3200 human resources
feedbacks about subsystems
.Feedbacks such as sales and customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction enable the organization to self-adjust and survive despite uncertainty and change
What is an Organization?
"a system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more persons."
a negative evaluation in OD means what?
(1) either the initial diagnosis was wrong or (2) the intervention was not effectively implemented.
Hard Work in a Specific Direction.
.Most innovations come from dedicated people diligently working to solve a well-defined problem. This hard work can span many years.
Managerial Recommendations of stereotype 1
1. Managers should educate people about stereotypes and how they can influence our behavior and decision making.
Four Characteristics of Organizational Culture (1)
Shared concept. Organizational culture consists of beliefs and values that are shared among a group of people.
The recruiter seems less important than an organization's personnel policies that directly affect the job's features (pay, security, advancement opportunities, and so on)?
T
every worldly system is partly closed and partly open.
T
Transformational innovations
Targeted at creating new markets and customers and they rely on developing breakthroughs and inventing things that don't currently exist
Core innovations:
Targeted at existing customers and they rely on optimizing existing products/services for existing customers These types of innovations are more incremental and are less likely to generate significant amounts of new revenue.
The recruiter affects the nature of both the job vacancy and the applicants generated?
T
attention to two particular qualities of deliberate practice that most people overlook (1)
, feedback is a necessary element of any type of development program. You need to know if you're making progress. During deliberate practice feedback often comes from another person (e.g., a coach), not just yourself or the task.
Simplification
-Relying on encoding helps us to simplify what might be a bewildering 使人困惑的range of inputs -Encoding and schemata make the world more manageable
Proactive Personality definition
-Someone who is relatively unconstrained by situational forces and who affects environmental change - identify opportunities and act on them, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs. -In short, are "hardwired" to change the status quo.
Combination of Seeds
. Many innovations occur as a result of multiple factors.
Systems Model of Change
->This model includes inputs, strategic plans, target elements of change, and outputs. ->Based on the notion that any change, no matter how large or small, has a cascading串联 effect throughout an organization ->Practical model to diagnose what to change and how to evaluate the success of a change effort
What is Perception?
-A cognitive process that enables us to interpret and understand our surroundings -OB is concerned with social perception -Important in OB because perception affects actions and decisions stages—selective attention/comprehension, encoding and simplification, and storage and retention—describe how specific social information is observed and stored in memory The fourth and final stage, retrieval and response, involves turning mental representations into real-world judgments and decisions.
What is Self-Efficacy?
-A person's belief about his or her chances of successfully accomplishing a specific task -Self-efficacy can be developed（Helpful nudges in the right direction from parents, role models, and mentors are central to the development of high self-efficacy） -self-efficacy beliefs are not mere bravado虚张声势; they are deep convictions supported by experience.
Strategic Constituencies Satisfaction
-A strategic constituency is any group of individuals who have some stake in the organization. -for example, resource providers, users of the organization's products or services, producers of the organization's output, groups whose cooperation is essential for the organization's survival, or those whose lives are significantly affected by the organization.
Rules for Administering Drug Tests
-Administer tests systematically to all applicants for the same job. -Use drug testing for jobs that involve safety hazards. -Have a report of results sent to applicant, along with information about how to appeal results and be retested if appropriate. -Respect applicants' privacy by conducting tests in an environment that is not intrusive打扰的 and keeping results confidential.
What is a Stereotype?
-An individual's set of beliefs about the characteristics or attributes of a group
does training potential of CSE exist?
-CSEs can be used for: Employee selection Training the training potential of CSEs is limited because most of its components are trait like or relatively fixed (self-esteem, locus of control, and emotional stability). -That said, self-efficacy is relatively more flexible than the other three components.
Stereotype cause what negatives?
-Can lead to poor decisions --Can create barriers for: Women Older individuals People of color People with disabilities
What is Personality?
-Combination of stable physical, behavioral, and mental characteristics that give individuals their unique identities -These characteristics or traits—including how one looks, thinks, acts, and feels- are Product of interacting genetic and environmental influences and are stable over time and across situations and cultures. -Personality is a person input in the Integrative Framework.
Internal Forces for Change
-Come from inside the organization -Forces may be subtle (low job satisfaction) May manifest in outward signs (low productivity, conflict, or strikes)
Kotter's Steps for Leading Organizational Change
-Concentrates on effective implementation, not on adequate planning -Provides specific recommendations about behaviors and activities needed to lead organizational change. somewhat like Lewin's model in that it guides managers through the process of effective organizational change. -differs from the systems model that it Does not help in diagnosing the need for or targets for change
Key External Forces for Change
-Demographic characteristics -Technological advancements -Shareholder, customer, and market changes -Social and political pressures
Gathering Background Information -resume
-Employers tend to decide against applicants whose résumés are unclear, sloppy, or full of mistakes. -On the positive side, résumés may enable applicants to highlight accomplishments that might not show up in the format of an employment application.
Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986)
-Federal law requiring employers to verify and maintain records on -applicant's legal rights to work in U.S. -Applicants fill out Form I-9 and present documents showing their identity and eligibility to work. -The E-Verify system compares it against information in databases of the Social Security Administration and Department of Homeland Security. It then notifies the employer of the candidate's eligibility, usually within 24 hours. -Law prohibits employer from discriminating against the person on basis of national origin or citizenship status.
Categories of Organizational Design
-Horizontal -Open boundary (Hollow, Modular, Virtual) -Traditional (functional, divisional, and/or matrix structures. )
Key Internal Forces for Change
-Human Resource Problems or Prospects （Dissatisfaction，Unusual or high levels of absenteeism and turnover） -Managerial Behaviors and Decisions （. Excessive interpersonal conflict between managers and their subordinates or the board of directors is a sign that change is needed）
Application Forms
-Low-cost way to gather basic data from applicants, enable the organization to narrow/rank the pool of candidates to a number it can afford to test and interview. -Ensures that the organization has certain standard categories of information: Contact information Work experience Educational background Technical experience Memberships in professional or trade groups
possess an internal locus of control:
-People who believe they control the events and consequences that affect their lives -"You Make Things Happen"
salient stimuli
-Something that stands out from its context -Research has shown that people tend to pay attention to salient stimuli. - One's needs and goals often dictate which stimuli are salient显著的.
How to use CSE?
-The whole of CSE is greater than its parts
Encoding
-To interpret and evaluate the environment using schemata and cognitive categories -Encoding and schemata help to organize and remember information
Radically innovative change
-at the high end of the continuum of complexity, cost, and uncertainty. -most difficult to implement and tend to be the most threatening to managerial confidence and employee job security. -At the same time, however, radically innovative changes potentially realize the greatest benefits. -Radical changes must also be supported by an organization's culture.
Ultimately judgments and decisions come about in one of two ways （in stage 4 of social perception)
-draw on, interpret, and integrate categorical information stored in long-term memory; -we retrieve a summary judgment that was already made.
Reliability:
-extent to which a measurement is free from random error/ accurate. -A reliable measurement generates consistent results. -Organizations use statistical tests to compare results over time.
Mechanisms of Self-Efficacy
-prior experience takes first position as the most potent of the four sources. -behavior models, -persuasion from others, -and physical and emotional factors) might also affect your self-confidence
In most organizations, the first step in the personnel selection process is
-screening the applications to see who meet the basic requirements for the job.
What are Causal Attributions
-suspected or inferred causes of behavior. (People infer causes for observed behavior. Rightly or wrongly, we constantly formulate cause-and-effect explanations for how we and others behave).
Review of resumes is most valid when？.
-the content of the résumés is evaluated in terms of the elements of a job description. Usually the organization checks references after it has determined that the applicant is a finalist for the job.
attention (in stage 1 of social perception)
-the process of becoming consciously aware of something or someone -The object of attention can come from the environment or from memory.
compared OD to other methods
-while its origins are in Lewin's approach, it does not entail a structured sequence as proposed by Lewin and Kotter. -OD does, however, possess the same diagnostic focus associated with the systems model of change. -OD is much broader in orientation than any of the previously discussed models. -employee empowerment is central to this approach to change.
possess an external locus of control and tend to attribute outcomes to environmental causes
-who believe their performance is the product of circumstances beyond their immediate control -tend to attribute outcomes to environmental causes, such as luck or fate. -Things Happen To You
Hard Work with Direction Change.
. Innovations frequently occur when people change their approach toward solving a problem. In other words, hard work closes some doors and opens others.
HOW to Improve Organizational Learning? (1)
1) Improve on the five steps for organizational learning. This might begin by using a survey to assess the extent to which an organization is following these steps.
Supporting Forces for Innovation
1)Does the Company Have the Necessary Human Capital? 2)Does the Company Have the Right Organizational Culture and Climate? 3)Does the Company Devote Enough Resources to Innovation?（They can include dollars, time, energy, and focus） 4)Does the Company Have the Required Structure and Processes?
How Does OD positively Influence Organizational Outcomes?
1)Employee satisfaction with change was higher when top management was highly committed to the change effort. 2)Varying one target element of change created changes in other target elements. Also, there was a positive relationship between individual behavior change and organizational-level change. 3)Interventions using more than one OD technique were more effective in changing job attitudes and work attitudes than interventions that relied on only one human process or structural approach. 4)US and European firms used OD interventions more frequently than firms from China and Japan, and some OD interventions are "culture free" (i.e., are more or less effective depending on the national culture) and some are not.
