had few rights but her husband was "master of the house" - "under slavery we live surrounded by prostitutes" - claimed many enslaved women were forced into prostitution and that planters justifies impregnating enslaved women as creating additional wealth

Julia Ward Howe

- poet who wrote "Battle Hymn of the Republic", the anthem of the Union army during Civil War and showed the deadening aspects of the cult of domesticity - she was not happy at home and her husband lorded over her: her husband belittled her writings and refused to let her have pain killers during childbirth

mercantilism

- political and economic policy where government controlled all economic activities - key industries were regulated, taxed or received payments from government - supported creation of global empires where colonies enriched mother country

Progressive Party

- political party nicknamed "Bull Moose Party" created by Roosevelt's supporters who nominated him as their candidate - Roosevelt assured delegates he was fit for the role - party showed what a government dedicated to public good might achieve: supported minimum "living wage" for hourly workers; 8 hour workday; women's suffrage and an "equal voice with women in every phase of party management"; campaign finance reform; and a system of "social security" insurance to protect people against sickness, unemployment, and disabilities - also pledged to end boss system governing state and local politics and destroy alliance between corrupt business and corrupt politics

poor whites

- poor people who owned no slaves and lived on least desirable land and on the fringes of society - often called "crackers", "hillbillies", or "trash" - were day laborers who owned neither land nor slaves and rented farm land or worked as farm laborers

taverns

- popular colonial centers of recreation, gossip, and political debate - concern that pubs were promoting drunkenness and rebelliousness so anti-tavern law and regulations were passed but laws were rarely enforced

Wobblies

- popular name for the members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)

birth rate in early settlements

- population doubled every 25 years - average age of marriage dropped to 20, so birth rate rose accordingly - on average, women had kids every 2 or 3 years before menopause - due to unsanitary conditions, miscarriages were common, 25%-50% of women died during birth or soon after, and a quarter of babies did not survive infancy

Shell Shock

- post-traumatic stress disorder - combatants of trench warfare fell victim to this psychological disorder - soldiers became unconscious with violent shivering and shaking

Martin Dies

- powerful Democrat who blamed Depression on immigration - ardent nativist who viewed immigration as nation's greatest threat

Dollar Diplomacy

- practice advocated by Roosevelt in which US government fostered American investments in less developed nations then used US military force to protect those investments - After Taft became president, he continued to use this practice: he invested in foreign countries, especially East Asia and nations of Latin America and the Caribbean - Taft did not hesitate to intervene in nations experiencing political and economic turmoil

Henry David Thoreau

- practiced thoughtful self-reliance and pursuit of perfection - was a wild child with strong sense of uncompromising integrity, prickly individuality, and proud rebelliousness - showed little interest in social life and no interest in wealth, which he believed made people slaves to materialism - "The mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation" because they were preoccupied with making money - lived independently at Walden Pond to lead simple life and discover what nature had to teach

William H. Seward

- predicted US must inevitably impose its economic domination of Pacific Ocean - believed US had to first remove foreign powers from their northern Pacific coast to gain access to region's valuable ports - tried to acquire British Columbia but heard of Russia's desire to sell Alaska and bought it for 7.2 million thus removing threat of Russian imperialism in North America - critics scoffed at him for Alaska Purchase and called him "Seward's folly"

Nativism

- prejudice against immigrants from countries outside western Europe

William Wirt

- presidential candidate for Anti-Masonic party in 1832

Citizen-soldiers (militiamen)

- primarily citizens from farms and sops; were unreliable and ungovernable

Robert Walpole

- prime minister and lord of treasury - believed colonies should be able to export and buy goods from England in peace - created policy of "salutary neglect" of Navigation Acts - British did not want to pay huge expense of enforcing imperial regulations

William Pitt

- prime minister of England during French and Indian war - treated colonies as allies and provided them with funds

Initiative, Referendum, Recall

- procedures that allowed voters to create laws directly rather than having to wait for legislative action - citizens could sign petitions to have a proposal put on the ballot (initiative) and then vote it up or down - corrupt or incompetent elected officials could be removed by public petition and vote (recall)

Declaration of Rights and Sentiments

- proclaimed that "all men and women are created equal" - all laws that placed women "in a position inferior to that of men, are contrary to the great precept of nature, and therefore of no force or authority" - most controversial demand was the right to vote - such goals were too radical for most delegates so only a third signed the declaration

Hessians

- professional German soldiers hired by Britain to fight colonies - colonists offered land to those who joined Americans

New Freedom

- program designed by Louis Brandeis and championed by Woodrow Wilson's campaign - aimed to restore economic competition by eliminating all trust rather than just simply regulating them - favored small government and states' rights - argued that federal intervention should be last resort

Tennessee Valley Authority

- program that brought electrical power, flood control efforts, and jobs to Appalachia effort to help the South - constructed hydroelectric dams and produced enough electricity to power the entire region - dredged rivers to allow for boats and barge traffic

Sherman Anti-Trust Act

- prohibited powerful corporations from "conspiring" to establish monopolies or "restrain trade" in their industries - made US the first nation to outlaw monopolistic business practices - hoax to make it appear that Congress was against corporations that were dominating industries; bill was mostly for show - critics called it the "Swiss Cheese Act" because it had so many loopholes in its language - rarely enforced because of its vague definitions of trusts and monopolies

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

- prominent advocate of women's rights - organized the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention with Lucretia Mott

Sir Edwin Sandys

- prominent member of Parliament and became head of Virginia Company - crucial innovation was to have private ownership of land instead of joint ownership - created headright ( land grant)

James E. Oglethorpe

- prominent member of Parliament appointed head of Georgia colony - created idealistic rules like no slavery and liquor, but were forgotten as colony became self-sufficient through slavery

Lyman Beecher

- prominent preacher and champion of evangelical Christian revivalism - stressed that Second Great Awakening was not focused simply on promoting individual conversation ut also to "reform human society"

First Volunteer Cavalry/Rough Riders

- prominent unit made of former Ivy League athletes led by Theodore Roosevelt - landed in southeastern tip of Cuba but had no horses so they were forced to walk, earning nickname "Weary Walkers"

Nationalists

- promoted interests of country as a whole so no region could get what they wanted without threatening survival of nation - focused on their region's priorities: shipping, manufacturing, and commerce in the Northeast; slave-based agriculture in the South; low land prices and transportation improvements in West

Working Men's Parties

- promoted interests of laborers like shorter work hours, allowing all males to vote regardless of the amount of property owned, and free education for all children - overarching concern was widening inequality of wealth in America - faded quickly due to inexperience of labor politicians

Aftermath of War of 1812

- propelled US towards economic independence when interruption in trade with Europe forced America to expand manufacturing sector and become more self sufficient - created nation's first cotton-manufacturing industry - nation emerged as agricultural commercial, and industrial world power - caused reversal of attitudes among Republicans and Federalists - devastated Indian nations and westward settlement accelerated

Wilmot Proviso

- proposal to annex Texas as slave state - any new territory acquired from Mexican War would not tolerate slavery - President Polk dismissed proviso as "mischievous and foolish amendment" - frame debate over westward expansion of slavery and set stage for Civil War

Report on Manufactures

- proposal written by Hamilton that sets up a modern capitalist economy - Hamilton encouraged industrialization through increasing tariffs and providing financial incentives

Bank of United States

- proposed by Alexander Hamilton as the basis of his economic plan - had 3 responsibilities: 1) to hold government's funds and pay its bills 2) provide loans to federal government and other banks 3) to manage nation's money supply by regulating power of state-chartered banks to issue paper currency - could issue national banknotes to address shortage of gold and silver - had branches in multiple cities

Albany Plan of Union

- proposed by Benjamin Franklin - called for 11 colonies to band together under appointed president by king - each assembly would sen 2-7 delegates for grand council - too radical at the time and British officials wanted to maintain power so plan was rejected

Second Missouri Compromise

- proposed by Henry Clay - Missouri would only become state if legislature pledged never to deny free blacks their constitutional rights - hardened positions of North and South

Drago Doctrine

- proposed by Luis Maria Drago, Argentinian foreign minister - prohibited armed intervention by other countries to collect debts

Bonus Expeditionary Force

- protest march on Washington, D.C., by thousands of World War I veterans and their families, calling for immediate payment of their service bonuses certificates - most veterans went home but the rest, along with their families, having no place to go, camped in vacant federal buildings and in a shantytown within sight of the capital - first large-scale example of nonviolent protest in nation's capital - Hoover persuaded Congress to pay for the veterans' train tickets home to remove the veterans; many left, but hundreds stayed, hoping to meet the president - secretary of war dispatched to remove the veterans so the soldiers, commanded by General Douglas MacArthur used used horses, tanks,tear gas,and bayonets to disperse unarmed veterans and their families; the soldiers proceeded to burn the makeshift camp and many veterans were injured - violence ensued when President Herbert Hoover ordered their tent villages cleared - attack on the Bonus Army was a public relations disaster and led more people to view Hoover and Republicans as heartless

Alfred Thayer Mahan

- published The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued that national greatness fame from naval power - insisted that modern industrial development required powerful navy centered on huge battleships, foreign commerce, colonies to provide raw materials and new markets, and global naval bases - championed America's "destiny" to control Caribbean Sea and build canal across Central America to protect Atlantic and Pacific Oceans

Madison Grant

- published The Passing of the Great Race, a hugely influential book - was a fervent eugenicist (believer in pseudoscience of racial breeding) - claimed racial purity was the foundation of great nations and was against interbreeding with African Americans

John Locke

- published Two Treatises on Government which insisted that people had natural rights to life, liberty, and prosperity - believed that the protection of those rights led to a government in the first place - argued when rulers failed to protect right of people, people had right to overthrow monarch and change government

Benjamin Franklin

- published at Pennsylvania Gazette and wrote Poor Richard's Almanack - focused on getting things done and celebrated virtue and benefit of public service - founded public library, started fire company, helped create University of Pennsylvania, organized a debate club that is American Philosophical Society - contributed to the science world and was devoted to scientific investigation; developed Franklin stove,lightning rod, bifocal spectacles, and glass harmonica - was not a churchgoer

Canal boats

- pulled by teams of horses or mules walking along towpath adjacent to canal - boats carried passengers every day - much time was lost waiting for locks

Separatists

- puritans who separated from the Church of England and created congregations

Alliance Exchange

- purpose was to free farmers from dependence on commercial warehouses and banks - members would pool their resources to borrow money from banks and purchase their goods and supplies from a new corporation created by the Alliance - would also build warehouses to store members' crops - members would receive loans to buy household goods and agricultural supplies and once crops were sold, they would pay back the loans - scheme collapsed when banks refused to accept paper money

Revenue Act of 1932

- pushed through Congress by Hoover - peacetime tax increase that raised top rate from 24% to 63% - by taking money out of consumers' pockets, the higher taxes accelerated economic slowdown - people had less money to send when what the economy needed most was increased consumer spending

John Peter Zenger

- put on trial for publishing criticism of New York's royal governor in newspaper but was found not guilty - one might be punished for criticism that was not true

Munn v. Illinois

- railroad and warehouse owners challenged Granger laws and defied them arguing that it was a form of socialism - Supreme Court ruled 7-2 that Constitution allowed for regulation of businesses that operate in public interest - Chicago grain warehouses were forced to lower their storage fees - however 9 years later, ruling of this case was thrown out because only Congress, not states, could regulate industries involved in interstate commerce

McKinley Tariff Act of 1890

- raised taxes on imported manufactured goods to their highest level and added many agricultural products to tariff list to appease farmers - its passage encouraged many businesses to raise prices because European competitors were now effectively shut out of US market - effort to reward Big Business backfired and in November 1890 congressional elections, Democratic regain control of the House

