2.09 Discussion Based Assessment

the social, political, and economic causes and consequences of the Second Industrial Revolution

Agriculture Farm production increased as new farm technology developed Fewer farmers were needed to produce enough food for the country's population The U.S. economy shifted from an agricultural-based economy to an industrial-based economy Business/political Large business organizations began to form, squeezing business from smaller operations A small number of business owners began to control specific industries, such as the railroads Labor unions became more organized as workers began to fight for equality and fairness Social People moved to the United States in large numbers to work in industries New social classes, upper, middle, and lower, developed in cities Cities began to grow up and out with more than half of the population living in urban areas Living conditions in cities deteriorated as populations increased and sanitation and inadequate housing issues emerged Technology An abundance of steel helped launch the construction of heavy machinery and railroads Development of a process to refine oil improved transportation and machine operation Advancements in communication, such as the telephone and telegraph, united the country Transportation Cheap steel led to the completion of the transcontinental railroad Railroads linked isolated regions of the country to the rest of the United States

economic challenges to farmers and farmers responses to those challenges in the mid to late 1800s

As farm goods flooded the marketplace, prices for the products began to fall. Between 1870 and 1890, for example, the price of wheat fell from $1.03 per bushel to $0.63 per bushel. Corn fell from $0.43 to $0.30 a bushel. Farmers who had borrowed money to pay for seed machines or livestock could not keep up with their debt repayment. They began losing their property as a result. Many farmers blamed businesses, banks, and government policies for their troubles. In particular, they blamed the railroads and the operators of grain elevators, the large storage tanks where corn, wheat, and other grains were kept before being loaded on trains. These businesses charged a great deal of money to handle, store, and transport crops. In 1866, Oliver Hudson Kelley, who worked for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, toured many of the farms in the South. He saw that farmers were not making use of farming's best practices. Crops were failing. Soil was depleted. Kelley also witnessed the poverty and suffering of farmers brought on by their lack of knowledge. Kelley and other members of the department decided to form an educational organization called the Order of Patrons of Husbandry. The order became known as the National Grange. Its pledge was to help the nation's farmers. See the video to learn more about the life and times of American farmers during this era. Local chapters of the organization were called Granges. In 1870, only nine states had a local Grange. Just a few years later, Granges had spread across the nation and had a total of more than 800,000 members. Grange members fought the railroads and grain elevator operators by protesting to state legislatures. Several Granges succeeded in getting legislation passed that limited the amount that railroads and grain elevator operators could charge for transporting and storing farm products. Legislatures in Illinois and Wisconsin, for example, both passed laws setting restrictions on prices. Though this legislation was generally challenged in court, farmers met with success in keeping the laws on the books.

the causes, course, and consequences of the labor movement in the late 1800s and early 1900s