Learning from Failure
1)Failure occurs when an activity fails to deliver its expected results or outcomes. 2) unfortunately, Mistakes are generally feared and penalized, which creates an environment of risk aversion and reduces innovation. 3)Organizations learn from both success and failure, but learning is stronger and longer lasting when it is based on failure.
six seeds of innovation
1)Hard work in a specific direction 2)Hard work with direction change 3)Curiosity and experimentation 4)Wealth and money 5)Necessity 6)Combination of seeds.
What is Organization Development (OD)? it's the most common approach to organizational change today, because:
1)OD is about planned change aimed at increasing an organization's ability to improve itself as a humane and effective system 2)OD takes theories and results from the laboratory and applies them to real-life work settings 3)OD takes a distinctively democratic and participative approach to solving conflicts and problems-->not simply a top-down where senior leaders prescribe changes to be followed by employees. Instead, OD advocates the involvement of all players in identifying needed changes, planning how to make such changes, and then the ultimate implementation and evaluation of change efforts.
Mechanistic organization in the contingency approach to designing organizations
1)rigid bureaucracies with strict rules, 2)narrowly defined tasks, and 3) top-down communication. 4) A mechanistic organization generally would have one of the traditional organization designs (have functional, divisional, and/or matrix structures. ) and a hierarchical culture.
Organizational Culture's Three Levels
1. Artifacts --easist to change 2. Espoused values:=what say; ( enacted values==what really done, They represent the values that employees ascribe to an organization based on their observations of what occurs on a daily basis) ---> want to reduce the gap 3. Basic underlying assumtions--hardest thing to change in culture (Hard to see from surface. It's underlied surface Iceberg 冰山下的角)Basic underlying assumptions constitute organizational values that have become so taken for granted over time that they become assumptions that guide organizational behavior. -They represent deep-seated beliefs that employees have about their company and thus constitute the core of organizational culture. -are highly resistant to change.
step 1 of stereotype:
1. Categorization. We categorize people into groups according to criteria (such as gender, age, race, and occupation).
Causes of Resistance to Change - Change Agent Characteristics
1. Decisions that disrupt cultural traditions or group relationships 2.Personality conflicts 3.Lack of tact or poor timing 4.Leadership style 5.Failing to legitimize change
12 Mechanisms for Creating Change 1
1. Formal Statements. This method for embedding culture relies on using formal statements of organizational philosophy, mission, vision, values, and materials used for recruiting, selection, and socialization. They represent observable artifacts.
four critical high-level internal processes that managers are encouraged to measure and manage.
1. Innovation. 2. Customer service and satisfaction. 3. Operational excellence. 4. Being a good corporate citizen.
Advantages of Internal Sources
1. It generates applicants who are well known to the organization. 2. These applicants are relatively knowledgeable about the organization's vacancies, which minimizes the possibility of unrealistic job expectations. 3. Filling vacancies through internal recruiting is generally cheaper and faster than looking outside the organization.
Four truths about culture change: 1
1. Leaders are the architects and developers of organizational culture. This suggests that culture is not determined by fate. It is formed and shaped by the ongoing behavior of everyone who works at a company.
Innovation suggestion from employees: one of internal change force not listed in PPT
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four targeted elements of change: 需要去课本细看图
1. Organizational arrangements 2. Social factors 3. Methods 4. People Note: the double-headed arrows in the figure connecting each target element of change convey the message that changes ripples涟漪 across an organization. Second, the "people" component is placed in the center of the target elements of change box because all organizational change ultimately impacts employees and vice versa.
The Four Functions of Organizational Culture
1. Organizational identity 2. Collective commitment 3. Social system stability 4. Sense-making device identity" how they see themselves, who they are commitment : how well they engage in the process Stability: good culture give stability Device: helps people make sense of what's going on
HOW to increase the positive impact that recruiters have on job candidates?
1. Recruiters should provide timely feedback. Applicants dislike delays in feedback. They may draw negative conclusions about the organization (for starters, that the organization doesn't care about their application). 2. Recruiters should avoid offensive behavior that might convey the wrong impression about the organization. 3.Organization can recruit with teams rather than individual recruiters.
Dispositional resistance comprises four attributes:
1. Routine seeking—extent to which you enjoy and seek out stable environments. 2. Emotional reaction—degree to which you feel stressed and uncomfortable when change is imposed. 3. Short-term focus—extent you are preoccupied with inconveniences in the near term due to the changes instead of long-term benefits. 4. Cognitive rigidity—stubbornness or lack of willingness to consider alternative ways of doing things.
Step4, step 7 pay attention
???
Causes of Resistance to Change-Recipient Characteristics
1.Dispositional resistance to change 2.Surprise and fear of the unknown 3.Fear of failure 4.Loss of status and/or job security 5.Peer pressure 6.Past success
Criteria for Measuring the Effectiveness of Selection Tools and Methods?
1.Method provides reliable information. 2.Method provides valid information. 3.Method offers high utility. 4.Information can be generalized to apply to candidates. 5.The selection criteria are legal.
Overcoming Resistance to Change - Methods (2）
1.Not assume people are consciously resisting change 2.Important for management to obtain employee feedback about obstacles to change 3.Consider modifying the targeted elements of change If people are resisting for valid reasons
three aspects of recruiting
1.Personnel policies 2.Recruitment sources 3.the nature and behavior of the recruiter
Steps in the Selection Process part1
1.a human resource professional reviews the applications received to see which meet the basic requirements of the job. 2. For candidates who meet the basic requirements, the organization administers tests and reviews work samples to rate the candidates' abilities. 3.Those with the best abilities are invited to the organization for one or more interviews. Often, supervisors and team members are involved in this stage of the process. ---By this point, the decision makers are beginning to form opinions about which candidates are most desirable.
Managers can help employees manage:
Attitudes，Emotions；
Kotter's Steps for leading organizational change
1.establish a Sense of Urgency 2. Create the Guiding Coalition 3.Develop a Vision and Strategy 4.Communicate the Change Vision 5.Empower the Broad-Based Action 6.Generate Short-Term Wins 7.Consolidate Gains and Produce More Change 8.Anchor固定 New Approaches in the Culture
12 Mechanisms for Creating Change 10
10. Workflow and Organizational Structure: Hierarchical structure vs. flatter organizations: Reducing the number of organizational layers is an attempt to empower employees and increase employee involvement
12 Mechanisms for Creating Change 11,12
11:Organizational Systems and Procedures and Organizational Goals throughout Employee Lifecycle: How a company handles basic HR duties—for communication, recruitment, selection, development, promotion, layoffs, and retirement of people—defines and perpetuates保持a company culture.3. Slogans, Language, Acronyms, and Sayings. These elements of corporate culture often have a profound effect on the organization over time because they are easy to remember and repeat.
external forces for change
1）Originate outside of an organization 2）Can apply to the organization, competitors, or the entire industry 3）Dramatically affects why an organization exists and which markets it will participate in and how ex：smartphones for consumers and Apple's iPhone vs Blackberry
Four truths about culture change: 2
2. Changing culture starts with targeting one of the three levels of organizational culture—observable artifacts, espoused values, and basic underlying assumptions. The fastest way to start a culture change project is through the use of observable artifacts. That said, culture will not change in a significant way unless managers are able to change basic underlying assumptions. It takes time to change this deep seated aspect of culture.
step 2 of stereotype:
2. Inferences. Next, we infer that all people within a particular category possess the same traits or characteristics
Managerial Recommendations of stereotype 2
2. Managers should create opportunities for diverse employees to meet and work together in cooperative groups of equal status.
12 Mechanisms for Creating Change 2
2. The Design of Physical Space For example, an open office environment is more appropriate for an organization that wants to foster collaboration.
Four truths about culture change: 3
3. Consider how closely the current culture aligns with the organization's vision and strategic plan. Remember the quote "culture eats strategy for breakfast" whenever you pursue culture change. It is essential that an organization's culture is consistent with its vision and strategic goals.
step 3 of stereotype:
3. Expectations. We form expectations of others and interpret their behavior according to our stereotypes.
Managerial Recommendations of stereotype 3
3. Managers should encourage all employees to strive to increase their awareness regarding stereotypes. Awareness helps reduce the application of stereotypes when making decisions and when interacting with others.
12 Mechanisms for Creating Change 3
3. Slogans, Language, Acronyms, and Sayings. These elements of corporate culture often have a profound effect on the organization over time because they are easy to remember and repeat.
12 Mechanisms for Creating Change 4
4. Deliberate Role Modeling, Training Programs, Teaching, and Coaching by Others.
Steps in the Selection Process part2
4. For the top few candidates, the organization should check references and conduct background checks to verify that the organization's information is correct. 5.Then supervisors, teams, and other decision makers select a person to receive a job offer. In some cases, the candidate may negotiate with the organization regarding salary, benefits, and the like. If the candidate accepts the job, the organization places him or her in that job.
step 4 of stereotype:
4. Maintenance. We maintain stereotypes by overestimating the frequency of stereotypic behaviors exhibited by others, incorrectly explaining expected and unexpected behaviors, differentiating minority individuals from ourselves.