James Gillespie Birney

- ran for president and nominated by Liberty party - was former Alabama slaveholder and became anti-slavery activist - slogan was "vote as you pray, and pray as you vote" - had very little votes in 1840 election but in 1844, he would win more votes

Eugene V. Debs

- ran for presidential election in 1912 for Socialist party but lost - devoted his career to fighting "monstrous system of capitalism" on behalf of working class - promoted brand of socialism that was flexible rather than rigid and believed in political transformation, not violent revolution - became symbol of diverse movement that united coal miners, sharecroppers, lumberjacks, and immigrants

Cornbelt Rebellion

- rebellion where people invaded courthouses and intimidated judges - on April 27,1933, angry farmers broke through line of deputies outside O'Brien County Court House and entered the courtroom where they demanded the judge to stop signing farm eviction orders - when judge refused, farmers dragged him outside along with county sheriff and deputies and forced them to kneel and kiss the US flag

Daniel Webster

- recognized as most eloquent orator - blamed Northerners and Southerners for crisis but acknowledged that both regions had legitimate grievances - declared that South is right and North is wrong in that fugitive slaves must be returned to their owners - had no patience with secession and pleaded others to rise above absolutism and be compromising - speech angered extremists on both sides

Land Act of 1800

- reduced minimum parcel to 320 acres and spread payments over 4 years - with a down payment of $160, settlers could buy a farm

Silas Soule

- refused to join Chivington's attack on peaceful Indians in Sand Creek Massacre and witnessed it - wrote letter to superior officer revealing what had actually happened and how women and children who were begging for mercy were killed - said Chivinton encouraged the slaughter through his lack of leadership

Robert Anderson

- refused to surrender Fort Sumter to South Carolina secessionists - Buchanan sent unarmed shit to resupply Fort Sumter but Confederate cannons opened fire on ship which was an act of war

Plains Indians

- relied on abundance of buffalo and increase of white settlers posed direct threat to their survival - refused to sell lands to federal officials so fighting ensued - discovery of gold in California brought big wave of white expansion

Protestant Reformation

- religious movement that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant churches - movement was able to spread due to printing presses which produced pamphlets

Non-Intercourse Act

- reopened trade with all countries except France and Britain and their colonies - gave president right to reopen trade with France or Britain if either stopped violating American rights in sea

McCormick Reaper

- replaced muscle power with mechanical power - transformed scale of commercial agriculture; farmers could cut twelve acres a day

New York Irish Emigrant Society

- request to set aside land in Illinois for Irish immigrant community - rejected by Congress and congressional committee declared it would be "undesirable to concentrate alien people geographically" - America was not to become "a patchwork nation of foreign settlement"

Meat Inspection Act of 1906

- required Department of Agriculture to inspect every hog and steer whose carcass crossed state lines

Sherman Silver Purchase Act

- required Treasury to purchase 4.5 million ounces of silver each month to convert into dollar coins - effort by Republicans to please the 6 new western states that had numerous silver mines - Sherman admitted that he proposed bill only to defuse cries for silver coins - helped set the stage for the "money problem" in 1893

Stamp Act 1765

- required colonists to buy government stamp for every paper product - boycott was successful and Parliament repealed act

Distribution Act

- required federal government to "distribute" to states surplus federal revenue from land sales - surpluses would be deposited into 81 state banks in proportion to each state's representation in Congress - state governments could use deposits to fund internal improvements

Immigration Act of 1917

- required immigrants over 16 years old to take a literacy test to demonstrate basic reading ability in any language - increased the "head tax" immigrants paid upon arrival and allowed immigration officials to exercise more discretion in excluding newcomers - excluded all Asians except Japanese and Filipinos

Pure Food and Drug Act

- required makers of prepared food and medicines to host government inspectors and to label the ingredients in their products

The Act to Prevent Frauds and Abuses 1696

- required royal governors to enforce Navigation Acts - allowed officials to have search warrants that did not specify place - ordered smugglers to be tried in royal admiralty courts

Tenure of Office Act

- required that the Senate must approve any presidential effort to remove federal officials whose appointments the Senate had already confirmed

Pueblo Revolt

- resentment among Indians and Spaniards grew as Indians were stripped of their ancestral way of life - in 1680, a Indian spiritual leader named Pope organized a rebellion of warriors from 19 villages - the Indians burned Catholic churches, tortured and executed many priests and Spanish settlers, destroyed all relics, and forced the survivors to flee - New Mexico was back in Indian hands, and the revolt was the greatest defeat inflicted on Europeans by Indians

John C. Calhoun

- resigned vice presidency in 1832 and entered Senate - served as Secretary of state under John Tyler - from South Carolina and determined to protect state rights

Black Codes

- restrictive laws passed by all-white southern state legislatures - ensured that "the ex-slave was not a free man; he was a free negro" - varied from state to state - prohibited interracial marriage, voting, serving on juries, or testifying against whites

Adamson Act of 1916

- resulted from a threatened strike by railroad unions demanding 8 hour workday and other concessions - Wilson asked Congress to pass the act - required time-and-a-half pay for overtime work beyond 8 hours and appointed a commission to study working conditions in railroad industry

Francis E. Townsend

- retired California doctor who championed form of populist capitalism and criticized Roosevelt - promoted Townsend Recovery Plan and wanted federal government to pay $200 a month to every American over 60 who agreed to quit working - claimed that his plan to create jobs for young people by giving older people the means to retire would energize economy by enabling retirees to buy more products - didn't care about his plan's cost

Tituba

- reverend Parris's black slave from Barbados - agreed to perform voodoo at Abigail's request - was accused of being Satan's servants

Peter Muhlenberg

- reverend who convinced his congregation in Virginia to join army to fight for independence

Second Great Awakening (Great Revival)

- revivalists warned that without religion, American public would give way to "unbridled appetites and lust" - percentage of churchgoers doubled and all denominations grew as a result - evangelical sects (Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterians) experienced explosive popularity - involved two centers of activity: one developed among New England colleges that were founded as religious centers of learning and spread westward; the second emerged in backwoods of Tennessee and Kentucky and spread across rural America - shared simple message: salvation is available to anyone who repents and embraces Christ

Muller v. Oregon

- revoked ruling from Lochner v. New York and Supreme Court approved Oregon law restricting workday to no more than 10 hours due to evidence that long working hours increased chances of health problems

William Ellison

- rich mulatto freed by his white father who developed business in South Carolina making cotton gins - viewed himself as a "brown aristocrat" and wished to be viewed equal in white society

Judiciary

- role is to interpret laws and to ensure that every citizen receives equal justice under the law - has final authority in interpreting Constitution and settling constitutional disputes between states

Edmund Andros

- royal governor of Dominion of New England - stripped New Englanders of their rights, imposed taxes, ignored town governments, enforced Navigation Acts, and punished smugglers - was arrested and removed form Massachusetts Bay colony

Louis XIV

- ruled with absolute monarchy - converted New France into royal colony and was fully subject to him - sent soldiers, settlers, women to New France and awarded seigneuries, land grants, to lure settler

Paris Peace Conference

- rulers of nations excluding Germany and Russia met in Versailles to negotiate the repercussions of the war, - had no time to waste, as most of Europe was in ruins and food was scarce and threat communism and lawlessness hung over Europe - controlled by the Big Four: prime ministers of Britain, France, and Italy, and the president of the US - Germany and its allies were not allowed to attend as well as Communist Russia

William Wells Brown

- runaway slave and received help from Wells Brown - adopted Brown's name and gorged new identity as a free man - married, had 3 kids, and helped runaway slaves cross border into Canada - learned how to read and write and began to publish columns in abolitionist newspapers - became traveling lecturer for Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society - published autobiography, "Narrative of William W. Brown, A Fugitive Slave, Written by Himself" - gave speeches for slavery and equality for blacks and women

Frederick Douglass

- runaway slave from Maryland and relocated in Massachusetts where he began speaking at anti-slavery meetings in black churches - became traveling speaker for Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society - became best-known man of color in America - published "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave" - went to British Isles for extended lecture tour and returned with enough money to purchase his freedom - started abolitionist newspaper for blacks, the North Star, named after the star that runaway slaves used to guide them toward freedom

Lost Cause Narrative

- sanitized version of history by former Confederate leaders in which a romanticized Confederacy could do no wrong during the "War of Northern Aggression" - glamorized old plantation culture and insisted Civil War had little to do with Slavery and everything to do with a noble defense of states' rights - demonized abolitionists and idealized leadership of Confederate generals, Robert Lee and Stonewall Jackson

Francis Scott Key

- saw British attack on Fort McHenry and the American flag still flying over fort at dawn - wrote Star-Spangled Banner in inspiration of Fort McHenry - was actually a white supremacist who declared all Africans were inferior race

Nativists

- saw newest immigrants as threat to their jobs and way of life - racists who believed that "Anglo- Saxon" Americans (British or German ancestry) were superior to Slavic, Italian, Greek, or Jewish newcomers - especially prejudice against Chinese

Burr Conspiracy

- scheme by Vice-President Aaron Burr and James Wilkinson to separate part of Louisiana Territory from Union with armed force of volunteers - wanted to declare independent public with New Orleans as capital and Burr as its ruler - Wilkinson turned on Burr and alerted Jefferson of scheme and Burr was arrested

Molly Maguires

- secret Irish American organization located in eastern Pennsylvania - took economic justice into their own hands and used intimidation, beatings, and killings to avenge the wrongs done to Irish workers - their terrorism reached a peak in 1874-1875 when mine owners hired men from Pinkerton Detective Agency to stop the movement - one of the agents infiltrated the organization and uncovered anough evidence to have the leaders convicted for murder

Ku Klux Klan

- secret terrorist group that started out as a social club - most members were Confederate soldiers - began harassing blacks and white Republicans - motive varied from anger over Confederate defeat, resentment against federal soldiers occupying the South, having to pay black workers, and paranoid fear that former slaves might seek revenge against whites - members raided at night on horseback, spreading rumors, issuing threats, and burning schools and churches

Second Continental Congress

- selected George Washington as leader of Continental Army

Gertude Stein

- self-appointed champion of American modernists - regarded as literary eccentric who wrote "Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose" - one of the chief promoters of subjectivity undergirding modernist expression - wanted to capture in words the equivalent of abstract painting and its self-conscious revolt against portraying scenes from real life

Daniel Webster

- senator of Massachusetts and said in Senatorial debate "Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable" - unionist who was determined to "strengthen the ties that hold us together" - argued that constitution was created not by states but by American people

Robert Y. Hayne

- senator of South Carolina who debated in Congress about Tariff of 1828 - delivered speech that anti-slavery movements were invading the South and trying to overthrow southern principles - thought states created the Union and only states had right to nullify laws

John Sullivan

- sent by Washington to stop Iroquois from destroying settlements - destroyed Iroquois villages which broke the power of Iroquois confederacy

12th Amendment

- separate ballots to vote for president and vice president

Bleeding Kansas

- series of violent fights between pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces who had moved to Kansas to try to influence the decision of whether or not Kansas would a slave state or a free state - territorial civil war over slavery in Kansas

Elizabeth

- ship that sailed from NY with 80 free blacks to Ivory Coast of West Africa - 80 emigrants formed beginning of a new nation, the Republic of Liberia

"Shall the Fundamentalists Win?"