At the end of the Civil War, the United States entered a period of enormous change. American industry expanded. Factories cropped up in urban areas with dense populations. Companies needed a continuous supply of workers. They did not have to look far. Factory work depended on machines, not skilled workers. Many people were willing to work for low pay under harsh conditions. Some workers were soldiers returning from the battlefields of the war. Others were Americans who moved from rural farming communities to cities. Many were immigrants who came to the United States in waves during the last part of the 19th century. The rise of the factory system greatly altered the workplace for skilled workers. Once, craftsmen had been involved in every phase of production. Mass production in factories changed that because machines created pieces that had previously been handmade. Skilled craftsmen now had to sell their labor to factory owners. Women and children, some as young as five years old, held full-time jobs. And full-time meant 12 hours a day, six days a week. Often, factory owners cared more about profits than the wellbeing of their workers. Long hours and dangerous working conditions were common. Owners did not have to worry about federal, state, and local laws that protected workers. There were no such laws. And individual workers who objected to hours, pay, or conditions were fired. Workers injured on the job were replaced. There was no system to help those who were suddenly jobless. Eventually, workers found that they needed to speak up as a group rather than as individuals. So some workers organized labor unions. Doing so, they believed, would give them enough power to demand better hours, pay, and working conditions. As the 19th century ended, unions continued to gain members. Government officials, as well as business owners, fought them. Business owners frequently refused to recognize unions. Workers in many factories were prohibited from attending union meetings. In some cases, workers were fired for joining a union. Many workers were forced to sign so-called yellow-dog contracts, in which they promised they would not join the union. At that time, the biggest obstacle to unions was the state and federal courts. When lawmakers passed laws declaring yellow-dog contracts illegal, the Supreme Court overturned it. When a hatmakers' union went on strike in Connecticut, the state Supreme Court said strikers were interfering with the company's business. The court allowed the owners to sue the union. Despite court decisions, union membership steadily increased. At the end of the 19th century, unions had successfully demonstrated their ability to organize workers. They had won victories for higher wages and shorter workdays. However, the issue of working conditions remained controversial. This issue became more difficult for the public to ignore as workplace disasters occurred. In 1907, more than 300 miners died in a coal mine collapse. In 1911, a fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist factory in New York City emphasized the dangerous conditions in factories. The fire, fueled by the oil in the machines and many stacks of cloth, raced through the top floors of a building that employed more than 500 young women in sweatshop conditions. To prevent theft by the employees, all of the doors but one had been locked. There was no sprinkler system in the building. There was only a single fire escape. Terrified workers jumped from the building to their deaths when they realized fire department ladders couldn't reach them in the top stories of the building. The fire killed 146 workers, most of them young female immigrants. As a result of the fire, the state of New York began to study safety in the workplace. However, when the owners of the company went to trial for the deaths, they were found not guilty. Soon after that disaster, the federal government took steps to protect workers. In 1913, the United States Department of Labor was established.

the impact of political machines in the United States

Changes in urban living gave rise to a new class of professional politicians. These men observed the changes in their cities and saw ways to increase their power. Before this time, most American political leaders had been educated and wealthy. The new leaders came mostly from the immigrant groups of the previous generation. They saw that their cities needed new services, such as schools, police, lighting, and sanitation. These new political leaders formed organizations that reached down to the level of neighborhoods. They provided the only help that the poor could get. In return, they usually asked for just one thing: the new citizen's vote. By using the democratic system, local leaders took office. They were able to get money for services in their wards—and political power for themselves. This meant influence for the "boss" at the top of the organization, and also for the people who organized his supporters. These organizations were known as political machines. The most famous political machine was the one that ran New York City. It was called Tammany Hall, or just Tammany. Originally a social club, Tammany became associated with the Democratic Party in New York early in the 19th century. For several decades it expanded its power by finding jobs and housing for immigrants. Tammany leaders then helped immigrants attain citizenship so they could vote. It was not unusual for them to give the poorest families a few dollars for food and fuel. With the power gained from this neighborhood level of involvement, Tammany leaders were able to get elected to office at city and sometimes state governments. The quest for power often led to corruption. Bosses found out where the city was planning to put up a courthouse or a transit line and bought the property before the project was announced. Then they sold the land to the city at a profit. The leaders also took money from other people in the organization in exchange for jobs on the public payroll. Political machine bosses who held office accepted bribes in exchange for awarding city contracts to certain businesses. George Washington Plunkitt was a Tammany leader who explained how the machine worked in a series of interviews with a journalist.

the immigrant experience in the United States

Most immigrants came with their families to the United States. Sometimes one member of the family, usually a young father or teenage son, would arrive first. He would then send for his family once he had established a life here. Some young men even returned to their home countries after saving some money from jobs. This division of families affected the family structure for many immigrants. After being admitted into the country, immigrants had to find jobs and homes. Some immigrants moved to the Midwest to find open land. Many German settlers moved to Texas, where they founded communities like Fredericksburg and farmed or worked in service jobs like baking or sewing. Most immigrants, however, moved to urban centers. They frequently settled in neighborhoods where immigrants from their home country lived. There, they could maintain some of their customs and traditions and look for support from their community. Life was often difficult, as jobs had low pay and long hours. Many city dwellers lived in overcrowded, poorly constructed apartment buildings. They worked in dirty and dangerous factories, small shops, or mills called sweatshops, where conditions were very poor. Most immigrants worked in unskilled jobs in the garment industry or construction. A few, eventually, were able to start their own businesses. On the West Coast, Chinese immigrants labored first in the gold mines and later as railroad workers. They were given dangerous jobs and paid less than other workers. Though they faced a great deal of prejudice, some eventually were able to open their own businesses, working as launderers, shoemakers, and in other service jobs.