Four truths about culture change: 4
4. Use a structured approach when implementing culture change. Culture change is frequently met with resistance. This happens because people become accustomed to the culture and they prefer to leave things as they are.
12 Mechanisms for Creating Change 5
5. Explicit Rewards, Status Symbols, and Promotion Criteria --has a strong impact on employees due to its highly visible and meaningful nature.
12 Mechanisms for Creating Change 6
6. Stories, Legends, or Myths: Powerful way
Background Checks
8 out of 10 large companies and 2/3rds of smaller orgs report conducting background checks. Internet allows for faster and easier searching for convictions (60% of males have been arrested at some point) Requests for expunging擦去 police records has been on the rise so background checks may not be as complete as employers would prefer.
12 Mechanisms for Creating Change 8
8. Leader Reactions to Critical Incidents people learn and pay attention to the emotions exhibited by leaders. Positive emotions spread, but negative emotions travel faster and farther.
12 Mechanisms for Creating Change 9
9. Rites and Rituals:the planned and unplanned activities and ceremonies that are used to celebrate important events or achievements.
Social Perception Stage 3
: Storage and Retention Event Memory Semantic Memory Person Memory
Aptitude tests
: assess how well a person can learn or acquire skills and abilities.—what to acquire
Information acquisition
=scanning; refers to the process through which an organization obtains information from internal and external sources
What are Core Self-Evaluations (CSEs)?
A broad personality trait comprised of four narrow and positive individual traits： Generalized self-efficacy Self esteem Locus of control Emotional stability
Change agent's characteristics,actions, inactions, and perceptions
A change agent is someone who is a catalyst in helping organizations to deal with old problems in new ways. Change agents can be external consultants or internal employees.
Product innovation:
A change in the appearance or the performance of a product or service or the creation of a new one.
Process innovation:
A change in the way a product or service is conceived, manufactured or distributed.
Functional
A manager is responsible for the performance of each of these functions, and employees tend to identify strongly with their particular function, such as sales or engineering.
Criterion-related-Validity-
A measure of validity based on showing a substantial correlation between test scores and job performance scores As with reliability, information about the validity of selection methods often uses correlation coefficients. A strong positive (or negative) correlation between a measure and job performance means the measure should be a valid basis for selecting (or rejecting) a candidate.
difference between modular and hollow structure?
A modular organization, like a hollow organization, uses outsourcing. But instead of outsourcing processes, it outsources parts of a product, such as components of a jet or subroutines of a software program. The modular organization also is responsible for ensuring that the parts meet quality requirements, that the parts arrive in a timely fashion, and that the organization is capable of efficiently combining the parts into the final whole.
schema
A schema represents a person's mental picture or summary of a particular event or type of stimulus. perceivers assign pieces of information to cognitive categories. In social information processing theory, a particular category builds on a schema. We interpret and evaluate people, events, and objects by comparing their characteristics with information contained in schemata (the plural of schema). Concepts in semantic memory are stored as schemata; such schemata are often subject to cultural differences.
phases of socialization
A three-phase model of organizational socialization: Anticipatory socialization Encounter Change and acquisition The entire three-phase sequence may take from a few weeks to a year to complete, depending on individual differences and the complexity of the situation.
vision and strategic plan definitions
A vision represents a long-term goal that describes "what" an organization wants to become. A strategic plan outlines an organization's long-term goals and the actions necessary to achieve those goals.
What is Emotional Intelligence (EI)?
Ability to monitor one's own emotions and those of others, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions
Common denominators of all organizations:
Coordination of effort Aligned goals Division of labor Hierarchy of authority
Three General Types of Change （from low to high complexity)
Adaptive change Innovative change Radically innovative change
Loss of status and/or job security
Administrative and technological changes that threaten to alter power bases or eliminate jobs generally trigger strong resistance.
4.Image advertising
Advertising designed to create a generally favorable impression of the organization.(not just advertise the job openings but the organization itself) it's particularly important for organizations in highly competitive labor markets that perceive themselves as having a bad image. Brand influences the degree to which a person feels attracted to the organization, particular if the person's own traits seem to match those of the organization. Also, job applicants seem to be particularly sensitive to issues of diversity and inclusion.
Legal Standards for Selection
All selection methods must conform to existing laws and legal precedents. Three acts have formed the basis for a majority of suits filed by job applicants: -Civil Rights Act of 1964 and 1991 -Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 -Americans with Disabilities Act of 1991
What is Stress?
An adaptive response to environmental demands, referred to as stressors, that produce adaptive responses that include: Physical Emotional Behavioral reactions --all influenced by individual differences
Modular模块化的
An example of an open organization Uses outsourcing, The company assembles product parts, components, or modules provided by external contractors
Hollow Also known as a network structure
An example of an open organization, Designed around a central core of key functions and outsources other functions to other companies or individuals who can do them cheaper or faster
Virtual
An example of an open organization, Members are geographically apart, usually working with e-mail and other forms of information technology. Generally appears to customers as a single, unified organization with a real physical location
What is Intelligence?（the reason we highlight intelligence and mental abilities is because they are related to performance.）
An individual's capacity for: Constructive thinking Reasoning Problem solving
Organization Charts
An organization chart is a graphic representation of formal authority and division of labor relationships. To organization theorists, however, organization charts reveal much more
What is Resistance to Change?
Any thought, emotion, or behavior that does not align with real or potential changes to existing routines. people resist both actual and imagined events. Viewing change in this way is helpful because managing resistance and change are fundamental attempts to influence employees to think, feel, or behave differently. It's one of three possible influence outcomes including compliance and commitment
Gathering Background Information
Application Forms Résumés Reference Checks Background Checks
CSE Effect on organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs).
As emotional stability continues to increase, OCBs decline. The reasoning is that as emotional stability increases you focus your attention on the task at hand and your coworkers. Typically, a good thing. However, at a certain level emotional stability becomes problematic, too much of a good thing, and you are likely to begin obsessing over details and lose sight of the larger objectives and those with whom you work.
Division of Labor.
At each successively lower level in the organization, jobs become more specialized.
Base of Kelley's Model of Attribution
Based on Heider's theory that behavior can be attributed either to internal factors within a person (such as ability)or external factors within the environment (such as difficult task).
Interviewing Effectively
Be prepared Put applicant at ease Ask about past behaviors Listen - let candidate do most of the talking Take notes - write down notes during and immediately after interview At the end of the interview, make sure candidate knows what to expect next
Benefits of EI：
Better Social Relationships Better Well-Being Increased Satisfaction
Individual Differences
Broad category used to collectively describe the vast number of attributes that describe a person
Stereotype Formation and Maintenance
Categorization->inferences ->expectations->maintenace
Failing to legitimize change
Change must be internalized by recipients before it will be truly accepted. Active, honest communication and reinforcing reward systems are needed to make this happen. This recommendation underscores the need for change agents to communicate with recipients in a way that considers employees' point of view and perspective.
2. Motivation.
Change will not occur unless there is motivation to change.
Denominators of organizations
Coordination of effort Aligned goals Division of labor Hierarchy of authority
model of Occupational Stress - Cognitive Appraisals
Cognitive appraisal is the process by which people evaluate the meaning of events and demands (e.g., stressors) for their own well-being. what makes stressors actually stressful is how they are cognitively appraised. Two types: --Primary appraisals -Secondary appraisals It's not what happens to you but how you respond that matters
Matrix
Combines a vertical structure with an equally strong horizontal overlay Generally combines functional and divisional chains of command to form a grid with two command structures.--one shown vertically by function, and the other shown horizontally, by product line, brand, customer group, or geographic region.
2. Skill level
Complex tasks require more managerial input, thereby suggesting a narrow span of control. Conversely, routine tasks do not require much supervision, leading to the use of a wider span of control.
Target Elements of Change
Components of an organization that may be changed Used to diagnose problems and identify change-related solutions
Consensus
Consensus compares an individual's behavior with that of his or her peers. There is high consensus when one acts like the rest of the group and low consensus when one acts differently.
Construct Validity
Consistency between a high score on a test and high level of a construct such as intelligence or leadership ability, as well as between mastery of this construct and successful performance of the job.
Content Validity
Consistency between the test items or problems and the kinds of situations or problems that occur on the job.
The step of K's eight step model that involves the guiding coalition using credibility from short-term wins to create more change is：
Consolidating gains
Occupational Stress - Coping Strategies
Coping strategies are characterized by the specific behaviors and cognitions used to cope with a situation. People use a combination of three approaches to cope with stressors and stress (see Figure 16.7). Control Strategy Escape Strategy Symptom Management Strategy
How to use statistical tests to compare results over time for variablity?
Correlation coefficients-> These statistics measure the degree to which two sets of numbers are related. -> A higher correlation coefficient signifies a greater degree of reliability
Federal government's Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures accept three ways of measuring validity:
Criterion-related Content Construct
Anticipatory Socialization Learned from
Current employees Social media Internet
Contingency Approach to Organizational Design-- decision making:
Decision making tends to be centralized in mechanistic organizations and decentralized in organic organizations.
When Doing Business in Collectivist Cultures, self-esteem? how about individualistic ("me") cultures?
Deemphasize Self-Esteem When Doing Business in Collectivist Cultures. emphasizing it in individualistic ("me") cultures
what structure also called a product structure or profit center approach?