- sermon given by Harry Emerson Fosdick - dismissed biblical fundamentalism as "immeasurable folly"; explained that the Bible was not literally the "word of God" but a representation of God's wonders - argued that Christianity had nothing to fear from Darwinism

Servanthood vs. Slavery

- servants could file complaints with local court - servanthood did not last a lifetime; servants could claim "freedom dues" after indenture

Nicholas Biddle

- served as 3rd and last president of Second Bank of the United States - suffered Jackson's wrath against banks

Catholic Missions (Spanish)

- served as churches, villages, fortresses, homes, schools, shops, farms, and outposts of Spanish rule - became agricultural enterprises where Indians provided most of the labor - Indian men worked in fields and women handled domestic chores except during harvest season where everyone helped in the fields - rebellious Native Americans were whipped or imprisoned and mission Indians died at a quick rate - infectious disease and hard labor caused decline in Native American population - missions began to fade after Mexican independence

Old South

- set apart from rest of nation due to region's climate and geography which was ideal for cultivating profitable crops - commerce related to cotton and there was little desire to create industrial sector - had 3 subsections with distinct economic and slavery patterns - had few large cities, banks, railroads, factories, or schools which led to large percent of illiteracy

Amelia Knight

- set out for Oregon with husband and 7 children - wrote diary that revealed mortal threats along trail

Louisiana Territory

- settlement began in 1699 - driving force was Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne - New Orleans was the capital

Treaty of Augsburg

- settlement between Lutherans and Catholics - allowed Germans to choose their religion

Hull House

- settlement house in immigrant Chicago neighborhood - founded by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr, who were driven by an impulse to share lives of the poor and to make social service express spirit of Christ - community center to address needs of unskilled working poor, especially newly arrived European immigrants - included nursery, health clinics, lectures, music lessons, art studios, men's clubs, employment bureau, job training, gymnasium, coffeehouse, savings bank, and a public bath - classes were offered in acting, weaving, carpentry, art history, philosophy, and music - all residents were treated as equals

Salem Witch Trials

- several accusations of witchcraft led to trials in Salem, Massachusetts - those who confessed were jailed and those who denied were hanged - hysteria spread through Salem and multiple towns - witchcraft was family affair and many accused each other - accusations had practical benefits and self-interested motives due to more land that was forfeited from the witches

Anti-Imperialist League

- several groups combined to form league against imperialism - led by Andrew Carnegie and Mark Twain - opposed US territorial expansion and use of forces trying to oppress Philippines

Federalism

- sharing of power among national, state, and local governments

fugitives

- slaves that had escaped to freedom - example of lure of freedom and courage - around 50,000 slaves tried to escape every year but only 1,000-1,500 escape - most were forced to return when they ran out of food or lost their way

Slave pens

- slaves were brought and converted from people to products; they were bathed and groomed, "fattened up" with bacon, milk, and butter, and "packaged" (dressed) for sale in suits or dresses

middle class

- social class between the ragged and the rich; "neither poverty stricken nor offensively rich" - most working outside the home were employees of large businesses made up a new class of "white-collar" professionals - others, mostly unmarried women, were clerks secretaries, salespeople, teachers, and librarians

Women's status

- some women helped during the war by cooking meals and tending to soldiers - wives often followed their husbands into battle but some prostitutes went too - sometimes women were even used in battle and others disguised as men to join war

Scalawags

- southern white Republicans - especially hated by southern Democrats who viewed them as traitors to their region - most were Unionists who opposed secession and were prominent in mountain counties - were willing to work with Republicans to rebuild southern economy

War Hawks

- southerners and westerners who were eager to declare war on Britain - wanted to defend national honor and rid of the Northwest of "Indian Problem" by invading Canada

"Lost Cause" Myth

- southerners' romanticized version of Civil War - looked back at the Old South nostalgically and idealized the white supremacist culture - claimed slaves were happy to be enslaved and that they were never mistreated

Age of Exploration

- sparked by the Renaissance - new knowledge and technology allowed for Europeans to explore oversea

Exhorters

- spiritual speakers who were not formal ministers - were called Jumpin' Jesus, Crazy Dow, and Mad Issac - found audiences among among frontier folk and practiced "personal" religious experiences that celebrated individual conversions

Creek Indians

- split into two factions: Upper Creeks, those who opposed American expansion and sided with British, and Lower Creeks, those who wanted to remain on good terms with Americans

Dawes Severalty Act

- sponsored by Henry Dawes of Massachusetts - wanted to "Americanize" Indians by forcing them to become self-reliant farmers who owned their own land rather than having a band hold property in common - divided tribal lands and "allotted" them to individuals

blood sports

- sports like cockfighting and dogfighting whose purpose is to kill or injure animals - boxing became popular but was outlawed

Eastern Woodlands people

- spread from Maine to Florida - included three regional groups distinguished by different languages: the Algonquian, the Iroquoian, the Muskogean -would be the first to encounter Europeans

Samuel S. McClure

- started golden age of muckraking - owned McClure's magazine and recruited idealistic journalists to expose corruption in politics and corporations - claimed that "vitality of democracy" depended upon educating public about "complex questions" - investigated corporate monopolies and crooked political machines while exposing miserable conditions of working poor

Panic of 1837

- started when British banks curtailed loans forcing British companies to reduce trade with America - loss of demand for cotton caused price to collapse - caused by specie circular and elimination of B.U.S

Horace Mann

- state legislator and attorney of Massachusetts - led early drive for statewide, tax-supported public school systems - proposed that schools be free to all children regardless of class, race, or ethnicity (including immigrant children) - sponsored creation of state board of education and served as its leader - argued that universal access to education "was the great equalizer of the conditions of men"

enclosure movement

- strain on poor through enclosure of farmland, which was their source of income - landlords enclosed farmlands and evicted farm workers for sheep grazing - many peasants and beggars were sent to America

Horizontal Integration

- strategy where a dominant corporation buys or forces out most of its competitors

Vertical Integration

- strategy where instead of depending on other products or services from other firms, a company owns everything it needs to create their product

Cotton Kingdom

- stretched from eastern Carolinas and Georgia through Alabama-Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Mississippi valley as far as southern Illinois

Townshend Acts 1767

- taxed colonial imports of glass, lead, paint, paper, and tea - tax revenues would pay salaries of royal governors so assemblies had no more leverage on royal governors

Jane Addams

- struggled with neurasthenia and developed depression during which she developed desire "to live in a really living world" - founded Hull House where she and other social workers helped immigrants adapt to American life and mentored young women to "learn of life from life itself" - helped convince many middle-class women to enter the "real workld

Great Compromise

- suggested by Roger Sherman of Connecticut - used elements of Virginia plan and New Jersey plan - one chamber of Congress will have seats based on population while the other chamber will have one vote regardless of population - embedded concept of separation of powers

Kansas-Nebraska Act

- suggested by Stephen Douglas - used popular sovereignty to let citizens decide if slavery would be allowed in within state borders - overturned the Missouri Compromise which banned slavery in Kansas and Nebraska - repealed Missouri Compromise and created 2 new territorial governments - Whigs party died and Republican party formed

Plantation Mistress

- supervised household and oversaw supply and preparation of food and linens, she also managed housecleaning and cared for sick, and birth of babies - had few rights in household and were expected to love, honor, obey, and serve her husband - did not receive education and were expected to be examples of Christian morality and sexual purity

Socialist Party of America

- supported mostly by militant farmers and German/Jewish immigrants - served as radical wing of progressivism - focused on improving working conditions and closing widening income gap between rich and poor through progressive taxation

Federalists

- supporters of the Constitution - led by James Madison and Alexander Hamilton - advocated for strong national government and flexible interpretation of Constitution - had several advantages; had a concrete proposal and opponents had nothing but criticism - leaders were younger, more energetic than anti-Federalists - many were members of Constitutional Convention and were familiar with disputed issues of document - embraced urban culture,industrial development, and commercial growth

Railroads

- surpassed other forms of transportation because trains could move faster, farther, cheaper - were able to operate year-round regardless - encouraged western settlement and expansion of commercial agriculture - stimulated economy by improving transportation and creating huge demand for iron and employment - enabled towns to compete economically and transformed local markets into interconnected national marketplace - led to political corruption and decline in Native Americans while increasing noise of everyday life

Pearl Harbor

- surprise Japanese attack on US fleet at Pearl Harbor on December 7, which prompted the immediate American entry into WWII - Japanese asked Roosevelt administration to end its embargo or "face conflict" and secretary of state Cordell Hull responded that Japan must remove its troops from China before the US would lift its embargo - Japanese planes began bombing US fleet and all 8 of the battleships were sunk or disabled, along with 11 other ships and 180 US warplanes - raid lasted less than 2 hours, killed more than 2,400 servicemen and civilians and wounded nearly 1,200 more - Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor fell short in 2 ways: first, the bombers ignored the maintenance facilities and oil storage tanks that supported US fleet; second, the Japanese missed the US aircraft carriers that had left port a few days earlier - attack on Pearl Harbor was a miscalculation, for it destroyed American isolationist movement and US declared war on Japan therefore causing Germany and Italy to declare war on US

Second Two-Party System

- system emerging in Election of 1836 between Democrats and Whigs, which would remain in even balance for 20 years

crop-lien system

- system where merchants would provide poor farmers with food, clothing, seed, fertilizer in exchange for a share of their crops when harvested - had 3 roles: small farm owners, sharecroppers, and tenants - was self-destructive: planting cotton year after year stripped soil of its fertility and stability which led to erosion of farmland during rainstorms - topsoil washed into nearby creeks causing riverbanks to collapse and creating gullies - land owners required croppers and tenants to grow an exclusive cash crop, usually cotton or tobacco, so croppers could not grow their own vegetable gardens and had to get their food from the merchant - tenant was only interested in crops not fertility of the land so tenant system was more wasteful and destructive than slavery

The Act Against Intemperance, Immortality, and Profaneness

- targeted taverns that had become "nurseries of intemperance" - tightened process of issuing license for sale of liquor, eliminated fiddle-playing in pubs, called for public posting of names of "common drunkards", and banned sale of rum and brandy - laws were rarely enforced

Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930

- tariff authored by Republicans Reed Owen Smoot and Willis C. Hawley - sought to help farm sector by raising tariff duties on agricultural products imported into US - corporate lobbyists convinced Congress to add thousands of nonagricultral items to the tariff bill, so the average tariff rate jumped from an already high 25% to 50%, making it the highest in history - economists petitioned Hoover to veto bill because its logic was flawed: by trying to "protect" farmers from foreign competition it would actually raise prices on most materials and consumer products and by reducing European imports into US, the bill would make it harder for France, Britain, and Germany to make enough money to repay their war debts - Hoover, pressured by Republicans, signed the bill, causing a steep drop in the stock market - prompted other countries to retaliate by passing tariffs of their own, thereby making it more difficult for American farms and businesses to sell their products abroad; US exports plummeted along with international trade in general, worsening the Depression

Compromise Tariff of 1833

- tariff proposed by Henry Clay that gradually reduced federal tariff and ended Nullification Crisis - both sides had won; Jackson had defended supremacy of the Union and South Carolina's persistence brought tariff reductions

Fordney-McCumber Tariff of 1922

- tariff that increased rates on imported chemical and metal products to prevent revival of German corporations that had dominated those industries before WW1 - act also included tariffs on agricultural imports to please farmers

Abigail Kelley

- teacher who embraced abolitionism and joined the Female Anti-Slavery Society - gave compelling speeches against slavery and became first woman elected as an officer in American Anti-Slavery Society - experienced sexism and prejudice from male officers - fought for women's rights and temperance