significant inventors and inventions of the Industrial Revolution

Perhaps the most famous inventor of the time was Thomas Alva Edison. Edison's work with electricity gave homes and businesses brighter, cleaner lights. He also developed numerous other devices at his lab in Menlo Park, New Jersey. These inventions included the phonograph and a motion picture camera. The lab in Menlo Park was the first industrial research laboratory in the United States. Edison's successes earned him the nickname "The Wizard of Menlo Park." Women such as Madame C.J. Walker also contributed important new products. Madame C.J. Walker became the first female African American self-made millionaire for her development of popular hair care products. Inventors also worked to improve transportation. In 1872, Elijah McCoy, the son of runaway slaves, developed a way to keep the moving parts of steam engines lubricated. This helped keep the engines working smoothly and safely. Elijah McCoy's steam engine lubricator was so successful that people asked sellers if they had the "Real McCoy." Other inventors looked toward the sky to improve travel. In 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first successful powered flight in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. 1861: Image: A photograph shows an early telegraph key made with brass fixtures on a wooden plank. The pad that is touched to send signals is visible on the right. The first transcontinental telegraph line is completed, allowing people across the country to communicate with one another almost instantly. Originally developed by Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail in the 1830s, Morse Code let people send telegraph messages easily. 1865: Image: A photograph shows the interior of the "Pioneer," the first railroad sleeping car. A woman is seated on the right. Overhead, fold-up beds line both the sides of the car. George Pullman creates the first railroad sleeping car, the "Pioneer." Pullman later became president of the Pullman Palace Car Company. This company made and operated sleeping cars on contract with railroad companies. The company became so large that it had its own town for its workers just south of Chicago. Pullman workers held one of the most famous strikes of the 19th century in 1894. 1872: Image: A patent application diagram shows a design for high-pressure steam valve. The cylindrical object is shown in cutaway view with a rod in the middle of the revealed space. Elijah McCoy patents a steam engine self-lubricator. This device used the high pressure of steam valves to keep moving parts greased and moving smoothly. McCoy received more than 50 patents in his career, mostly for improvements to the steam engine. He founded his own company, the Elijah McCoy Manufacturing Company, in 1920 1876: Image: A photograph shows a formally dressed, seated Alexander Graham Bell demonstrating his invention in front of a group of men dressed in suits and standing behind him. Alexander Graham Bell receives the patent for the telephone. The telephone improved on the telegraph by using electricity to transmit sound. Several lawsuits over the true inventor of the device followed, but Bell ultimately won. 1879: Image: A photograph shows four early incandescent electric light bulbs mounted in a row on a board for display. Thomas Edison develops an improved incandescent electric light bulb. Among Edison's numerous other inventions were the phonograph, an improved telephone, and a motion picture camera. 1883: Image: A blueprint drawing from a patent application shows the first machine to successfully attach the tops and bottom of shoes over the last, a mold in the shape of a foot. The individual parts of the machine are noted with letters and numbers. Jan E. Matzeliger patents the first machine to successfully attach the tops and bottoms of shoes over the last, a mold in the shape of a foot. The machine could finish between 100 and 650 more pairs of shoes per day than a person doing so by hand. Shoe prices plummeted as machine-made shoes flooded the market. 1884: Image: An 1884 drawing shows a series of improved incandescent light bulbs. From left to right: a bulb with filament beginning at the bottom and curving downward; a bulb with filament beginning at the bottom, rotating in a circle, and curving downward; a bulb with filament beginning at the bottom, and curving downward, upward, and downward again; a bulb with filament beginning at the bottom, rotating three times before curving downward. Lewis Howard Latimer becomes the only African American member of Thomas Edison's inventing lab. He had already developed improved electric lamps and a light bulb filament. While working for Edison, Latimer wrote an engineering handbook about incandescent lights. 