Divisional
Overcoming Resistance to Change - A Contingency Approach 详细看Table 16.2 -chp16
Education & Communication Participation & Involvement Facilitation & Support Negotiation & Agreement Manipulation & Co-Optation Explicit & Implicit Coercion
5. Reinforce.
Effective change requires reinforcing new behaviors, attitudes, and organizational practices.
CSE Effect on counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs).
Emotional stability buffered or protected participants against stressors at work (e.g., trouble with their supervisors, unfair policies, and too much work), such that they were less bothered and thus less likely to act out (commit CWBs). But there was a tipping point when the stress became too much, and emotional stability could not prevent employees from committing CWB.
What are Emotions?
Emotions are complex, relatively brief responses aimed at a particular target, such as a person, information, experience, event， nonevent. They also change psychological and/or physiological states. Emotions also motivate your behavior and are an important means for communicating with others.
Overcoming Resistance to Change - Methods （1）
Employees are more likely to resist when they perceive that the personal costs of change outweigh the benefits, so managers should: 1. Provide as much information as possible to employees 2.Inform employees about the reasons/rationale 3.Conduct meetings to address employees' questions 4.Provide employees the opportunity to discuss how the proposed change might affect them. Above points also helps build trust and improve the agent-recipient elationship
Divisional
Employees are segregated into organization groups based on similar products or services, customers or clients, or geographic regions pros: increase focus on customers and products; flexibility in decision making cons: too focus on owns that excludes rest of organization
Phase 3: Change and Acquisition
Employees master important tasks and roles and adjust to their group's values and norms; This will occur only when employees have a clear understanding about their roles and they are effectively integrated within the work unit. Finally, success during this phase is enhanced when companies take a long-term approach toward socialization.
application of knowleage of emotional stablity
Employees with high levels of emotional stability have been found to have higher job performance, perform more organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs—going above and beyond one's job responsibilities), and exhibit fewer counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs—undermining your own or others' work).
Social Perception Stage 2
Encoding and Simplification
Extra-organizational.
Extra-organizational stressors are those caused by factors outside the organization. For instance, in Chapter 10 we discussed how conflicts associated with balancing school with one's career or family life are stressful. Socioeconomic status is another extra-organizational stressor. Stress is higher for people with lower socioeconomic status, which represents a combination of income, education, and occupation.
Big Five Personality Dimensions
Extraversion外向性；外倾性 Agreeableness 亲和的 Conscientiousness 尽责认真的小心细致的 Emotional Stability Openness to Experience
Realistic job previews should highlight the positive characteristics of the job rather than the negative?
False - Realistic job previews provide background information about job's positive and negative qualities.
Applicants respond more positively when the recruiter is an HR specialist than line managers or incumbents?
False - applicants tend to respond more positively to someone who is currently in the job or a manager.
cost per hire
Find cost of using a particular recruitment source for a particular type of vacancy. Divide that cost by number of people hired to fill that type of vacancy. A low cost per hire means the recruitment source is efficient.
Organic Organizations in the contingency approach to designing organizations
Flexible networks of multitalented individuals who perform a variety of tasks. more likely to use horizontal designs or those that open boundaries between organizations.
Group level.
For instance, managers create stress for employees by (1) exhibiting inconsistent behaviors, (2) failing to provide support, (3) showing lack of concern, (4) providing inadequate direction, (5) creating a high-productivity environment, and (6) focusing on negatives while ignoring good performance.
Types of Organizational Structure
Functional Divisional matrix Horizontal Virtual modular hollow
which structures organization thinks creating silos within the organization?
Functional and Divisional structure
Attributional Tendencies 1
Fundamental attribution bias: One's tendency to attribute another person's behavior to his or her personal characteristics, as opposed to situational factors This bias causes perceivers to ignore important environmental factors that often significantly affect behavior. This leads to inaccurate assessments of performance, which in turn foster inappropriate responses to poor performance.
What is Self-Esteem?
General belief about self-worth
Generic Effectiveness Criteria
Goal accomplishment Internal processes Strategic constituency satisfaction Resource acquisition
Functional
Groups people according to the business functions they perform, for example, manufacturing, marketing, and finance pro: save money; easy to apply standards cons: best in stable environment, not applicable today.
Jane works in an organization where quality and efficiency are highly valued, the organization's culture is likely？
Hierarchy
Four basic dimensions of organizational structure
Hierarchy of Authority. Division of Labor. Spans of Control. Line and Staff Positions.
Implications for Managers about Intelligence
Identify Intelligences Relevant to the Job Select Individuals Place Individuals Develop Individuals
Four Characteristics of Organizational Culture (4)
Impacts outcomes at multiple levels. Culture affects outcomes at the individual, group/team, and organizational levels.
model of Occupational Stress - Potential Stressors
Individual Level Group Level Organizational Level Extra-Organizational
What is Emotional Stability?
Individuals with high levels of emotional stability tend to be relaxed, secure, unworried, and less likely to experience negative emotions under pressure. In contrast, if you have low levels of emotional stability you are prone to anxiety and tend to view the world negatively.
Four Characteristics of Organizational Culture (3)
Influences our behavior at work. This is why "culture eats strategy for breakfast."
Which step in organization learning is affected by the perceptual biases discussed in Chapter 4 and the decision making biases reviewed in Chapter 11？
Information Interpretation.
Legal Standards: Candidates' Privacy Rights
Information gathered during selection process may include information that employees consider confidential. This is a particular concern when job applicants provide information online. Employers should collect data only at secure Web sites.
difference between innovation and integration?
Innovation also is different from integration, which involves actions associated with getting multiple people, units, departments, functions, or sites to work together in pursuit of a goal, idea, or project.
difference between innovation and invention?
Innovation is different from invention, which entails the creation of something new, and creativity, which was defined in Chapter 11 as a process of developing something new or unique.
Curiosity and Experimentation.
Innovations can begin when people are curious about something of interest, and experimentation is used to test for the viability of curious ideas. This seed of innovation requires an organizational culture that supports experimentation.
Wealth and Money.
Innovations frequently occur because an organization or an individual simply wants to make money.
Managers have little or no impact on fixed IDs
Intelligence Personality；
Fear of failure.
Intimidating吓人的 changes on the job can cause employees to doubt their capabilities. Self-doubt erodes self-confidence and cripples personal growth and development.
Recruitment Sources: Internal Sources
Job Posting: process of communicating information about a job vacancy: -On company bulletin boards -In employee publications -On corporate intranets企业内部网 -Anywhere else organization communicates with employees
Individual level.
Job demands are the most common, but work overload, unclear or conflicting expectations, everyday hassles激战, perceived control over events occurring in the work environment, and job characteristics can also be problematic.
Personality conflicts
Just as a friend can get away with telling us something we would resent hearing from an adversary, the personalities of change agents can breed resistance. Change agents that display any of the traits of bad leadership discussed in Chapter 13 are likely to engender resistance from recipients.
Kelley's Model of Attribution content
Kelley hypothesized that people make causal attributions by observing three dimensions of behavior: (can be high or low) consensus, distinctiveness, consistency.
How Does Consensus, Distinctiveness, and Consistency Lead to Specific Attributions?
Kelley theorized that people attribute behavior to either internal causes (personal factors) or external causes (environmental factors) depending on the ranking of consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency.
which step in organization learning will lead to shared understanding among individuals and groups?
Knowledge Integration
strategic selection approach lets the organization identify people who have necessary KASOs.
Knowledge,skill, ability. KSAs are used to distinguish the "qualified candidates" from the "unqualified candidates" for a position.
1.Organizational size.
Larger organizations tend to have narrower spans of control and more organizational layers, Costs tend to be higher in organizations with narrow spans due to the increased expense of having more managers. Communication also tends to be slower in narrow spans because it must travel throughout multiple organizational layers. Smaller ones have a wider span of control.
Key assumptions underlying Lewin's Model:
Learn and unlearn Motivation People make or break Resistance Reinforce
Four Characteristics of Organizational Culture (2)
Learned over time. It is passed on to new employees through the process of socialization and mentoring.
Organizational Memory.
Learning will not last unless the organization finds a method to save it. Knowledge needs to put into some type of repository or organizational memory if it is to be used in the future.
Application of what structure is not easy?
Matrix, organizations have a bad reputation for being too complex and confusing. The reality is that it takes much more collaboration and integration to effectively implement this structure.
Lewin's Change Model
Lewin developed a three-stage model of planned change that explained how to initiate, manage, and stabilize the change process. The three stages are unfreezing, changing, and refreezing.
Line and Staff Positions.
Line positions generally are connected by solid lines on organization charts. Dotted lines indicate staff relationships. Staff personnel do background research and provide technical advice and recommendations to their line managers. Line managers generally have the authority to make decisions for their units.
Multiple Intelligences (MI)
Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Musical Bodily-Kinesthetic Spatial Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist
why managers need to understand how people form causal attributions?
Managers need to understand how people formulate these attributions because the attributions profoundly affect organizational behavior.
Necessity.
Many innovations grow from the desire to achieve something or to complete a task that is needed to accomplish a broader goal.
step1 Diagnosis:
Many means can be used to answer this question: interviews, surveys, meetings, written materials, and direct observation. We recommend the 3-Stop Problem-Solving Approach and the Integrative Framework of OB to help. The target elements in the systems model of change can also be useful.
what Implies nothing about change?