Jay's Treaty

- tension between Britain renewed over southern and western boundaries and British warship seizing U.S. merchant ships and impressing sailors - John Jay was sent to London to settle issues - Britain refused to stop impressing sailors and intercepting American merchant ships and did not have to compensate for slaves who had escaped - Jay agreed to stop selling products to France for construction of warships - Jay won 3 important promises: 1) Britain would evacuate 6 forts in northwest America 2) reimburse Americans for seizures of ships and cargo 3) grant U.S.merchants right to trade again with British West Indies - caused major outrage in America and deepened division between Federalists and Republicans - treaty barely passed Congress

Jazz Age

- term coined by Fitzgerald - period of social and cultural rebellion and spontaneity by American youth - most prominent leader was F. Scott Fitzgerald - referred to popularity of jazz music, a dynamic blend of several musical traditions - first began as piano-based "ragtime" then African American musicians combined it with emotions of the blues to create jazz - many Americans were not fans of jazz or the suggestive dance it inspired - criticism failed to stem growing worldwide popularity of jazz

Work of Giants/transcontinentals

- term coined by William Sherman for transcontinentals - construction required laborious work by surveyors, engineers, and laborers - much more expensive to build in west because it passed through vast stretches of unpopulated plains of deserts, so materials had to be hauled over long distances - construction process was like managing moving army

Big Buisness

- term commonly used to refer to giant corporations that emerged after Civil War

belligerents

- term for nations at war

Haoles

- term often used to refer to whites in Hawaii

range wars

- term to describe violent disputes between ranchers and farmers that erupted because of arguments about land and water rights

Operation Overlord

- the Allies' assault on Hitler's "Atlantic Wall", a seemingly impregnable series of fortification and minefield along the French coastline that Germans forces had created - succeeded in part because it surprised the Germans; Allies positioned British decoy troops and made misleading public statements to fool Nazis into believing invasion would come at Pas-de-Calais - thick clouds and German anti-aircraft fire disrupted the formations and some soldiers were dropped miles from their landing sites, some were dropped far out at the sea, and some were dropped so low that their parachutes never opened - those who landed safely outfought 3 German divisions during the night and prepared the way for the main invasion by destroying bridges and capturing artillery positions and key road junctions - during the first day, foul weather and rough seas caused injuries and seasickness; more than 1,000 soldiers weighed down by their equipment drowned in the water - slowly soldiers were able to make it up the cliffs and across the Normandy coastline - within 3 weeks of the landing, Allies had landed more than 1 million troops, 566,000 tons of supplies, and 171,000 vehicles - greatest seaborne invasion in history of warfare - turning point in war as Hitler's armies were caught between Soviets advancing from the east and Allied forces from the west and south

George Calvert

- the First Lord Baltimore - he was given a charter for the colony Maryland - died before king could act so charter went to his son Cecilius

House of Burgesses

- the Virginia House of Burgesses formed - the first legislative body in colonial America

domestic sphere

- the gender role of a woman to work in the household - women were to obey their husband, nuture children, and maintain households - women had limited rights and could not vote, hold office, attend schools, bring lawsuits, sign contracts, or become ministers

Temperance

- the most widespread of the reform movements - many people argued that most social problems were caused by alcohol abuse - US had become "a nation of drunkards" - America spent more money on alcohol each year than federal government's annual budget

French Revolution

- the revolution that overthrew the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons and the system of aristocratic privileges - captured attention of Americans who hosted rallies on behalf of French revolution

James Davenport

- urged Christians to renounce rationalist ministers influenced by Enlightenment and receive salvation through conversion - built a bonfire and encouraged people to burn their fancy clothes and rationalist books - reversed himself and called his sermons "enthusiastical and delusive"

Women's Suffrage

- the right of women to vote - West was the region most supportive of the movement - male settlers in western territories hoped that providing suffrage would encourage more women to settle in the region - many advocates argued that right to vote and hold office was a matter of simple justice: women were just as capable as men of exercising the rights and responsibilities of citizenship - others insisted that women were morally superior to men and would better promote welfare of society as a whole - movement was not free from social, ethnic, and racial prejudices - lashed out at Congress for allowing illiterate immigrant men to vote but not well-educated women

Glorious Revolution

- the transfer of British monarchy from James II to William and Mary - Parliament reasserted right to counterbalance monarchy - no king/queen can suspend Parliament, create armies, impose taxes without Parliament's consent

Ferdinand and Isabella

- their marriage unified two kingdoms into Spain - both were Christian expansionists and wanted to spread Catholicism - through ethnic cleaning, Muslims and Jews were forced to convert or be exiled

Anti-Masonic Party

- third political party that grew out of hostility towards Masonic fraternal order - originated from William Morgan and his death - purpose was to protect republican values and to "hand down to posterity unimpaired the republic we inherited from our forefathers" - drew support from New England and New York - first party to hold national convention to nominate presidential candidate and first to announce a formal platform of specific policy goals

British Setbacks 1777

- three British armies were supposed to meet up in central New York to take out Patriots but lack of communication and execution - Howe went to Pennsylvania and overpowered Washington and forced Patriots to withdraw

Enforcement Acts

- three acts passed by Congress - first act imposed penalties on anyone who interfered with any citizen's right to vote - second act dispatched federal supervisors to monitor elections in southern districts - third act (Ku Klux Klan Act) outlawed various activities of the KKK: forming conspiracies, wearing disguises, resisting officers, and intimidating officials; also allowed president to send federal troops to any community where voting rights were being violated

shipbuilding

- thriving fish industry brought development of shipbuilding and transatlantic commerce - old-growth trees were prized for ships' masts and spars - British government took best trees for Roayl Navy but colonists also built ships best known for quality and price - too expensive to ship wood to Britain for ship making so a third of all British ships were mad in colonies

Federalist Political Scheme

- to prevent new states from being dominated by Republicans, Federalists schemed to elect Aaron Burr as governor of New York - several Federalists opposed scheme and Hamilton urged Federalists not to vote for Burr, and Burr lost election

John C. Calhoun

- told Senate that slavery was "good-a great good" rooted in the Bible - asserted that "savage" Africans brought to America "had never existed in so comfortable, so respectable, or so civilized a condition as that which is now enjoyed in the Southern States" - warned that if slavery was abolished the principle of white racial supremacy would be compromised - claimed blacks were too shiftless that if they were freed, they would be a danger to themselves and others

James Buchanan Duke

- took over family tobacco business - spent lavishly on advertising and perfecting mass production of cigarettes - undersold competitors and cornered supply of ingredients - primary competitors eventually agreed to join forces with him and started American Tobacco Company

Destroyers for Bases Agreement

- trade negotiated between Roosevelt and Churchill - 50 old US warships went to British Royal Navy in return for allowing US to build military bases on British island colonies in the Caribbean

Trade in colonies

- traded illegally with Spain, France, Portugal, Netherlands - differed in 2 ways: lack of staple crops to exchange for English goods was a disadvantage but success of shipping and commercial enterprise worked in their favor

Enslaving Indians

- traders caused war between Indian tribes to enslave Indians - growing profit started rivalry between Indian nations

Yamasee War

- traders cheated Yamasees and confiscated their land, enslaved their people causing Yamasees to attack colonists and plantations - governor mobilized everyone to defend colony and bribed Cherokees to join was war, which ended war - caused infighting between Creeks and CHerokees

Wilderness Road

- trail created by Daniel Boone - opened to wagon and stagecoach traffic

Overland Trails

- trails that settlers used to reach California or Oregon - most traveled in family groups - by 1845, thousands were resettling through the trails - journey was hard and many died of hunger, disease, or violence - lure of gold in California brought 30,000 pioneers on Oregon Trail

typewriter

- transformed operations of business offices - women were often hired to operate typewriters and clerical positions became fastest-growing job category for women

circuit rider

- traveling evangelist on horseback, who sought converts in remote frontier settlements.

Convention of 1800

- treaty between France and America - America dropped demands to be repaid for ships taken by French and French agreed to end military alliance with U.S.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

- treaty between Russia and Germany - forced Russia to transfer vast territories to Germany and Turkey and to recognized the independence of the Ukraine region - caused Russia to lose much of its population, coal and wheat production, and heavy industry - Russia also had to pay $46 million to Germany - with Russia out of the war, it allowed Germans to focus on Western Front

Treaty of Paris

- treaty that ended the War of 1898/Spanish American war; signed between United States and Spain - Cuba was to become independent and US was to annex Puerto Rico and Guam as new American territories - US would continue to occupy Manila, pending a transfer of power to US government in Philippines - Spanish Empire in Americas initiated by Christopher Columbus came to humiliating end - left political status of Philippines unresolved; McKinley explained main goals in annexing Philippines were national glory, commerce, racial superiority, and evangelism - US imposed its will as a great power and became a world power

Fort Laramie Treaty

- treaty where Plain Indians accepted tribal boundaries and allowed white pioneers to travel across their lands

Wampanoags

- tribe led by Metacom and united many tribes in southern New England against the English settlers

Woodrow Wilson

- tried to maintain neutrality during WW1 while providing for Britain and France as long as possible - had no expertise in international relations but believed God was directing him to promote democracy and Christianity around the world - pledge of "peace, prosperity, and progressivism" won him western states and south in election of 1916 - made several errors that caused his peace plan to fail: first, he attended peace conference in Paris against the advice of his staff and European leaders and never before had a president left US for such a long time, causing him to lose touch with political developments in US; second, he defied his advisers and urged voters to elect Democratic Congress which displeased Republicans and voters, causing Republicans to control both houses of Congress; third, he refused to appoint prominent Republican to peace delegation like Roosevelt or Lodge and instead appointed Harry White - decided to let the people decide on Treaty of Versailles by doing a tour and giving speeches, against advice of doctors and wife - collapsed after speech from sever headaches, and left side was left paralyzed

Panic of 1819

- triggered prolonged financial slowdown and resulted from people trying to get rich too quickly - after War of 1812, demand on American products increased so farmers and planters increased production - banks gave out risky loans to anyone and federal government sold tracts of public land which caused reckless real estate speculation - economic depression was caused by sudden collapse of cotton prices after British textile mills quit buying American cotton for cheaper cotton which slowed commerce, and unemployment soared - reduced world demand for American goods and caused distrust of banks

Louis Armstrong

- trumpet player who was champion of jazz, and inventive and freewheeling performer who reshaped American music

coolie

- unskilled Asian laborers - single men eager to earn money to bring back to China - derogative term for workers willing to work for wages so low tat they hurt all laborers - dream of good life made them willing to endure low pay, dangerous working conditions, and intense racial prejudice - what separated them from other workers was their ability to work together in accomplishing daunting tasks

Senate

- upper house of Congress - same number of representatives for each state - elected by state legislatures for 6 year terms - could overrule the House or president

William Tennent

- urged people to renounce their ministers and pursue salvation on their own - attacked excesses of wealth and power - colonial elite thought radical revivalists were spreading "anarchy, levelling, and dissolution"

Reform Darwinism

- used Darwinism to promote "rugged individualism" and oppose government regulation on business - Lester Frank Ward was main advocate - cooperation, not competition would better promote social progress - government should pursue 2 main goals: 1.alleviating poverty, which impeded development of the mind; 2. promoting education of the masses - intellect informed by science could foster social improvement

Pet Banks

- used by Jackson's critics to describe western state banks that were run by Jackson's allies

Industrial mining

- used hydraulic cannons to strip canyon walls of rock and topsoil in search for gold or silver - was detrimental to environment: dirt and debris unearthed by the cannons covered rich farmland and created sandbars that clogged rivers and killed fish

fertilizer

- used to accelerate growing cycle of agricultural crops - extensive use led to acceleration of long-term soil depletion

immigrants

- usually desperately poor and needed jobs - most knew little to no English and knew nothing about American employment practices which made them easy targets for exploitation - wanted to live in neighborhoods populated by people from their homeland

