4 & 5- Differential Reinforcement

Functional Communication Training (FCT)

Aims to establish appropriate communication behavior to compete with problem behaviors. In contrast to NCR and high-p request sequences, FCT develops alternative behaviors that are sensitive to establishing operations or motivating operations. In examining FCT as an intervention it is a DRA (differential reinforcement of alternative behavior) procedure. - the alternative behavior is specific to communication for the individual. The specific communication response can vary or be a combination of communication strategies for an individual, but the function remains the same—to effectively communicate with others.

Differential Reinforcement of Behavior

DR can be used to decrease behavior by contingently reinforcing behavior on a differential basis or non-contingently Advantages: involves reinforcement and is not punitive in nature

Types of DR

Differential Reinforcement of Higher /Lower Rates of behavior (DRH, DRL) Differential Reinforcement of Diminishing Rates (DRD) Differential Reinforcement of Other behavior (DRO)

Extinction

Extinction is a procedure that gradually reduces the frequency and or intensity of a target behavior by withholding reinforcement from the previously reinforced behavior Good for behaviors maintained by attention or some other form of reinforcement. Extinction interventions have been used for different types of problem behaviors including disruptive behaviors, noncompliance, aggression, and self-injury. Not effective for behaviors that are intrinsically reinforcing (e.g., thumb sucking, day dreaming, self-stimulatory behaviors)

High-probability (high-p)

High-probability (high-p) request sequence involves pairing two to five short tasks with which an individual has a history of compliance with a task(s) with which the individual does not have a history of compliance. High-p request sequences provide a non-aversive procedure for improving compliance by diminishing escape-maintained problem behaviors. In addition, high-p request sequences may decrease excessive slowness in responding to requests and increase time used for completing tasks. High Probability (High-p) request sequence strategy is a low-intensity delivered support to increase the likelihood a student will comply with a requested (desired) behavior that is currently at a low level of compliance, or low-probability (low-p) behavior (Lane, Menzies, Ennis, & Oakes, 2015). To implement high-p strategy, teachers request behaviors that a student is likely to do, and provide reinforcement for appropriate responding. Three to five high-p requests are quickly given, followed in short succession with praise for compliance and a low-p request (desired behavior). This strategy takes advantage of behavioral momentum. Compliance with high-p requests generalizes to low-p requests, which results in increased compliance to low-p requests. Examples: High-p: "Take out your pencil." "Get out a sheet of paper" "Write your name on your paper" Now the Low-p behavior: "Begin your independent work."

Legal & Ethical Issues Regarding Discipline

IDEA: calls for a due process or protection for students with disabilities when school officials use disciplinary procedures such as suspension

Positive Punishment: Restitutional over-correction

Individual restores and improves the original environment Ex: If a student spit on a table, they would have to clean it up and another table

Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR)

Involves presenting stimuli with known reinforcing properties delivered on a fixed-time (FT) or variable-time (VT) schedule independent of the learner's behavior. NCR aims to effectively decrease problem behavior by making reinforcers that maintain the problem behavior available freely and frequently. NCR utilizes positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and automatic reinforcement to identify and deliver stimuli with reinforcing properties.

3 antecedent interventions that have empirically validated results:

Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) High-probability (high-p) request sequence Functional communication training (FCT)

Extinction Burst

Often times, when a behavior is no longer being reinforced, it often increases in frequency, intensity and duration before it decreases and stops. Example: John yelled and protested when he was not allowed to be first in line. His behavior no longer allowed this behavior and ignored the yelling. John then "upped the ante" and screamed louder, cried and stomped his feet. When a behavior that has a history of being reinforced no longer results in reinforcement, the behavior will decrease. A student who is used to being told to go to the office may find leaving class reinforcing and therefore his problem behavior increases. If the teacher no longer sends the student to the office when he engages in problem behavior, the problem behavior is no longer being reinforced. A common type of extinction is to ignore problem behavior when it occurs. Many people assume that they must respond to the occurrence of problem behavior. They believe that the corrective statements they deliver will teach the student that what she is doing is wrong. If the student's problem behavior increases, however, it is possible that the corrective statements that are being delivered are not having any impact or may even be triggering problem behavior. Some students have learned over time that any attention is better than no attention at all. Other students may be reinforced by the effect that they have on the teacher's behavior, especially if the teacher tends to become visibly upset. Ignoring problem behavior sends the message that you are giving as little value as possible to the act itself. When extinction is implemented, a student's problem behavior may increase in frequency and intensity before decreasing. This temporary increase in responding is referred to as an extinction burst. A child that has been whining and crying in class to escape from a non-preferred task may begin screaming loudly before his problem behaviors begin to decrease. Pairing extinction with interventions that teach positive communication and social skills to replace the problem behavior is an excellent strategy since it provides the student with access to the reinforcer.