Mission
Inputs-Intended change must align with:
Mission (the reason an organization exists) Vision (a compelling future state for an organization) and resulting strategic plan.
which structure can make it easy to plug in vendors for well-defined functions as parts of the business process?
Modular
----?--- often the most difficult part of the change process.
Motivation.
How Organizations Select Employees
Multiple-Hurdle Model Compensatory Model
does Organizational memory an object.?
NO: It represents the combined process of "encoding, storing, and retrieving the lessons learned from an organization's history, despite the turnover of personnel.
3. Organizational culture
Narrow spans of control are more likely in companies with a hierarchical culture because they focus on -internal integration and - stability and - control Wider spans of control are more likely to be found in companies that desire -flexibility and discretion, cultures characterized as clan or adhocracy. -Wider spans also complement cultures that desire greater worker autonomy and participation.
Inputs-Readiness for change:
Necessity Top management support Personal ability to cope with changes Received personal consequences of change
Drawbacks of EI:
No Clear Link to Improved Job Performance Research Remains Unclear
Practical Research Insights of the contingency approach to designing organizations
No one type (mechanistic or organic) is superior to the other - depends on the environment
The typical personality test is a valid predictor？ why
No, due to: Test takers do not describe themselves accurately but instead try to guess what answers the employer is looking for. Tests are bought off the shelf and given by untrained employees； Personality tests are meant to measure personality, not what individual differences are needed to perform a particular job
Phase 1: Anticipatory Socialization
Occurs before an individual actually joins an organization Information learned about careers and organizations
colleges and universities
On-campus interviewing is the most important source of recruits for entry-level professional and managerial vacancies Organizations tend to focus especially on colleges that have strong reputations in areas for which they have critical needs.
12 Mechanisms for Creating Change 7
Organizational Activities and Processes: Leaders pay special attention to those activities, processes and outcomes that they can measure, and control.This in turn sends strong messages to employees about acceptable norms and behavior.
Organizational level.
Organizational culture is a potential stressor in itself. --For instance, a high-pressure environment that fuels employee fear about performing up to standard can increase the stress response. --The increased use of information technology is another source of organizational stress, as continual connectivity causes employees to be "on call" anytime.
definition of organizational culture
Organizational culture is defined as "the set of shared, taken-for-granted implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determines how it perceives, thinks about, and reacts to its various environments."
Why is Practice and Luck Important?
People have far more control over the things they do than over who they are. Deliberate practice and luck have role in an individual's success
Horizontal Design.
Organizations defined by a horizontal approach work hard to flatten hierarchy and organize people around specific segments of the workflow. A horizontal structure, sometimes called a team or process structure, relies on a horizontal workflow and attempts to dissolve departmental boundaries and reporting relationships as much as possible.
Traditional Designs.
Organizations defined by a traditional approach tend to have functional, divisional, and/or matrix structures. Each of these structures relies on a vertical hierarchy and attempts to define clear departmental boundaries and reporting relationships.
Open Design
Organizations defined by an open approach tend to have hollow空的, modular模块化的, or virtual structures. Each of these structures relies on leveraging technology and structural flexibility to maximize potential value through outsourcing and external collaboration.
What is the Contingency Approach to Organizational Design?
Organizations tend to be more effective when they are structured to fit the demands of the situation.
matrix structures
Organizations use this structure when they need stronger horizontal alignment or cooperation in order to meet their goals.
1.Internal versus external recruiting
Organizations with policies to "promote from within" try to fill upper-level vacancies by recruiting candidates internally—that is, finding candidates who already work for the organization. Opportunities for advancement make a job more attractive to applicants and employees. Decisions about internal versus external recruiting affect the nature of jobs, recruitment sources, and the nature of applicants.
Strategic Plans
Outlines an organization's long-term direction and the actions necessary to achieve planned results
panel interview,
Panel interviews can reduce problems related to interviewer bias. several members of the organization meet to interview each candidate. A panel interview gives the candidate a chance to meet more people and see how people interact in that organization. It provides the organization with the judgments of more than one person, to reduce the effect of personal biases in selection decisions
2Lead-the-market pay strategies
Pay is an important job characteristic for almost all applicants. Organizations have a recruiting advantage if their policy is to take a "lead-the-market" approach to pay—that is, pay more than the current market wages for a job. Higher pay can also make up for a job's less desirable features, such as working on a night shift or in dangerous conditions. Organizations that compete for applicants based on pay may use bonuses, stock options, and other forms of pay besides wages and salaries.
Past Vs. Future Characteristic of Emotions
People are angry about what happened or did not happen in the past; Anger is a "backward-looking" or retrospective emotion People are afraid of things that might happen in the future Fear is a "forward-looking" or prospective emotion
3. People make or break.
People are the key to all organizational changes. Any change, whether in terms of structure, group process, reward systems, or job design, requires individuals to change. Organizations don't change if employee behaviors don't change.
Stereotypes may or may not be accurate?
T
-Secondary appraisals:
Perceptions of how able you are to deal or cope with a given demand. they influence the choice of your coping strategies and in turn the subsequent outcomes.
-Primary appraisals:
Perceptions of whether a stressor is irrelevant, positive, or negative can imply that a situation or stressor is perceived as harmful, threatening, or challenging.
Managers have more influence on relatively flexible IDs that influence individual-level work outcomes:
Performance， Job satisfaction
how to raise,Self-Esteem
Personal Achievement Praise
Emotions as Reactions to Goal Achievement
Positive：congruent (or consistent) with your goal. Negative：are triggered by frustration and failure when pursuing one's goals (goal incongruent); Typically, the more important the goal, the more intense the emotion. Mixed: Meeting or failing to meet our goals can also generate mixed emotions. Say you receive a well-earned promotion, which includes positives like more responsibility and pay—but only if you relocate to another state, which you don't want to do.
Two kinds of research are possible for arriving at criterion-related validity:
Predictive Validation Concurrent Validation
Multiple-Hurdle Model
Process of arriving at a selection decision by eliminating some candidates at each stage of the selection process.
Compensatory Model
Process of arriving at a selection decision in which a very high score on one type of assessment can make up for a low score on another.
Types of Innovation
Product vs. Process Core vs. Transformational
how to lower Self-Esteem?
Prolonged Unemployment Destructive Feedback
The model of Occupational Stress - Stress Outcomes
Psychological/attitudinal Behavioral Cognitive Physical stress they all Linked to counterproductive behaviors and negatively affects physical and psychological health
What is Locus of Control?
Relatively stable personality characteristic that describes how much personal responsibility someone takes for their behavior and its consequences
Outputs
Represent the desired end results or goals of a change Should be consistent with organization's strategic plan Can be at the individual, group, or organizational level most complicated and difficult at organizational level.
Candidates' Privacy Rights: Fair Credit Reporting Act
Requires employers to obtain a candidate's consent before using a third party to check candidate's credit history or references. If the employer decides not to hire based on the report, employer must give applicant a copy of the report and summary of applicant's rights before taking action.
how to reduce stereotype
Research shows that it takes accurate information and motivation to reduce the use of stereotypes.
Leadership style
Research shows that people are less likely to resist change when the change agent uses transformational 转换的leadership.
Predictive Validation
Research uses the test scores of all applicants and looks for a relationship between the scores and future performance. The researcher waits for a period of time and then measures the performance of the applicant. Note: Predictive validation is more time consuming and difficult, but it is the best measure of validity.
Causes of Resistance to Change - Change Agent-Recipient Relationship
Resistance is reduced when there is a positive, trusting relationship. -Managers who trust their employees make the change process an open, honest, and participative affair. -Employees who, in turn, trust management are more willing to expend extra effort and take chances with something different.
4. Resistance.
Resistance to change is found even when the goals of change are highly desirable.
Social Perception Stage 4
Retrieval and Response： Information is retrieved from memory to make judgments and decisions
Organizational Systems （two diemensions)
Reveal basic dimensions of organizational structure -A closed system -A open system
The Seeds of Innovation
Seeds of innovation represent the starting points for organizational innovation, , an expert identified six seeds of innovation.
Social Perception Stage 1:
Selective Attention/Comprehension -People pay attention to salient stimuli
Attributional Tendencies 2
Self-serving bias: One's tendency to take more personal responsibility for success than for failure employees will attribute their success to internal factors (high ability or hard work) and their failures to uncontrollable external factors (tough job, bad luck, unproductive coworkers, or an unsympathetic boss). This tendency plays out in all aspects of life.
Peer pressure
Someone who is not directly affected by a change may actively resist it to protect the interests of his or her friends and coworkers.
The negotiation and communication approach to overcoming resistance to change should be used when:
Someone will clearly lose out in the change, and that person has considerable power to resist
Number of people reporting directly to a given mentor is---?
Span of Control
Stereotypes are not always negative？
Stereotypes are not always negative. For example, the belief that engineers are good at math is certainly part of a stereotype.
Key Issues When Making Organizational Design Decisions
Strategy and Goals Technology Size Human Resources
Strategic Plans-Based on SWOT analysis
Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats
What is Good Stress? (eustress)
Stress associated with positive emotions and outcomes called eustress->Illustrates that: -Stress is not merely nervous tension -Stress can have positive consequences -Stress is not something to be avoided -The complete absence of stress is death
Past success.