Open Range

- vast area of grassland owned by the government where ranchers could graze their herds for free - barbed-wire fences triggered "range wars" where small ranchers fought to retain open range

Dust Bowl

- vast area of the Midwest where windstorms blew away millions of tons of topsoil from parched farmland after a long drought in the 1930s, causing great social distress and a massive migration of farm families - winds swept across plains, picking up tons of parched topsoil into dark clouds called black blizzards - with little rain, crops withered, and income plummeted - by 1938, topsoil had disappeared from more than 25 million acres of prairie land

Alliance with France

- victory at Battle of Saratoga convinced French to ally with colonists - created Treaty of Alliance written by Ben Franklin - determined outcome of war and forced Britain to shift attention from America to France

Brownsville Riot

- violent racial incident where a dozen members of an African American army regiment shot several whites who had been harassing them outside a saloon - one white bartender was killed and a police officer was seriously wounded - investigation concluded that soldiers were at fault but no one could identify the shooters and none of the soldiers were willing to talk - Roosevelt responded by dishonorably discharging entire regiment of soldiers several of whom had been awarded Congressional Medal of Honor for their service in Cuba during War of 1898 - critics flooded White House with angry telegrams but Roosevelt refused to reconsider

Stephen Austin

- visionary land developer who was leading promoter of American settlement in Texas - convinced Mexican government to allow him to recruit 300 American families to settle along Gulf coast of Texas as long as they converted to Catholicism and did not bring slaves - Americans who settled in Texas received 177 free acres and had access to thousands of acres of common pasture for ranching - by 1830, coastal Texas had more Americans than Hispanics and had a booming cotton economy

Charles Dickens

- visited Lowell and was impressed by industrial development - compared Lowell to British textile mills and said it was like comparing "Good and Evil, the living light and deepest shadow"

Middle Passage

- voyage from Africa to America - middle leg of triangular trade - 1 in 6 African captives died during Middle passage

praire schooners/Conestogas

- wagons used on Oregon Trail - people packed their food and goods in wagons, which were pulled by four mules or oxen - wheels were especially wide to enable wagon s to traverse mud or sand and could be removed to float wagons across streams and rivers

Charles 1

- wanted absolute royal power and raised taxes without consulting Parliament and harassed Puritans - tried to force Presbyterian Scots into Anglicanism and Scotland revolted - Parliament refused to help raise taxes for defense of kingdom since most of Parliament were Puritans - 1642, civil war between Royalists and Parliamentarians - was beheaded after being put on trial

Quakers

- wanted complete religious freedom and equality - founded by George Fox who rebelled against all forms of political and religious authority - insisted everyone could experience personal revelation with God - believed people were good and could achieve salvation through personal communion with God - often persecuted and hated for their odd behavior and beliefs but saw it as a way of conversion

Pilgrims

- wanted each congregation to govern itself - had to leave England in September 1620 after being persecuted - boarded Mayflower and landed in Boston instead of Virginia colony - led by William Bradford

Ulysses S. Grant

- wanted to achieve peace with the Indians and give them citizenship

Russo-Japanese War

- war between Russia and Japan over Japan's attempts to expand its influence into China and Korea - Japanese warships devastated Russian fleet and occupied Korean peninsula and drove Russians back to Manchuria - Roosevelt acted as peacemaker and sponsored peace conference in New Hampshire

W. E. B. Du Bois

- was Washington's foremost rival and disagreed with his strategy - first African American to earn doctoral degree from Harvard - advocate for civil rights and was an author - wrote The Souls of Black Folk where he highlighted double consciousness felt by African Americans - spent career exploring this double consciousness and how it set black people apart - launched public assault on Washington's strategy for improving life for African Americans - would not "surrender the leadership of this race to cowards" like Washington who :accepted the alleged inferiority of the Negro" - stressed that African American leaders should adopt strategy to ensure the right to vote and win civil equality

Eliza Yonge Wilkinson

- was assaulted and robbed by British soldiers and became a Patriot - spoke for women rights "I won't have it thought that because we are the weaker sex as to bodily strength we are capable of nothing more than domestic concerns"

Meat packing industry

- was biggest in Cincinnati and Chicago - started with hogs because porkcould be preserved longer - industry was allowed to expand due to railroad connections - ice cut from frozen Lake Michigan enabled pork to be shipped all the way to the East Coast

New South

- was championed by Henry Woodfin Grady - new version of the South after the Civil War - replaced Old South agricultural economy of slaves and elite planters with society of small farms owned by blacks and whites - would become more industrial and race relations would become harmonious

Jackson's Cabinet

- was divided between supporters of Martin Van Buren or John C. Calhoun who both wanted to be president

Benjamin Franklin

- was in poor health and said little during debate but provided experience, patience, wit, and wisdom

Elijah P. Lovejoy

- was killed by mob in Illinois - editor of an anti-slavery newspaper - death gave anti-slavery movement a martyr to the causes of both abolition and freedom of the press - was a Presbyterian minister in New England who used his newspaper to denounce alcohol, Catholicism, and slavery - mobs tried many times to destroy his printing press

George Custer

- was sent to Black Hills to force Indians back onto reservations and he had to kill them if they resisted - not very stable and was a reckless man - led Americans in Great Sioux War - found encampment of Sioux and charged forward without considering that Americans were outnumbered - was killed in battle

T.S. Eliot

- was taken under Ezra Pound but surpassed Pound as leading American modernist - wrote The Wast Land which became monument of modernism: expressed sense of postwar disillusionment and melancholy that had powerful effect on other writers - was a poet and critic for Criterion, a poetry journal that he founded - became arbiter of modernist taste in Anglo-American literature

John Tyler

- was the 1840 Whig vice-presidential candidate

William Morgan

- was thrown out of the Masons for his joblessness and convinced local printer to publish pamphlet revealing secret rituals of Masonic Order - print shop was burned and Morgan was arrested - someone paid for Morgan's release and kidnapped him and 1 year later Morgan's body was found - death became major political issue and spurred distrust towards Masons

Mississippi Indians

- were agricultural societies that mainly used corn and had trading network - left behind burial mounds - agriculture allowed for bigger population

Modernists

- were intellectuals, writers, and artists who used new modes of expression and behavior to illustrate that they were living in an era of confusion and possibility that demanded new ways of thinking and behaving - saw start of 20th century as historical hinge opening the way for new world view that rejected conventional notions of reality and values - adopted radical new forms of artistic expression and claimed that they were simply acknowledging arrival of an unsettling new way of viewing life and expressing its raucous energies

Indentured Servants

- were needed for high demand for tobacco - colonists who signed a contract exchanging years of labor for cost of passage to America and eventual grant of land - increased flow of immigrant workers to colonies and became primary source of laborers - some were forced into servitude; homeless children and prisoners were banished to New World - life was hard and many died before indenture ended; also had few rights: could be sold, loaned, or rented

Westward Movement

- west became magnet for colonists seeking freedom, self-fulfillment, and economic success - displaced Native Americans and Hispanics - expansion was important to Southerners because of new cheap land for cotton - caused great debate on whether western territories would be slave or free

Old Southwest

- western Georgia and Florida Panhandle, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas - many slaves were sold and relocated here

Old Southwest

- western Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas -dominant cotton producers and most profitable land - require extensive labor by slaves driven by brutal efficiency with whips - slaves were forced to move to Old Southwest through steamboats, slave ships, or walking

John Brown

- white abolitionist who believed that blacks deserved liberty and full social equality - many called him crazy and some called him a saint

William Lloyd Garrison

- white activist that drove abolitionist movement - launched anti-slavery newspaper, The Liberator - condemned "the popular but pernicious doctrine of gradual emancipation" - hatred for slavery outraged slaveholders in South - unflagging efforts made abolition possible

Blackface Minstrelsy

- white performers in makeup to imitate blacks - used African American folklore and racial stereotypes - immensely popular among norther working class and southern whites

Benjamin Tillman

- white supremacist who served as governor of South Carolina - insisted that SC's problems were caused by white farmers renting their land to "ignorant lazy Negroes" - gained support of poor whites and eliminated the black vote by stuffing ballot boxes and shooting African Americans

Jackson's Inauguration

- wild celebration at Executive mansion where huge crowd of jubilant western Democrats turned into drunk mob - inaugural party was symbol for everything that was wrong with "democratic" movement

"women's work"

- women were expected to work the hardest; those who failed to work were punished like servants and slaves - involved activities in the house, garden, and fields

Women's Army Corps

- women's branch of the United States Army - by the end of WWII nearly 150,000 women had served in WAC - with millions of men going into military service, more than 8 million women entered the civilian workforce

Benjamin Harrison

- won election of 1888 as a Republican - was important attribute because he did as he was told - owed heavy debt to military veterans whose votes had been critical to his election

Woodrow Wilson

- won election of 1912 as a Democrat - had unquestioning religious faith and was convinced that God had selected him to serve humanity - earned one of nation's first doctoral degrees and was first president to hold doctoral degree - championed New Freedom which aimed to restore economic competition by eliminating all trust rather than just simply regulating them - was a strong president by force of conviction - promised to lower Republican tariff, create new national banking system, strengthen anti-trust laws, and establish administration more concerned about human rights than about property rights - was an activist president who spoke with nation over the radio and hosted weekly press conferences - pursued tariff reform and summoned Congress to the longest special session in history; he addressed Congress in person, first president to do that since John Adams - pursed central bank that would benefit entire economy not just large banks and prevent panics - was racist against African Americans and endorsed racial segregation, "separate but equal" - was against woman's suffrage and hated women in politics

Warren G. Harding

- won election of 1920 - did not have abilities or experience for presidency - pledged to "safeguard America first...to exalt America first, to live for and revere America first" - promised to bring the nation back to normalcy - pledged total abstinence from alcohol but consumed outlaw liquor; fathered children with women other than his wife - his cabinet was mixed and has some of the best minds along with the worst - was not a reformer and set out to reverse progressive activism of Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt and reassert primacy of Congress over presidency - reversed Wilson's segregationist policy of excluding African Americans from federal government jobs and spoke out against vigilante racism that flared up - attacked Ku Klux Klan for inciting hatred, prejudice, and violence and urged Congress to stop lynching - first president to deliver speech focused on race and stated that blacks should be able to vote, for democracy is a lie unless there is equality

William Henry Harrison

- won presidency of 1840 with his "Log Cabin and Hard Cider" campaign

The Wealth of Nations

- written by Adam Smith - explained that consumers had to pay higher prices for foreign goods and domestic goods as a result of taxes

James A. Garfield

- won presidential election of 1880 - gave an impassioned defense of civil rights, arguing that giving blacks full rights to citizenship is most important political change - confirmed that Republicans had ended efforts to reconstruct former Confederacy - opposed labor unions and idea of 8 hour workday - was against voting rights for women - believed president should defer to Congress and federal government should keep peace and stay out of the way of the states - supported Half-Breeds and appointed James Blaine as secretary of state - was shot within 4 months of being in office and died of an infection

William Howard Taft

- won presidential election of 1908 and promised to continue Roosevelt's policies - on paper, he was extremely qualified to be president but he confessed that he did not want to be president and that he disliked politics - primary sin was his laziness - cautious, conservative progressive who embraced strict construction of the Constitution, meaning he believed that the founders had intentionally limited the powers of each government branch - believed president's authority was limited to the Constitution and that president should have no role in development of legislation, which was responsibility of Congress - supported lower tariffs on imports and failed to lead Congress and gain real reform - refused to intervene in Ballinger-Pinchot controversy and fired Pinchot which ignited feud with Roosevelt