1885: Image: Blueprint for an object from four different views. The object appears to be a rectangular box with covers that fold over its top and are fastened. Sarah E. Goode becomes the first African American woman to receive a patent. Her cabinet bed allowed users to transform their beds into desks to save space in small city apartments. The bed had hinged sections that could be folded or unfolded as needed. 1892: Image: A photograph shows two subway cars from a front view. They are stopped on tracks in a place with a low ceiling. A third rail is visible running beneath each car. Granville T. Woods, an African American inventor, develops a way to send electricity to trains without the use of exposed wires. This improved safety for passengers. He later developed the third rail that fed electricity to trains with less friction than in the past. Subways today still use this concept to power trains. 1893: Image: A painting shows the Court of Honor at the Chicago World's fair in 1893. Large buildings are visible surrounding a large lake adorned with fountains in the foreground, while a flagpole is front and center. Large numbers of people are seen along the shore of the massive lake. George Westinghouse wins the contract to power the Chicago World's Fair (shown) using his alternating current (AC) system. Later, Westinghouse used his invention to develop hydroelectric power at Niagara Falls. AC power presented a serious challenge to direct current power, which was used widely in the United States in the late 1800s. George Westinghouse often competed with Edison in the field of electricity. During his career, Westinghouse received more than 100 patents. His inventions ranged from railroad brakes to gas pipes. 1903: Image: A picture shows the famous first flight of Orville and Wilbur Wright as they attempted liftoff. One brother runs beside the craft as the other brother is lying on the wing controlling the plane. Orville and Wilbur Wright make the first successful powered flight. They had developed several failed airplanes before launching this Wright Flyer in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. The Wright Brothers continued to improve on powered flight over the years. In 1908, Wilbur Wright accomplished the first powered flight with a passenger. 1906: Image: A photograph shows an assortment of Madame Walker's beauty products and a booklet that appears to contain instructions. Two small plastic containers, a medal with a picture of Walker, and a pink box with the text "Get Madame Walker's Satin Tress Conditioning Process. Non Oily!" is shown. Madame C.J. Walker opens a company to sell her beauty products. Her inventions include shampoos and hair creams. They were so successful that Walker became the first self-made female African American millionaire. 1908: Image: A photograph shows a man in a long-sleeved shirt and vest assembling a Model T automobile. This Model T has large white bicycle-type tires, a radiator in front of the engine, and a prominent steering wheel. Henry Ford begins making the Model T automobile. Over the next two decades, Ford sold more than 15 million of the cars in the United States alone. By the turn of the century, Henry Ford had developed a series of increasingly successful automobiles. These vehicles, along with his development of the assembly line, redefined how Americans lived and traveled. Its relatively low price was made possible by Ford's use of mass production techniques. 1923: Image: A blueprint design shows Garrett Morgan's first three-position traffic signal from 1923. Four versions are shown. The prominent version is a tall pole in the shape of a cross with a bell on top. On either side of that drawing are two additional versions that have different arrangements of signals, each with a bell on top. In the upper left is a fourth version that has three columns of signals with a bell on top. Garrett Morgan patents the first three-position traffic signal. Earlier signals had shown only the words "Stop" and "Go." This led to many accidents at busy intersections as drivers failed to stop in time. Morgan added a four-way stop sign to halt all traffic before the signal changed. This improved safety both for drivers and for pedestrians trying to cross busy streets.