Success can breed complacency自满. It also can foster a stubbornness to change because people come to believe that what worked in the past will work in the future.
An organization's financial performance (growth in profit and growth in revenue) is not strongly related to organizational culture.
T
Companies with market cultures tend to have more positive organizational outcomes. Managers are encouraged to consider how they might make their cultures more market oriented.
T
Differences Between Men and Women are Small?
T
Employees are more satisfied and committed to organizations with clan cultures.
T
Innovation and quality can be increased by building characteristics associated with clan, adhocracy, and market cultures into the organization. Managers may want to use a combination of all three types of culture to produce these outcomes.
T
Kotter insists that the steps need to be followed in sequence and none skipped. It, therefore requires a tremendous commitment of resources (time, money, and people) to implement Kotter's eight steps. The result is that this approach is very difficult for organizations, and even more so for individuals, to utilize?
T
Managers should not expect to increase financial performance immediately by trying to change their organization's culture. (This is not an argument against all cultural change. Some changes in culture can improve competitive advantage, which then results in financial benefits.)
T
One way to determine whether a measure is valid is to compare many people's scores on that measure with their job performance?
T
Organizational culture is related to measures of organizational effectiveness. This means that an organization's culture can be a source of competitive advantage.
T
Recruiters' characteristics and behaviors seem to have limited impact on applicants' job choices?
T
Practical Intelligence
The ability to solve everyday problems by utilizing knowledge gained from experience in order to purposefully adapt to, shape, and select environments It involves changing oneself to suit the environment (adaptation), changing the environment to suit one's needs or desires, (shaping), or finding a new environment within which to work (selection). One uses these skills to: manage oneself manage others manage tasks
1. Learn and unlearn.
The change process involves learning something new, as well as discontinuing or unlearning current attitudes, behaviors, or organizational practices.
Competing Values Framework and the Four Categories of Culture
The competing values framework (CVF) provides a practical way for managers to understand, measure, and change organizational culture. internal/ external + flexibility/ control Clan culture: internal+ flexibility; focus on employees, like family (Clan organizations devote considerable resources to hiring and developing their employees, and they view customers as partners. Collaborating is the strategic thrust of this culture. ) Adhocracy: external + flexibility, innovation (Creation of new products and services is the strategic thrust of this culture,are decreasing in the United States) Market：external + control; market, customer, profits focused (Competition is the strategic thrust of these organizations) Hierarchy: internal+ control; rules; environment, customers and profits take precedence over employee development and satisfaction. The major goal of managers is to drive toward productivity, profits, and customer satisfaction. (Effectiveness in a company with this type of culture is likely to be assessed with measures of efficiency, timeliness, quality, safety, and reliability of producing and delivering products and services. This orientation leads to the development of reliable internal processes, extensive measurement, and the implementation of a variety of control mechanisms. Control is the strategic thrust within a hierarchy culture. Hierarchical cultures have been found to have both negative and positive effects.)
What is Innovation?
The creation of something new that makes money. It finds a pathway to the consumer. More likely to occur when organizations have the proper supporting forces.
Unfreezing.
The focus of this stage is to create the motivation to change. Individuals are encouraged to replace old behaviors and attitudes with new ones (desired by management). The initial challenge in the unfreezing process is creating and communicating a convincing reason to change.
Five elements drive organizational culture:
The founder's values The industry and business environment The national culture The organization's vision and strategies The behavior of leaders
How to Manage Stress (see Table 16.3 chp16).
The four most frequently used stress reduction techniques:1-4 1.Muscle relaxation 2.Biofeedback生物反馈 3.Meditation冥想 4Cognitive restructuring -cognitive restructuring is the most effective. 5 Holistic整体的 wellness
Many managers underestimate the complexity of which task, and why need to study it ?
The general idea behind the study of organizational design is that organizations are more effective or successful when their structure supports the execution of corporate strategies.
Refreezing.
The goal of this stage is to support and reinforce the change. Change is supported by helping employees integrate the changed behavior or attitude into their normal way of doing things. This is accomplished by first giving employees the chance to exhibit the new behaviors or attitudes. then, positive reinforcement is used to encourage the desired change.
4. Managerial responsibilities.
The most senior-level executives tend to have narrower spans of control than middle managers because their responsibilities are broader in scope and more complex. It's important to consider the breadth宽度 of a person's responsibilities when deciding his/her span of control.
artifacts
The physical manifestation of an organization's culture Organizational examples include • Acronyms • Manner of dress • Awards • Myths and stories told about the organization • Published lists of values • Observable rituals and ceremonies • Special parking spaces • Decorations
benefits of virtual structure:
The primary benefits of virtual structures are the 1)ability for organizations to tap into a wider talent pool, 2)to increase the speed in getting things done, 3) and to reduce costs because there is less need for physical facilities and travel budgets.
Organizational Socialization definition
The process by which a person learns the values, norms, and required behaviors which permit them to participate as a member of an organization
Can Self-Esteem Be Improved?
The short answer is "yes." But not everyone is convinced
Organizational Design
The structures of accountability and responsibility used to develop and implement strategies, and the human resource practices and information and business processes that activate those structures
Is it Better to Be Lucky or Good?
There is a Third Choice ...Both: Being active and involved. （Be open to new experiences and network with others to encounter more lucky chance opportunities.） Listening to your hunches about luck. （Learn when to listen to your intuition or gut feelings. Meditation and mind-clearing activities can help.） Expecting to be lucky no matter how bad the situation. （Remain optimistic and work to make your expectations a self-fulfilling prophecy.） Turning your bad luck into good fortune. （Take control of bad situations by remaining calm, positive, and focused on a better future.）
Dispositional resistance to change
This is a stable personality trait, Individuals with a high dispositional resistance to change are "less likely to voluntarily initiate changes and more likely to form negative attitudes toward the changes [they] encounter."
Changing.
This is where the rubber meets the road and change occurs. Because change involves learning and doing things differently, this stage entails providing employees with new information, new behavioral models, new processes or procedures, new equipment, new technology, or new ways of getting the job done.
Phase 2: Encounter
This second phase begins when the employment contract has been signed. Employees come to learn what the organization is really like,Organizations use onboarding programs It is a time for reconciling unmet expectations and making sense of a new work environment.
Concurrent Validation
This type of research administers a test to people who currently hold a job, then compares their scores to existing measures of job performance. If the people who score highest on the test also do better on the job, the test is assumed to be valid.
how to measure self-esteem?
Those who agree with the positive statements and disagree with the negative statements have high self-esteem. People with low self-esteem view themselves in negative terms. They do not feel good about themselves and are hampered by self-doubts.
Stress is inevitable and needs to be managed, not escaped?
True
Personnel policies are more important than the recruiter when deciding whether or not to take a job?
True - For affecting whether people choose to take a job, the recruiter seems less important than an organization's personnel policies that directly affect the job's features
Applicants respond positively to recruiters whom are warm and informative?
True - In general, applicants respond more positively to recruiters whom they perceive as warm and informative
Self-Esteem Remains Fairly Stable Over the Course of a Person's Life?
T：Life-Span—You can expect your self-esteem to remain fairly stable over the course of your life, especially after age 30.
Lack of tact or poor timing
Undue 过度的resistance can occur because change agents introduce change in an insensitive manner or at an awkward time. Proposed organizational changes are more likely to be accepted by others when change agents effectively explain or "sell" the value of their proposed changes. This can be done by explaining how a proposed change is strategically important to an organization's success.
the---?--- Of an employment test is indicated by the extent to which the test scores relate to actual job performance.
Validity
what Outlines how organizations will get to the desired state?
Vision
Mixing Effectiveness Criteria: Practical Guidelines
Well-managed organizations mix and match effectiveness criteria to fit the unique requirements of the situation -The goal accomplishment approach -The internal processes approach -The strategic constituencies approach -The resource acquisition approach
step2 Intervention:
What can be done to solve the problem? The treatment or intervention represents the changes being made to solve the problem. Treatments are selected based on the causes of the problem. The key thing to remember is that there is not one "set" of intervention techniques that apply to all situations.
step3 Evaluation:
What does the evaluation suggest about the diagnosis and the effectiveness of how the intervention was implemented? -If the evaluation reveals that the intervention worked, then the OD process is complete and you can consider how best to "refreeze" the changes. -Negative evaluations generally require you to collect more information about steps 1 and 2 in the OD process shown in Figure 16.5.
Proactivity 积极主动性
What is related to -increased performance, satisfaction, affective organizational commitment (genuine desire to remain a member of an organization), and social networking?
Communicating the Decision
When a candidate has been selected, the organization should communicate the offer to the candidate. The offer should include: Job responsibilities Work schedule Rate of pay Starting date Other relevant details
Surprise and fear of the unknown
When innovative or radically different changes are introduced without warning, affected employees become fearful of the implications. The same is true when managers announce new goals without explaining the specific plans for how the goals will be achieved.
Quality of the relationship between change agents and change recipients
When viewed in this way resistance is a dynamic form of feedback
Decisions that disrupt cultural traditions or group relationships
Whenever individuals are transferred, promoted, or reassigned, cultural and group dynamics are thrown into disequilibrium.
Organizational change is more likely to succeed when managers proactively consider the impact of change on employees.
YES
some employers today see social media as an alternative source of information that is more relevant or more accurate assessment by looking at the candidates' online presence?