William McKinley

- won the presidential election of 1896 - did not campaign across nation and stayed at home; instead he conducted "front-porch campaigns" where he welcomed supporters to is home and gave prepared statements to press which warned middle-class voters of perils of Bryan's dangerous ideas

Columbian Exchange

- worldwide transfer of plants, animals, and diseases - worked in favor of the Europeans but at the expense of the Indians - exchange of plant life transformed diets of both regions - Europeans and enslaved Africans brought diseases that the Indians had never encountered - 80%-90% of Indians were killed due to infectious diseases - smallpox was especially deadly and killed a third of the entire Indian population

Great Depression

- worst economic downturn in American history - spurred by stock market crash and lasted until WW2 - economy began to sputter, and business shut down - stock market did not cause the depression but rather revealed that the prosperity of the 1920s had been built on weak foundations - fearing that they would lose everything, people rushed to remove their money from banks and stock market which only made things worse - caused by overproduction and underconsumption, and worsened by Smoot-Hawley Tarriff and the Federal Reserve Board - Federal Reserve, which managed the nation's money supply, tightened money supply out of concern for possible inflation in consumer prices, so money supply shrank by a third, taking out thousands of banks and sending millions of depositors into bankruptcy - many business owners had taken large profits and refused to increase wage for employees, causing an imbalance between production and consumption - many employees were laid off and by 1933, a quarter of the workforce was jobless

Reign of Terror

- worst phase of French revolution where barbarism ruled - Jacobins executed thousands of political prisoners and Catholic priests along with revolutionary leaders

Judith Sargent Murray

- writer who argued that rights and liberties fought for by Patriots belonged to women as well - wrote "On the Equality of the Sexes" - challenged prevailing view that men had greater intellectual capacities than women - insisted differences resulted from prejudice and discrimination that prevented women from having access to formal education

An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations

- written by Adam Smith and provided first full description of modern capitalist economy - Smith argued that governments should allow individuals and businesses to compete freely for profits, which could enhance welfare of society

On the Origin of Species

- written by Charles Darwin - controversial and most influential books - centered around "natural selection" - demonstrated that most organisms produce more offsprings than can survive and those offspring with certain favorable characteristics adapt and live while others die - "struggle for existence" in crowded world drove process of natural selection

Virginia Decloration of Rights

- written by George Mason in 1776 - proclaimed rights of men, including right to reform or abolish "inadequate" government

Uncle Tom's Cabin

- written by Harriet Beecher Stowe - powerful weapon for anti-slavery advocates - was a success globally - depicted combination of improbable saints and sinners, crude stereotypes, and fugitive slaves - revealed brutal realities of slavery and and how it harmed everyone associated with it

Civil Disobedience

- written by Henry David Thoreau - "If the law is of such a nature that it requires you to be an agent of injustice to another, then, I say, break the law"

Missouri Compromise

- written by Jesse Thomas, Illinois senator, and allowed slavery in Arkansas territory and Missouri but excluded area west of Mississippi River - controversy over expanding slavery into western territories; U.S. had equal number of slave and free states and adding any slave states would ruin balance - Missouri territory applied for statehood and debate on slavery in the territory sparked controversy - Tallmadge proposed to ban transport of slaves into Missouri which enraged southerns who had developed profitable business selling slaves - Maine also applied for statehood so Senate linked Maine and Missouri's request for statehood, so Maine would be a free state and Missouri a slave state

Peculiar Institution

- written by John C. Calhoun who created phrases that allowed Southerners to avoid the word "slavery" and instead "peculiar institution" which implied slavery was unique and essential to the south

South Carolina Exposition and Protest

- written by John Calhoun in which he declared that a state could nullify an act of Congress that it found unconstitutional

Aunt Phillis's Cabin/Southern Life as It Is

- written by Mary Henderson Eastman who stressed "necessity of the existence of slavery at present in our Southern States" and claimed that "slaves are comfortable and contented, and their owners humane and kind"

Nature

- written by Ralph Waldo Emerson - stressed that people could go beyond material world and discover the "spirit" animating the universe - individuals could exercise godlike powers to counter emotional starvation of intellectual life

Taxation no Tyranny

- written by Samuel Johnson - Britain's perspective on rebellious colonies and "no taxation without representation"

Virginia Statute of Religious Freedom

- written by Thomas Jefferson - declared "no man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place or ministry whatsoever" - helped shape course of religious life in U.S.

Common Sense

- written by Thomas Paine - directly attacked king and blamed him for causing rebellion and denying American rights - urged colonists to abandon monarchy and pamphlet convinced Americans that independence was inevitable

Martin Luther

- wrote 95 theses exposing the corruptness of the Catholic Church and its officials - started the Protestant Reformation - hated indulgences and believed that faith offered salvation - translated the Bible in German so everyone could read it

Josiah Strong

- wrote Our Country in which he used Darwinian argument to strengthen appeal of manifest destiny - boasted that progress of US was illustration of Charles Darwin's concept of "natural selection" since Americans had demonstrated that they were a "superior" civilization that represented liberty and Christianity - believed Americans were a race of superior people destined to spread itself over the earth

Abigail Adams

- wrote letters to husband about treatment of women and female equality but John only dismissed female equality

George Fitzhugh

- wrote that southern men "loves his children because they are weak, helpless, and dependent. He loves his wife for similar reasons"

flappers

- young women of the 1920s whose rebellion against prewar standards of femininity included wearing shorter dresses, bobbing their hair, dancing to jazz, driving cars, smoking, and indulging in illegal drinking and gambling - impetuous young women eager to defy prevailing social conventions - attracted enormous attention because they were defiantly independent and seductive

James K. Polk

- youngest president called "Young Hickory" - opposed tariffs, national bank, and federally funded roads - greatest virtue was his work ethic and was constantly working - asked Congress to annex Texas by joint resolution which barely passed - admitted Texas as 28th state and 15th slave state - focused on 4 major objectives: reduce tariffs on imports; reestablish Independent Treasury; settle Oregon boundary dispute with Britain; acquire California from Mexico

Edward Bok

-Editor of the "Ladies Home Journal" - was not an activist for gender equality - believed that at home, women would maintain high moral tone for society, for women were "better, purer, conscientious, and morally stronger than men" - saw middle-class woman as the "steadying influence" between "unrest among the lower classes and the rottenness among the upper classes - believed idea life for women included "a healthful diet, simple, serviceable clothing, a clean, healthy dwelling-place, open-air exercise, and good reading - preached contentment rather than conspicuous consumption

Glorious Revolution 1688

-James II fled to France to escape imprisonment - replaced by king's daughter Mary and William III - governed England as constitutional monarchs, power limited by Parliament - issued Toleration Act and Bill of Rights to ensure no monarchy in England

tobacco

-cash crop that made a profit and saved Jamestown - required more land for land and laborers to mass produce tobacco, so they used indentured servants

New Mexico

-first center of Catholic missionary activity in the American Southwest - established by Juan do Onate - local Indians were named "Pueblos" - had little gold so Spaniards focused on conversions

Horace Mann

-fought for public schools across nation - embraced nativism; "a foreign people, born and bred and dwarfed under the despotisms of the Old World, cannot be transformed into the full stature of American citizens merely by a voyage across the Atlantic" - created "normal schools" to train future teachers

American Society of the Promotion of Temperance

-organized by a group of ministers in Boston - sponsored lectures, press campaigns, and the formation of local and state societies - asked each person who took pledge to put by his/her signature a letter T for "total abstinence" which invented word teetotaler

American Temperance Union

-passed a resolution that liquor ought to be prohibited by law - called for abstinence from all alcoholic beverages

Planters

-rarely engaged in manual labor and focused on managing the overseers and handling marketing and sale of crops - large scale farmers who held more than 20 slaves (also called plantation owners) - began careers as land traders, investors, cotton merchants, and farmers and over time made enough money to acquire a plantation

sit-down strike

method of boycotting work by sitting down at work and refusing to leave the establishment

teetotaler

person who totally abstains from alcoholic beverages

Viet Minh

- communist-dominated Vietnamese nationalist movement - led by Ho Chi Minh - waged guerrilla resistance movement against French control

Sino-Japanese War

- Japanese government fell under control of aggressive militarists and Japanese and Chinese soldiers clashed at Marco Polo Bridge, near Beijing - by December, Japanese had captured the Nationalist Chinese capital of Nanjing and they looked the city and murdered and tortured civilians in what came to be called the Rape of Nanjing - became a stalemate

Second World War

- 1939-1945 - most significant event of the 20th century, engulfing 5 continents and leaving few people untouched - pulled US out of Great Depression due to industrial production - US and allies emerged victorious from costliest and most destructive war in history - more than 50 million people were killed, 60% of which were civilians - transformed America's role in the world and America became world's most powerful nation

Douglas MacArthur

- American general who commanded the UN forces in Korea - refused to negotiate with Truman over his moves which would provoke Communist China - dismissed Chinese threat to intervene - issued an ultimatum for China to make peace or suffer an attack and criticized President Truman for trying to negotiate with North Korea - was sacked by Truman and replaced by Matthew B. Ridgway - his sacking created controversy in the US

Orval Eugene Faubus

- Arkansas's Democratic governor who was a segregationist - called for a special session of state legislature and asked legislators to pass series of bills designed to give him powers to close public schools threatened with integration and to transfer funds from public schools facing federally enforced integration to private "segregation academies" - defied federal court order by using state's National Guard to prevent 9 black students from enrolling at Little Rock's Central High School

Adolf Hitler

- Austrian born Dictator of Germany, implement Fascism and caused WW2 and Holocaust - was appointed chancellor of Germany - was idolized by the masses and declared himself absolute leader and in 1934 became Germany's president and supreme commander of the armed farces - led the National Socialist German Workers' Party(Nazi) - used his talents of demagoguery, lying, and showmanship to organize movement through nativist appeals to the public - claimed he represented a German "master race" whose "purity and strength" were threatened by liberals and other "inferior" people: Jews, socialists, Romani (gypsies), Communists, and homosexuals - wanted to destroy Democracy - promised to make Germany strong again by renouncing the Versailles treaty, defying limits on its armed force, and creating a Greater German Empire that would give the nation "living space"to expand, dominate "lesser" races, and rid continent of Jews - banned all political parties except Nazis,had his opponents jailed or killed, created a secret police force (the Gestapo), and stripped people of voting rights

Suez Crisis

- British, French, and Israeli attack on Egypt after Nasser's seizure of the Suez Canal - President Eisenhower interceded to demand the withdrawal of the British, French, and Israeli forces from the Sinai peninsula and the strategic canal - led to resignation of Prime Minister Anthony Eden of Britain and hastened the process of independence among its remaining colonies - Britain realized the risk of acting independently of the US - Egypt reopened the Suez Canal and operated it in a professional and nonpolitical manner

Gamal Abdel Nasser

- Egyptian army officer who overthrew King Farouk and set out to become the leader of the Arab world - promised to destroy the new Israeli nation and to end British and French imperialism in the region - with Soviet support, he sought to take control of the Suez Canal

Dynamic Conservatism

- Eisenhower's domestic program where he meant "conservative when it comes to money and liberal when it comes to human beings" - he kept intact the basic structure of the New Deal and convinced Congress to establish a federal Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and to extend Social Security benefits to millions of workers formerly excluded - he also approved increases in minimum wage and additional public-housing projects for low-income occupants