Punishment

Punishment is a type of a consequence of a behavior. The future, rate, duration, and/or intensity of a current behavior is decreased or eliminated Other dimensions of the behavior are weakened A punishment is something that results in a behavior being LESS likely to occur in the future You are either adding something negative (Time out) or removing something positive (Loss of Recess) In general, punishment might be effective in the short term, but over time loses it's potency. Behavior change is better established and maintained through reinforcement.

Differential Reinforcement of Alternative behavior (DRA)

Reinforcement delivered when a learner performs a behavior determined to be more appropriate or positive than a target behavior Alternative behavior chosen for functional equivalence Target behavior is place on extinction Frequently combined with functional communication training (FCT) so undesirable behavior can be replaced with more adaptive forms of communication DRA - this procedure entails reinforcing a behavior that serves as a viable alternative for the problem behavior, but is not necessarily incompatible with the problem behavior. Example: Sarah engages in shouting out behavior after her teacher poses a question to the class. Her teacher decides to use a DRA procedure in which Sarah is only reinforced (ex. called on) for raising her hand to answer a question. This behavior is an alternative to shouting out, but is not incompatible as both the problem behavior and the alternative can occur at the same time. However, raising her hand is a more socially acceptable alternative.

Differential Reinforcement of Other behavior (DRO)

Reinforcement is delivered contingent on the target's behavior NOT occurring for a specified period of time DRO reinforces only zero occurrences. Should be utilized in conjunction with a program to increase a replacement behavior. Baseline data should determine initial intervals which are subsequently increased to goal levels

Positive Punishment: Positive practice over-correction

Repeated opportunities to engage in an appropriate alternative to the undesired behavior. Ex: Forced movement exercises Habit reversal

Factors that affect extinction

Schedule of reinforcement that previously maintained the behavior (continuous decrease more rapidly then intermittent) Amount of strength of reinforcement that previously maintained the behavior Length of time the reinforcement was previously associated with the target behavior (longer the association between the reinforcement the behavior- more resistant to extinction) Frequency of extinction used in the past

Differential Reinforcement of Lower Rates of Behavior (DRL)

Used to decrease rates of behavior that might be tolerable at low rates, but are inappropriate at high rates This procedure is used to reduce the frequency of a behavior, but not eliminate it from the learners repertoire entirely. This is typically reserved for behaviors that are socially acceptable but may occur too often. Using this procedure, reinforcement is delivered if a behavior occurs below a predetermined criteria. Example: James uses socially appropriate behavior to greet peers but does so up to ten times in one class period. His teacher decides to use DRL to lower the rate of his behavior but she does not want to eliminate it completely. She decides to deliver reinforcement (ex. computer time) to James if he greets peers five or fewer times during the class period. If he greets peers more than five times, he does not receive reinforcement.

Positive Punishment

occurs when a response class is followed immediately by the presentation of a (noxious) stimulus, and as a result the frequency of the response decreases Ex: Parent scolds child for slamming door Teacher scolds student for answering back

Negative Punishment

occurs when a response is followed immediately by the removal or termination of a (positive) stimulus, and as a result, the response decreases. Ex: Child loses video game time aggression Student loses recess time

Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible behavior (DRI)

this procedures entails only reinforcing behaviors that are incompatible with the problem behavior while withholding reinforcement for the problem behavior. In other words, only behaviors that cannot occur simultaneously with the problem behavior are reinforced. Example: Phillip engages in out of seat behavior so his teacher decides to implement a DRI procedure. She decides to reinforce a behavior that is incompatible with out of seat behavior. Sitting in his seat is chosen as the incompatible behavior because it cannot occur at the same time as out of seat behavior. Phillip only receives reinforcement (ex. token) for sitting in his seat while reinforcement is withheld when Phillip is out of his seat. Reinforcement is delivered upon performance of a behavior that is topographically incompatible to the target behavior Hand flapping on extinction while hands in pockets reinforced Requesting items in conversational tone rather than screaming