changes that occurred as the United States shifted from an agrarian to an industrial society

Railroads and grain operators were able to charge such high rates because they were monopolies. A monopoly exists when one company or group of companies controls most or all of the business in an industry. Railroads were monopolies because just one railroad company could control thousands of miles of track. In addition, many railroad companies also owned the grain elevators.

the importance of social change and reform in the late 1800s and early 1900s

Some of the first social reform in the United States centered on passing laws to prevent child labor. At the time, labor unions were trying to assert their power. But often those groups overlooked the issue of child labor in their fight for better wages and working conditions. However, social reformers were well aware that unscrupulous bosses were taking advantage of children. Mary Harris "Mother" Jones was a tireless reformer who fought for the rights of workers, including child laborers. A skilled speaker and effective organizer, she inspired men, women, and children to action. Mother Jones was a leader for railway worker and coal miner unions in the late 1890s. But the issue of child labor became her most important cause. As cities expanded in the late 1800s, the public grew increasingly aware of the problems that accompanied urbanization. To many reformers, helping the cities' poorest residents became the most important goal for creating a more just society. For some of these reformers, helping the urban poor was linked to their Christian beliefs. Ministers such as Washington Gladden linked service to the poor to heavenly salvation. Gladden and other reformers who shared his point of view began the Social Gospel movement. The Social Gospel movement was based on the belief that the gap between the rich and the poor was too great in American society. This movement encouraged the wealthy and the upper middle class to help less fortunate people. At that time, there were no government programs to help people in poverty. The laissez faire concept also extended to social welfare. The government left alone the less fortunate to fend for themselves or to depend on charity. This lack of government help created the need for the Social Gospel movement, according to its supporters. The Social Gospel movement arose at a time when opposing ideas had many proponents. This was also the era of Social Darwinism. Proponents of Social Darwinism believed that those who had superior skills and were meant to be successful would be successful. Those who were less capable were bound to be unsuccessful. In other words, people who were poor had only themselves to blame. It was not up to society to help those who could not help themselves. The conflict between the two differing views of "society" was a frequent topic of debate at that time. For those who believed in the Social Gospel, helping the poor was a duty. Supporters of the movement wanted to help the less fortunate develop skills, receive job training, and find opportunities to lift themselves out of poverty. They worked to abolish child labor and shorten the length of the workday, especially for working mothers. The Social Gospel movement used the emerging field of social science to study the characteristics of impoverished neighborhoods. They used social surveys to explore the ethnic makeup of neighborhoods, as well as income and employment information. Using social survey maps, reformers could target where their efforts were most needed. This was the beginning of what is known today as social work. One of the most important developments of the Social Gospel movement was settlement houses. The Hull House in Chicago, Illinois, founded by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr in 1889, was the best-known settlement house in the United States. On a trip to London, Addams had visited Toynbee Hall, the first settlement house. She became convinced settlement houses could make a difference in the lives of city dwellers. Residents of Hull House worked for political reform, the creation of schools, and better living conditions in the city. They supported themselves through donations. By 1907, the Hull House complex included 13 buildings with a gym, theater, auditorium, and cafeteria. It included residential areas, a kindergarten, libraries, and its own post office. The first residents paid room and board and volunteered their service to the settlement house. As the settlement houses grew, they incorporated and elected trustees. The trustees raised money to expand the facilities and the number of programs they offered. As settlement houses matured, they targeted areas for legislative reform in local, state, and federal government. They urged local governments to provide public bathhouses, parks, libraries, and playgrounds for city residents. At the state level, they worked to improve wages for women, reduce the length of their workweek, and regulate child labor.

similarities and differences between the First and Second Industrial Revolutions

The First Industry Revolution:- The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of the times. It began in the United Kingdom, then subsequently spread throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world. The First Industrial Revolution spread to the United States in the early 1800s. The need for workers led people to move from farming areas to urban settings. It also brought women and children into the labor force. The Second Industry Revolution:- The Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution, was a phase of the larger Industrial Revolution corresponding to the latter half of the 19th century until World War I. It is considered to have begun with Bessemer steel in the 1860s and culminated in mass production and the production line. The Second Industrial Revolution saw rapid industrial development in Western Europe (Britain, Germany, France, the Low Countries, Denmark), the United States (Northeast and Great Lakes) and, after 1870, in Japan. It followed on from the First Industrial Revolution that began in Britain in the late 18th century that then spread throughout Western Europe and North America. The Civil War (1861-1865) is usually considered the transition between the First Industrial Revolution and the Second Industrial Revolution. After 1865, factory-produced machines such as threshers and seed drills meant that even fewer farm workers were needed. Americans from rural areas continued to move to cities. In addition, immigrants arrived in major cities in waves. The number of factory workers increased sharply. By the end of the 19th century, the United States had become a manufacturing economy.