YES
vision and strategy are central components to Kotter's approach, as they are in the systems model.
YES
it is advantageous for organizations to include breadth in their acquisition of information?
YES. Because Information acquisition is the first step of learning
organizational learning is positively associated with organizational performance and innovation?
YES. learning is essential to an organization's continuous improvement and renewal over time
A test that is valid in other contexts beyond the context in which the selection method was developed is known as a(n) ---method?
__generalizable
The _ of an employment test is indicated by the extent to which the test scores relate to actual job performance.
_validity
Hierarchy of authority, also called the chain of command, is
a control mechanism dedicated to making sure the right people do the right things at the right time. Historically, managers have maintained the integrity of the hierarchy of authority by adhering to the unity of command principle.
Deliberate practice
a demanding, repetitive, and assisted program to improve one's performance; Research shows to be successful one must practice about 10,000 hours
The divisional structure is sometimes called ?
a product structure or profit center approach.
A closed system
a self-sufficient entity. It is "closed" to the surrounding environment.
A behavior description interview (BDI)
a situational interview in which the interviewer asks the candidate to describe how he or she handled a type of situation in the past. ****These tend to be the most valid.***
Extraversion 外向性；外倾性
a stronger predictor of job performance than agreeableness;was associated with success for managers and salespeople;（being courteous有礼貌的谦恭的, trusting, straightforward, and softhearted has a smaller impact on job performance than being talkative, active, and assertive.）
A situational interview
a structured interview in which the interviewer describes a situation likely to arise on the job and asks the candidate what he or she would do in that situation. This type of interview may have high validity in predicting job performance.
the nature and behavior of the recruiter effect
affect the characteristics of both the vacancies空缺 and the applicants.
job choice is a match of
an applicant's decision to accept a job offer—and the organization's decision to make the offer—depend on the match between vacancy characteristics and applicant characteristics.
Joe was terminated from his job and believed the reason was his boss didn't like him and his hard work was not appreciated. Joe likely has?
an external locus of control
Ability to Generalize-A generalizable selection method
applies not only to the conditions in which the method was originally developed - job, organization, people, time period, etc. It also applies to other organizations, jobs, applicants, etc (A selection method hould be generalizable, so that it applies to more than one specific situation. )
The goal accomplishment approach
appropriate when goals are clear, consensual, time-bounded, measurable.
The internal processes approach
appropriate when organizational performance is strongly influenced by specific processes (e.g., cross-functional teamwork).
personnel policies
are its decisions about how it will carry out Management, including how it will fill job vacancies. Policies should be evaluated as to their ability to support the organization's long-term strategy since Each of these strategies have a particular set of pros and cons. 1.Internal versus external recruiting 2.Lead-the-market pay strategies 3.Employment-at-will policies 4.Image advertising
Demographics
are the statistical measurement of populations and their qualities, such as age, race, gender, or income, over time.
Escape strategies
are those in which you avoid or ignore stressors. These strategies can be beneficial if you have no control over the stressors or their causes.
Which level of organizational culture is hardest to change?
basic underlying assumptions
When the environment was relatively stable and certain, which type to use-mechanistic or organic?
be mechanistic.
when the environment was unstable and uncertain, which type to use-mechanistic or organic?
be organic
Proactivity for manager and you
best if both you and your manager to be proactive. （increases your level of job performance, job satisfaction, and affective commitment.） worse if a highly proactive manager and a low proactivity follower. worst if low proactivity for both you and your manager
Matrix
can be used with a variety of vertical and horizontal elements. Shown here are four different functions interlinked to four product lines.
Distinctiveness
compares a person's behavior on one task with his or her behavior on other tasks. High distinctiveness means the individual has performed the task in question in a significantly different manner than he or she has performed other tasks.
Ma would like to hire employees who will be strong performances in her organization,which one of big five personality dimensions should shy try to make sure the applicant score high?
conscientiousness
Control strategy
consists of using behaviors and cognitions to directly anticipate or solve problems. Has a take-charge tone. Research consistently, but not always, shows health and other benefits for control coping. People are more apt to use control coping when they possess high self-esteem, self-efficacy, and problem-solving skills.
strategy and goals in Making Organizational Design Decisions
cornerstone of determining the most appropriate design. it requires an organization to decide how it will compete given both internal and external considerations.
attention to two particular qualities of deliberate practice that most people overlook (2)
deliberate practice is difficult. Instead of simply repeating a task over and over, you need to get out of your comfort zone and stretch yourself. This means that many people with years of experience may not actually perform at a high level--has simply gone through the motions, operated in their comfort zone, for years and years.
Hierarchy of Authority.
delineates the official communication network and speaks volumes about compensation. Research shows that there is an increasing wage gap between layers over time. That is, the difference in pay between successive layers tends to increase over time.
A open system
depends on constant interaction with the environment for survival.
Recruitment Sources: 8 External Sources
direct applicants referrals advertisements in newspaper and magazines electronic recruiting public employment agencies private employment agencies colleges and universities
companies use a combination of orientation and training programs
during the encounter phase; Onboarding is one such technique
structured interview
establishes a set of questions for the interviewer to ask *, the results may be more valid and reliable than with a nondirective interview.*
Work sample/ job performance test:
ex:operate machine, give artwork sample
Yield ratio
expresses the percentage of applicants who successfully move from one stage of the recruitment and selection process to the next. By comparing yield ratios of different recruitment sources, we can determine which source is best or most efficient for type of vacancy.
Validity
extent to which performance on a measure (such as a test score) is related to what the measure is designed to assess (such as job performance).
Five Major Personality Dimensions Measured by Personality Inventories--People want to see if you fit in that team. Not affect job performance.
extraversion: sociable, gregarious, assertive, talkative, expressive adjustment: emotionally stable, nondepressed, secure, content agreeableness: courteous谦恭的, trusting, good-natured, tolerant, cooperative,forgiving conscientiousness:尽责 dependable, organized, persevering, thorough, achievement-oriented. inquisitiveness: 好奇的 curious, imaginative, artistically sensitive, broad-minded, playful.
Innovative change
falls midway on the continuum of complexity, cost, and uncertainty. Innovative changes are therefore more complex, as organizations need to learn new behaviors, as well as create, implement, and enforce new policies and practices. These situations have both more uncertainty and cause more fear than adaptive changes.
Symptom management strategies
focus on reducing the symptoms of stress, are the third type of strategy commonly used. such as relaxation, meditation, medication, or exercise to manage the symptoms of occupational stress. A vacation, for example, can be a good way to reduce the symptoms of stress. Other people may drink or take drugs to reduce stress.
Internal Processes.
focuses on "what the organization must excel at" to effectively meet its financial objectives and customers' expectations.
five organizational subsystems
goals and values, technical, structural psychosocial, managerial -->is dependent on the others
Conscientiousness尽责认真的小心细致的
has the strongest effect on job performance and job satisfaction-Those individuals who exhibit traits associated with a strong sense of purpose, obligation, and persistence generally perform better than those who do not.
GE would like to change their culture to more of a clan one, should use all of the following method except?
have leaders keep information about negative events from employees.
3.Employment-at-will policies
holds that if there is no specific employment contract saying otherwise, the employer or employee may end an employment relationship at any time. An alternative is to establish extensive due-process policies, which formally lay out the steps an employee may take to appeal an employer's decision to terminate that employee. An organization's lawyers ensure that all recruitment documents say the employment is "at will" to protect the company from lawsuits about wrongful charge. due- process policies imply greater job security and concern for protecting employees.
which structure to organizational design tends to focus on work processes?
horizontal approach. A process consists of every task and responsibility needed to meet a customer need, such as developing a new product or filling a customer order. Completing a process requires input from people in different functions, typically organized into a cross-functional team.
Organizational change is more likely to fail if ---?
it is inconsistent with any of the three levels of organizational culture: observable artifacts, espoused values, and basic assumptions.
a distinction between felt and displayed emotions
if your boss screams at you when she's angry you might feel threatened or fearful (felt emotion). You might keep your feelings to yourself or begin to cry (either response is the displayed emotion). The boss might feel alarmed (felt emotion) by your tears but could react constructively (displayed emotion) by asking if you'd like to talk about the situation when you feel calmer.
A realistic job preview (RJP)
in Anticipatory Socialization: involves giving recruits a realistic idea of what lies ahead by presenting both positive and negative aspects of the job. results demonstrated that RJPs lowered job applicants' initial expectations and led to lower turnover among those applicants who were hired.
Event Memory
includes categories with information about both specific events (relying on unique details) and general events (relying on schemata). These memories describe appropriate sequences of events in well-known situations
Personnel policies effect
influence the characteristics of the positions to be filled.
Recruitment sources effect
influence the kinds of job applicants an organization reaches.
organizations learn by using five independent subprocesses
information acquisition, information distribution, information interpretation, knowledge integration, organizational memory.
the potential to understand and regulate oneself is known as ?
intrapersonal intelligence
a dynamic model for organizations
is a living organism that transforms inputs into various outputs. The outer boundary of the organization is permeable能穿透的. People, information, capital, and goods and services move back and forth across this boundary.
Coordination of effort
is achieved through formulation and enforcement of policies, rules, and regulations.
The resource acquisition approach
is appropriate when inputs have a traceable effect on results or output.