Elvis Presley

- King of Rock and Roll - was the most popular musician in America and carried rock'n'roll across all races - cultural conservatives urged parents to destroy his records and conservatives saw him as a symptom of teenage "creed of dishonesty, violence, lust and degeneration"

Truman Doctrine

- President Truman's program of "containing" communism in Eastern Europe and providing economic and military aid to any nations at risk of Communist takeover - Truman exaggerated the danger of communist takeover in Greece to ensure congressional support: he claimed that the fall of Greece would topple other nations in eastern Mediterranean then Western Europe - Truman declared war on communism everywhere which caused some to worry that efforts to contain communism needed to be selective rather than universal, political and economic rather than military

Fair Deal

- President Truman's proposals to build upon the New Deal with national health insurance, the repeal of the Taft-Hartley Act, new civil rights legislation, and other initiatives, most of which were rejected by the Republican-controlled Congress - Truman added proposals to increase federal aid to education, expand unemployment and retirement benefits, create a comprehensive system of national health insurance, enable more rural people to connect to electricity, and increase the minimum wage

Joseph R. McCarthy

- Republican senator who was the most ruthless manipulator of anti-Communist fears -eager to attract media attention, he delivered a fiery speech where he charged that the State Department was infested with Communists and he claimed to have their names - his stunt got him what he wanted most: publicity - made more accusations, initially against many Democrats then against officers in the US Army - enjoyed the backing of fellow Republicans eager to hurt Democrats in the 1950 congressional elections

Election of 1948

- Republicans nominated Thomas Dewey; Democrats renominated Harry Truman but the party split into 3 over civil rights and a group of southern Democrats created the Dixiecrats - Dixiecrats nominated Strom Thurmond - another group of the Democratic party formed a new Progressive third party and nominated Henry A. Wallace - polls predicted a sure win for Dewey but Truman pulled off the biggest upset ever and won - Democrats regained control of both houses in Congress

John Foster Dulles

- Secretary of State under Eisenhower - thought containment of communism was no longer enough and US must develop a "dynamic" foreign policy - his goal was to "liberate" people under Communist rule rather than merely contain its expansion - insisted that containing communism was immoral because it did nothing to free people from oppression - complexities of world affairs and realities of Soviet and Communist Chinese power made his moral commitment to manage destiny of the world unrealistic and costly

Strom Thurmond

- South Carolina's segregationist governor - was nominated by the Dixiecrats for presidential election of 1948 - was a white supremacist and denounced Truman's civil rights initiatives - championed states' rights against federal efforts to change the tradition of white supremacy in the South - secretly fathered a child with a black housekeeper and later paid hush money to his biracial daughter

U-2 Summit

- Soviet rocket had brought down a US spy plane called U-2. and US lied saying it was missing a weather plane over Turkey - on summit, Khrushchev lectured Eisenhower before walking out because Eisenhower refused to apologize

Spanish Civil War

- Spanish troops (the Nationalists) loyal to General Francisco Franco, with support of Roman Catholic Church, revolted against democratic Spain - Hitler and Mussolini rushed troops ("volunteers"), warplanes, and military and financial aid to support Franco's fascist insurgency - American volunteers joined Abraham Lincoln Battalion in defense of Spain's republican government and Soviet Union provided weapons

Sweatt v. Painter

- Supreme Court ruled that a separate black law school in Texas was not equal in quality to the state's whites-only schools - the Court ordered Texas to remedy the situation - was the first step towards dismantling America's tradition of racial segregation

Employment Act of 1946

- Truman called on Congress to guarantee that every American had a job but Congress refused to go that far and instead passed this act - act that gave the federal government the responsibility to "promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing power" - liberals were disappointed by Truman's inability to win over skeptical legislators

containment

- U.S. cold war strategy that sought to prevent global Soviet expansions and influence through political, economic, and if necessary, military pressure as a means of combating the spread of communism

Shelley v. Kraemer

- a 1948 Supreme Court decision that outlawed racial restrictions on housing developments of African Americans, Asian Americans, and other minorities - Court ruling did not actually end segregated housing practices and simply made them more discreet

Alger Hiss

- a former State Department official who was accused of being a Communist spy and was convicted of perjury - Whittaker Chambers, a former Soviet spy, told the HUAC that Hiss had given him secret documents 10 year earlier, when Chambers was spying for the Soviets and Hiss was working in the State Department - Hiss sued Chambers for libel, and Chambers produced microfilm of the State Department documents that he said Hiss had passed to him - Hiss denied the accusation but was convicted in 1950 for lying about espionage

iron curtain

- a political barrier that isolated the communist nations of Eastern Europe after WWII from democratic nations - term coined by Winston Churchill to describe the cold war divide between western Europe and the Soviet Union's Eastern European satellites

Eisenhower Doctrine

- a promise to extend economic and military aid to Arab nations and to use armed force if necessary to assist any such nation against Communist aggression

Civil Rights Act of 1960

- act gave Federal Courts the power to register black voters in districts with racial discrimination - lacked enforcement and depended upon vigorous presidential enforcement to achieve results, which did not happen

National Defense Education Act

- act that authorized large federal grants to colleges and universities to enhance education and research in mathematics, science, and modern languages as well as for student loans and fellowships

McCarran Internal Security Act

- act that made it unlawful to "combine, conspire, or agree with any other person to perform any act which would substantially contribute...to the establishment of a totalitarian dictatorship" - the legislation was proposed by Nevada Democratic senator, Pat McCarran - required Communist organizations to register with the Justice Department - immigrants who had belonged to totalitarian parties in their home countries were barred from entering the US - during any future national emergencies, Communists were to be herded into concentration camps - originally vetoed by President Truman, but fears of Soviet spies with American sympathizers led Congress to override his veto

Smith Act of 1940

- act that outlawed any conspiracy to advocate the overthrow of the government - Supreme Court upheld that due to "clear and present danger", the law under the act overrode the right to free speech

Rosa Parks

- activist for racial justice - boarded Cleveland Avenue bus and sat in third row and refused to move to the back for white passengers - started the Montgomery bus boycott

GI Bill of Rights

- also called Servicemen's Readjustment Act - provided unemployment, education, and financial benefits for World War II veterans to ease their transition back to the civilian world - included unemployment pay for one year, preference to those applying for federal government jobs, loans for home construction or starting a business, access to government hospitals, and subsidies for education

Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944

- also called the GI Bill of Rights - act where the federal government provided $13 billion for veterans to use for education, vocational training, medical treatment, unemployment insurance, and loans for building houses and starting new businesses

Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952

- also called the McCarran-Walter Act - created by Senator Pat McCarran - while reducing the number of immigrants admitted each year, the act renewed the national origins quota system established by the Immigration Act of 1924 - allocated 85% percent of the 154,277 annual visas to people from northern and Western European nations - introduced a system of preferences based on skills and family ties and removed the ban on Asian immigrants - prohibited suspected "subversives" and the "immoral" including gays and lesbians - Truman vetoed the bill but Congress overrode him again

McCarthyism

- anti-Communist hysteria led by Senator Joseph McCarthy's "witch hunts" attacking the loyalty of politicians, federal employees, and public figures, despite a lack of evidence. - the smear campaign tarnished many reputations and had effect on free speech - went largely unchallenged until the end of the Korean War

John Keats

- author of The Crack in the Picture Window - charged that "miles of identical boxes are spreading like gangrene" across the nation - dismissed Levittowns as residential developments conceived in error

Harry S. Truman

- became president when FDR died - led US out of WWII and into Cold War - short-tempered, profane, and dismissive - did better as president than anyone expected - pursued confrontational foreign policy that focused on stopping communism - became very unpopular after stopping strikes and increasing consumer prices

George Frost Kennan

- best informed expert on Soviet Union and worked in the US embassy in Moscow - asked by the State Department to analyze Soviet communism and wrote long telegram predicting that the Soviets would never embrace socialist and capitalist worlds - explained that Soviet Union was founded on rigid ideology which saw fundamental conflict between Communist and capitalist nations - claimed that the Soviet goal was to build military strength while subverting stability of capitalist democracies - recommended that American policy focus on strategic containment of Soviet expansionism - highlighted economic power of capitalist democracies as their greatest asset in stopping Soviet expansion

Civil Rights Act of 1957

- bill was intended to ensure that all Americans were allowed to vote - its enforcement provisions were watered down to ensure southern acceptance of the bill - established Civil Rights Commission and a new Civil Rights Division in the Justice Department

Montgomery Bus Boycott

- boycott of bus system in Montgomery, Alabama, organized by civil rights activists after the arrest of Rosa Parks - was a major success and blacks organized carpools, used black-owned taxis, hitchhiked, or walked - mass protest infuriated many whites; police harassed and ticketed black carpools and white thugs attacked black pedestrians - boycotters won a federal case and Supreme Court ruled that "the separate but equal doctrine can no longer be safely followed as a correct statement of the law" - showed that well-coordinated, nonviolent black activism could trigger major changes

Southern Christian Leadership Conference

- civil rights organization formed by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. that championed nonviolent direct action as a means of ending segregation - Martin Luther King Jr. became president of organization - coordinated activities on behalf of cluster of organizations - grew into a powerful organization

Dien Bien Phu

- cluster of villages in a valley ringed by mountains in northwestern Vietnam - site where French soldiers and Viet Minh guerrillas conflicted - 12,000 French soldiers parachuted into region and their plan was to lure Viet Minh guerrillas into the open and overwhelm them with superior firepower; French assumed the surrounding forested hills were impassable but their strategy backfired - Viet Minh fighters to positions atop ridged overlooking French base then dug trenches and tunnels down into the valley, surrounding the French - catastrophic defeat of the French signaled the end of French colonial rule in Asia

Commission on Civil Rights

- commission created by Truman to fight for equal rights - the Commission issued the report, To Secure These Rights, which called for a federal anti-lynching bill, abolition of the poll tax designed to keep poor black people from voting, a voting rights act, and end to racial segregation in the armed forces, and ban on racial segregation in public transportation

House Committee on Un-American Activities

- committee of the U.S. House of Representatives formed in 1938 - it was originally tasked with investigating Nazi subversion during the Second World War and later shifted its focus to rooting out Communists in the government and the motion-picture industry - launched full-blown investigation on the Hollywood movie industry - committee subpoenaed dozens of actors, producers, and directors to testify at hearings held in Los Angeles

Ho Chi Minh

- communist leader of North Vietnam - led the Viet Minh - proclaimed creation of Democratic Republic of Vietnam - resisted French efforts to restore colonial regime

Suburbia

- communities formed from mass migration of middle-class whites from urban centers - gave people personal freedom and family security within commuting a distance of cities - led by William Levitt

National Security Act

- congressional legislation that created the Department of Defense, the National Security Council, and the Central Intelligence Agency - onset of the cold war and emergence of nuclear weapons led President Truman to sign the act - reorganized the armed forces and intelligence agencies

Dixiecrats

- conservative southern Democrats who split from the Democratic Party to protest the party's increased support for civil rights and to nominate their own segregationist candidates for presidential election - nominated Storm Thurmond for election of 1948

GI Forum

- created to stop discrimination against Mexican Americans after WWII - led by Dr. Hector Perez Garcia, a US army major who had served as a combat surgeon - initially focused on veterans' issues but soon expanded the organization's scope to include fostering equal treatment for all people - lobbied to end poll taxes, sued for rights of Latinos to serve on juries, and developed schools for jobless veterans

St. Lawrence Seaway

- created under Eisenhower - was made in partnership with Canada and opened the Great Lakes to oceangoing ships

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

- defensive alliance founded in 1949 by ten western European nations, the United States, and Canada to deter Soviet expansion in Europe - created by the North Atlantic Treaty - largest defensive alliance in the world and declared that an attack against any of the members would be an attack against all - creation of the organization marked the high point of efforts to contain Soviet expansion - by joining the organization, the US committed itself to go to war on behalf of its allies so isolationism was dead

Paul Nitze

- director of policy planning for the State Department - wrote NSC-68 - claimed that the Soviets were becoming increasingly "reckless" and would invade Western Europe by 1954, by which time they would have enough nuclear weapon to destroy the US

Dwight D. Eisenhower

- dominated politics in the 1950s and was nation's most famous figure - was committed to moderate Republicanism and promised to restore the authority of state and local government and restrain the federal government from engaging in political and social engineering - was nominated by both parties to be the presidential candidate - first professional soldier elected president since Ulysses S. Grant - appealed to "middle-of-the-road voter" and promised to pursue a "middle way between conservatism and liberalism - pledged to shrink federal bureaucracy and make it more efficient while restoring balance between executive and legislative branches - insisted that workers had a right to form unions and bargain with management - supported civil rights in principle and pushed for improvements in some areas, but refused to make civil rights a moral crusade because he feared he would "raise tempers and increase prejudice" - because he preferred local or state action over federal involvement, government leadership on civil rights would come from the judiciary more than the executive

Berlin Airlift

- effort by the United States and Great Britain to deliver massive amounts of food and supplies flown to West Berlin in response to the Soviet land blockade of the city - was able to continue without any physical conflict and finally the Soviets lifted their blockade, in part because bad Russian harvests had made them desperate for food grown in western Germany - first major "victory" for the West in the cold war and transformed most of West Berliners into devoted allies

National Labor Relations Act

- ensured the rights of workers to form and join unions

Loyalty Order

- executive order signed by Truman that required all 2 million federal government workers to undergo a background investigation to ensure they had not ties to Communists or other "subversive" groups

Benito Mussolini

- fascist Dictator of Italy - seized control of Italy and used dictatorial power as "Il Duce" - called his version of antisocialist totalitarian nationalism, fascism - eliminated all political parties except the Fascists and ordered his political opponents murdered

Red Scare

- fear that communists were working to destroy the American way of life after WWII - many accusations were made against federal government workers often without proof - many activists were blacklisted from employment because of past political associations - violated civil liberties of innocent people - provided powerful tool for Republicans to claim that Democrats were soft on communism and to encourage widespread conformity of thought and behavior

Jackie Robinson

- first African American to play in Major League Baseball - faced discrimination: his white teammates refused to play with him, the pitchers hit him, baserunners spiked him, and spectators booed him and even threatened to kill him; hotels refused him rooms, and restaurants denied him service; and he received hate mail - black spectators loved his courageous example and watched him play

Hector Perez Garcia

- first Mexican American to serve on US Commission on Civil Rights - stressed the importance of formal education - received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian honor

Sputnik

- first communication satellite created by the Soviets - created fear among Americans that the Soviets would fire rockets with nuclear weapons - dealt blow to prestige of American science and technology and changed the military balance of power

Martin Luther King Jr.

- grandson of a slave and son of a prominent minister - preached that they must racial segregation with love - also valued militancy for without crisis and confrontation there would be no success - Montgomery buss boycott launched him into national spotlight - was president of Southern Christian Leadership Conference

Beats

- group of bohemian, downtown New York writers, artists, and musicians who flouted convention in favor of liberated forms of self-expression - rejected consumer culture and traditional responsibilities of middle-class life - self-absorbed and celebrated lives by taking risks - used alcohol, drugs and participated in criminal behavior

Central Intelligence Agency

- intelligence-gathering government agency founded in 1947 - under President Eisenhower's orders, secretly undermined elected governments deemed susceptible to communism

Willis Carrier

- invented the air conditioner

Brown v. Board of Education

- landmark Supreme Court case that struck down racial segregation in public schools and declared "separate-but-equal" unconstitutional - Chief Justice Warren refused to side with segregationists like Eisenhower wanted - justices used variety of sociological and psychological findings to show that practice of separating students by race caused feelings of inferiority - Eisenhower refused to endorse or enforce the Court's ruling

Federal Aid Highway Act

- largest federal project in U.S. history that created a national network of interstate highways - costed $32 billion and was funded largely by federal gasoline taxes and took 25 years to construct - had "multiplier effects": created jobs, stimulated economic growth, spurred tourism, motor hotels, billboard, fast-food, and long-haul trucking industries - changed American culture and transformed the way people traveled and where they lived

Nikita Khrushchev

- leader of the Soviet Union after Stalin

Baby Boom

- markedly higher birth rate in the years following World War II and led to the biggest demographic "bubble" in American history - initially created a surge in demand for diapers, washing machines, and baby food, then required the construction of thousands of new schools, and the hiring of teachers to staff them - children's needs drove much of the economy's growth, creating market for toys, candy, gum, records, cloths - soaring birthrate reinforced the notion that a woman's place was in the home

Marshall Plan

- officially called the European Recovery Plan - Secretary of State George C. Marshall's post-WWII program that provided massive US financial and technical assistance to war-torn European countries - intended to reconstruct European economy, neutralize Communist insurgencies, and build up foreign markets for US products - part of Truman's effort to contain expansionist tendencies of Soviet Union by reestablishing a strong Western Europe anchored in American values - at first congress criticized the plan but after a Communist-led coup in Czechoslovakia, the last democratic nation in Eastern Europe, the plan passed through Congress - provided $13 billion to 16 nations, but Soviet Union forced the countries under its control to refuse to participate - plan worked and Western Europe's industrial production soared to 40% above prewar levels and its farm outputs was larger than ever - became the most successful peacetime diplomatic initiative in history

Taft-Hartley Labor Act

- officially called the Labor-Management Relations Act - congressional legislation that banned "unfair labor practices" by labor unions, required union leaders to sign anti-Communist "loyalty oaths," and prohibited federal employees from going on strike - gutted many of the provisions of the NRLA by allowing employers to campaign against efforts to form unions and outlawed unions from coercing workers to join or refusing to negotiate grievances - imposed a "cooling-off" period of 80 days on any strike that the president deemed dangerous to public welfare - allowed state legislatures to pass "right-to-work" laws that ended the practice of forcing all workers to join a union once a majority voted to unionize - vetoed by Truman but overturned by Congress

Consumerism

- preoccupation with the purchasing of material goods - standard of living rose and most Americans had money to spend in the fifties - average income for working class increased as much as it had in the previous 50 years

Franklin D. Roosevelt

- president of the US during Great Depression and World War II - tried to keep US out of war but the only way for US to avoid war was to offer assistance to Britain, France, and China which ignited debate between isolationists and interventions - after peace ended in Europe, he began convincing congress to prepare army for war - his phrase "all aid short of war" became the label for his efforts to help Great Britain

Mohammed Mossadegh

- prime minister of Iran and seized control of Iran's British-run oil industry - cut diplomatic relations with Britain and insisted that Iran, not Britain, should own, sell, and profit from Iranian oil - was arrested and convicted of high treason

Separate but equal

- principle underlying legal racial segregation, upheld in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) and struck down in Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

moderate Republicanism

- promise to curb federal government and restore state and local government authority, spearheaded by President Eisenhower.

facism

- radical form of totalitarian government in which a dictator uses propaganda and brute force to seize control of all aspects of national life: the economy, the armed forces, legal and educational system, and the press - thrived in Germany and Italy due to violent ultranationalist patriotism and emotionalism built upon racial superiority and resentments that grew out of defeat in WW1

Neutrality Laws

- series of laws passed by Congress aimed at avoiding entering a Second World War - these included the Neutrality Act of 1935, which banned loans to warring nations

Geneva Accords

- signed by representatives of France, Britain, the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China, and the Viet Minh - gave Laos and Cambodia their independence and divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel of latitutde - Viet Min Communists were given control in the north and the French remained in the south where Ngo Dinh Diem was premier

Sputnik Mania

- started with Soviet Union's creation of the first communication satellite and led the US to increase defense spending and enhance science education - Congress created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to coordinate research and development related to outer space

Cold War

- state of political and ideological conflict between the United States, which represented western-democratic nations, and the Soviet Union, which represented Marxist-communist nations - marked by propaganda, threats, and other hostilities falling short of direct open warfare between the United States and the Soviet Union - unavoidable conflict between democratic capitalism and totalitarian communism and their opposing views of what the postwar world should become - America's commitment to free-enterprise capitalism, political self-determination, and religious freedom clashed against the Soviet Union's preference for controlling its neighbors, ideological conformity, and prohibiting religious practices

Massive Retaliation

- strategy that used the threat of nuclear warfare as a means of combating the global spread of communism - had a major weakness: both US and Soviet Union had developed hydrogen bombs

nonviolent civil disobedience

- tactic of defying unjust laws through peaceful actions championed by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

Hollywood Ten

- ten witnesses from the film industry who refused to cooperate with the HUAC's investigation of Communist influence in Hollywood - they refused to testify at hearings, arguing that it violated their First Amendment rights - all ten were cited for contempt of Congress, given prison terms, and blacklisted (banned) from the film industry

Korean War

- the conflict between Communist North Korea and Non-Communist South Korea - the United Nations (led by the United States) helped South Korea by supplying troops - Truman decided to wage war through the UN instead of Congress because he feared that a congressional debate would take too long - first military action authorized by the United Nations and soldiers fought under an international flag - Douglas MacArthur was appointed supreme commander of the UN forces - MacArthur staged a surprise landing behind North Korean lines and was able to recapture Seoul - Truman then approved MacArthur's request to advance into North Korea to destroy its armies, forcing China to intervene - as UN forces were getting ready to capture the North Korean capital, some 500,000 Chinese volunteers crossed into Korea and forcing UN troops to retreat - Communist Chinese and North Koreans recaptured Seoul

Falling Domino Theory

- theory that if one country fell to communism, its neighboring countries would follow suit - Eisenhower used this theory to explain why US needed to fight communism in Vietnam

NSC-68

- top-secret policy paper approved by President Truman in 1950 that outlined a militaristic approach to combating the spread of global communism - written by Paul Nitze - written by the National Security Council - endorsed George Kennan's containment strategy, but instead of focusing on political and economic counterpressure, the report called for a massive military buildup and a "policy of calculated and gradual coercion" against Soviet expansionism everywhere - became guidebook for future American policy

Ngo Dinh Diem

- was the new premier of South Vietnam after Geneva Accords - was expected to enact democratic reforms and distribute land to peasants in return for US providing military and economic aid - suppressed his political opponents, did little to no land distribution, and let corruption grow - refused to participate in elections to reunify Vietnam and eventually ousted the emperor and declared himself president

Fuchs and the Rosenbergs

- were part of the same communist ring that secretly passed information about the development of the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union - their convictions fueled Republican charges that Truman's administration was not doing enough to hunt down Communist agents who were stealing American military secrets - heightened fears that a vast Soviet networks of spies and sympathizers was operating in the US - first Americans executed for spying

Massive Resistance

- white rallying cry disrupting federal efforts to enforce racial integration in the South - many states nullified the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education claiming that racial integration was a issue of states' rights

John Kenneth Galbraith

- wrote "The Affluent Society" where he attacked the prevailing notion that sustained economic growth was solving social problems - reminded readers that the nation had yet to eradicate poverty; female-led households, Mexican American migrant farmworkers, Native Americans, and rural southerners

Jacobo Arbenz Guzman

-president of Guatemala and took over US owned property and industries which convinced Dulles that Guatemala was falling to communism - was forced into exile in Mexico by CIA warplanes