The strategic constituencies approach
is appropriate when powerful stakeholders can significantly benefit or harm the organization.
Size.in Making Organizational Design Decisions
is indicated by things such as the number of employees, volume of sales, amount of assets, and geographical locations. if Greater, then more complex organizational designs needed.
Adaptive change
is the least complex, costly, and uncertain. It involves reimplementation of a change in the same organizational unit at a later time or imitation of a similar change by a different unit. Adaptive changes are not particularly threatening to employees because they are familiar.
Goal Accomplishment
is the oldest and most widely used effectiveness criterion for organizations. Key organizational results or outputs are compared with previously stated goals or objectives. Deviations, either plus or minus, require corrective action.
Recruiters' challenge and way to affect results
is to identify the particular methods that will yield the best candidates as efficiently as possible. Recruiters affect results not only by providing plenty of information, but by providing the right kind of information.
Consistency
judges if the individual's performance on a given task is consistent over time. Low consistency is undesirable for obvious reasons, and implies that a person is unable to perform a certain task at some standard level. High consistency implies that a person performs a certain task the same way, with little or no variation over time.
HOW to Improve Organizational Learning? (2) -> What drives organizational learning?
leader behavior and organizational culture *If leaders do not support a vision and culture that promotes the value of learning, it won't happen.
Decentralized decision making
making occurs when important decisions are made by middle- and lower-level managers. decentralized organizations are more adaptive to changing situations.
Information Interpretation.
making sense of the information that organizations have acquired and distributed.
which type of structure increasingly is being used by companies expanding into international markets?
matrix structures
Each selection method should have utility
meaning it provides economic value greater than its cost.
Achievement tests
measure a person's existing knowledge and skills.----what already have
Employment Tests
medical examinations drug tests honesty tests personality inventories job performance tests cognitive ability tests physical ability tests
Practical Considerations Regarding CSEs Is more always better?
no; Researchers found curvilinear, or inverted-U, relationships between emotional stability and outcomes. =emotional stability increases so too will your job performance and OCBs, but only to a point.
Knowledge Integration
occurs when information is integrated across different sources.
Centralized decision making
occurs when key decisions are made by top management. centralized organizations are more tightly controlled.
managers should consider four factors when determining spans of control:
organizational size, skill level, organizational culture, managerial responsibilities.
what is it that makes us different?
our genetics or our environment? The answer is both. what is more important at work is recognizing the many attributes that make us who were are
Referrals
people who apply because someone in the organization prompted them to do so.
Direct applicants
people who apply for a vacancy without prompting from the organization.
Key Components of Emotional Intelligence (EI)
personal competence: 1. Self-awareness 2. Self-management social competence.: 3. Social awareness 4. Relationship management
a Learning Organization
proactively 主动地 creates, acquires, and transfers knowledge and changes its behavior on the basis of new knowledge and insights.
Personnel Selection Process
process through which organizations make decisions about who will or will not be allowed to join the organization. -Selection begins with candidates identified through recruitment. -It attempts to reduce number to individuals best qualified to perform available jobs. -It ends with selected individuals placed in jobs with the organization
The "orderliness" of mechanistic organizations is expected to---?
produce reliability and consistency in internal processes, thereby resulting in higher efficiency, quality, and timeliness. It is important to note that being mechanistic does not mean that an organization should not be responsive to employee and customer feedback.
Horizontal
pros: develop products faster, knowledge sharing, improve communication and come up creative solutions. cons: authority less clear, good fit when specialization is less important than the ability to respond to varied or changing customer needs. It requires employees who can rise to the challenges of empowerment
matrix structures
pros: this structure can provide a reasonable counterbalance among important stakeholders. cons: 有两个manager，听谁的好 violates unity of command; decision making can be slow; political behavior can occur; requires extensive communication
open (boundary) strucutre
pros:Generate superior returns Focus on what they do best, Taps into people's specialties cons: Give up expertise and control when outsourced. Have to get results from people without having direct authority Need partners that can be trusted.
How often should people get together?
recommendation is to use a contingency approach. More frequent contact is needed at the start of a project, and we suggest that regular milestone meetings should be held online.
Nazir, an HR manager at Solomon Beverages, recognizes and attracts potential job seekers to his organization. In the context of HRM functions, Nazir is carrying out the---?
recruiting- process.
managerial challenge of stereotype
reduce the extent to which stereotypes influence decision making and interpersonal processes throughout the organization.
Semantic Memory
refers to general knowledge about the world as a kind of mental dictionary of concepts. Each concept includes a definition (e.g., a good leader) and associated traits (outgoing), emotional states (happy), physical characteristics (tall), and behaviors (works hard). Concepts in semantic memory are stored as schemata; such schemata are often subject to cultural differences.
Spans of Control. （Note:4 factors manager should consider)
refers to the number of people reporting directly to a given manager. Narrow spans of control tend to create "taller" organizations or those that are more hierarchical. Wide spans of control lead to a "flat" organization. Historically, spans of 7 to 10 people were considered best. More recently, however, corporate restructuring and improved communication technologies have increased the typical span of control.
Resource Acquisition.
relates to inputs rather than outputs. An organization is deemed effective in this regard if it acquires necessary factors of production such as raw materials, labor, capital, and managerial and technical expertise.
Technology in Making Organizational Design Decisions
represents the information technology, equipment, tools, and processes needed to transform inputs to outputs. it enables products and service to be created and distributed.
Horizontal
several flexible teams organize around the horizontal workflow or process; some vertical functions remain, but they are minimized. Teams or workgroups, either temporary or permanent,are created to improve collaboration and work on common projects
The unity of command principle
specifies that each employee should report to only one manager.
Aligned goals
start from the development of a companywide strategic plan. These strategic goals are then cascaded down through the organization so the employees are aligned in their pursuit of common goals.
How Does OD Work?
step1 Diagnosis: step2 Intervention: step3 Evaluation: step4 Feedback: can from all steps 1-3 directly.
Person Memory
supply information about a single individual (your professor) or groups of people (professors). You are more likely to remember information about a person, an event, or an advertisement if it contains characteristics that are similar to something stored in the compartments of memory.
Division of labor
the common goal is pursued by individuals performing separate but related tasks.
Nepotism
the hiring of relatives. Employees may resent the hiring and rapid promotion of "the boss's son" or "the boss's daughter," or even the boss's friend.
nondirective interview,
the interviewer has great discretion in choosing questions. The candidate's reply to one question may suggest other questions to ask
Percentage of Employees Hired by External Recruiting Sources.
the largest share (about one-fourth) of new employees hired by large companies came from referrals, and the second largest share (almost 10 percent) came from direct applications made at the employer's Web site.
. Human resources.in Making Organizational Design Decisions
the level of employees' human capital. Highly skilled employees typically prefer designs that allow freedom, autonomy, and empowerment. (Flexible structures)
The more processes that are outsourced,----------?
the more the resulting organization is "hollow"—and focused on what it does best.
Information distribution
the processes or systems that people, groups, or organizational units use to share information among themselves
In a learning organization, the knowledge integration subprocess leads to.---?
the shared understanding among individuals and groups
why study demographics
the study of demographics helps us to better appreciate diversity and helps managers to develop human resource policies and practices that attract, retain, and develop qualified employees.
Networked virtual structures
to establish a collaborative inter-organizational network of independent firms or individuals in order to create a virtual entity. The networked individuals or companies join forces because they each possess core competencies needed for a project or product.
Drug test
to see if your behaivor is sufficient for your work
A Dynamic View of Resistance
traditionally resistence is commonly viewed as a negative and individual-level outcome (manager or employee), but it is equally likely that resistance is caused by two other key factors: .-Change agent's characteristics,actions, inactions, and perceptions -Quality of the relationship between change agents and change recipients
Stereotypes are used during what stage?
used during encoding.
types of virtual structure
virtual structures are classified into two different types: internal and networked. The nature of virtual organizations has expanded since their inception.
when to use hollow?
when an organization is faced with strong price competition and there are enough companies to perform the required outsourced processes.
When will A supervisor attributes the employees' poor performance to an external source such as a temporary distraction or event?
when: high consensus+ high distinctiveness +low consistency. all employees are performing poorly (high consensus), on only one of several tasks (high distinctiveness), and during only one time period (low consistency).
when will the supervisor attributes performance to personal factors?
when: low consensus+low distinctivenss+high consistency. if only one employee performs poorly (low consensus), across several tasks (low distinctiveness), and over time (high consistency)
Internal virtual structures.
work arrangements that are used to coordinate the work of geographically dispersed employees working for one organization. This structure primarily relies on the use of information technology, but also requires managers to consider three key issues.
Functional and Divisional structure
work is organized into separate vertical functions
electronic recruiting
workers spend less than a minute and a half reading a job ad before deciding whether to apply. has the ability to target and attract job candidates whose values match the organization's values and whose skills match the job requirements.
Evaluating the Quality of a Source
yield ratio comparation calculate cost per hire
three key issues manager consider in using internal virtual structure
• Do I have the right people? • How often should people get together? • What type of technology should be used to coordinate activities?
Interpersonal communication
在人和人之间，重在他人。
which of the following is the least fixed of a person's individual differences?
答案没拍到
intrapersonal communication
自我沟通= self communication ，重在自我。
