7&6

4.2.4 Public Opinion

* public opinion—the range of views on foreign policy issues held by the citizens of a state (see the Public Opinion and International Relations box)., greater influence on foreign policy in democracies than in authoritarian, dictators must pay attention to what citizens think., policies are carried out by ordinary people- uthoritarian governments spend great effort on propaganda—the public promotion of their official line—to win support for foreign policies-Journalists serve as the gatekeepers of information passing from foreign policy elites to the public., press as a watchdog-Yet the media also depend on government for information; the size and resources of the foreign policy bureaucracies dwarf those of the press, feeding them information in order to shape the news and influence public opinion, Bureaucrats can also leak secret information to the press in order to support their own point of view -Occasionally a foreign policy issue is decided directly by a referendum of the entire citizenry (the United States lacks such a tradition, which is strong in Switzerland and Denmark, for example)-Even in the most open democracies, states do not merely respond to public opinion., makers enjoy some autonomy to make their own choices,, States use propaganda (in dictatorships) or try to manipulate the media (in democracies) to keep public opinion from diverging too much from state policies.,-public opinion generally has less effect on foreign policy than on domestic policy., The attentive public in a democracy is the minority of the population that stays informed about international issues, elite opinions sometimes (but not always) differ considerably from those of the general population-Governments sometimes adopt foreign policies for the specific purpose of generating public approval and hence gaining domestic legitimacy.-* "rally 'round the flag" syndrome (the public's increased support for government leaders during wartime, at least in the short term). , Policies of this sort are often labeled diversionary foreign policy-wars that go on too long or are not successful can turn public opinion against the government and even lead to a popular uprising to overthrow the government.,

4.2.3 The Military-Industrial Complex

*A military-industrial complex refers to a huge interlocking network of governmental agencies, industrial corporations, and research institutes, working together to supply a nation's military forces,response to the growing importance of technology, logistics in Cold War military planning-Executives in military industries, who best understand their industries, are often appointed as government officials responsible for military procurement decisions and then return to their companies again—a practice called the revolving door. In democracies, military industries also influence public opinion through advertising that ties their products to patriotic themes

3.2.4 Collective Security

*collective security, which grows out of liberal institutionalism, refers to the formation of a broad alliance of most major actors in an international system for the purpose of jointly opposing aggression by any actor.,majority of states could unite to punish any one state that committed aggression,-League of Nations was formed to promote collective security. ,flawed in two ways, did not include all the great powers (including the most powerful one, the United States),, members proved unwilling to bear the costs of collective action to oppose aggression when it did occur in the 1930s, starting with Japan and Italy., United Nations was created as the League's successor to promote collective security-uccess of collective security depends on two points. First, the members must keep their alliance commitments to the group (that is, members must not free-ride on the efforts of other members).-requisite for collective security is that enough members must agree on what constitutes aggression. -Collective security worked in 1990-1991 to reverse Iraq's conquest of Kuwait because the aggression brought all the great powers together and because they were willing to bear the costs of confronting Iraq-

Social Theory in IR: "Constructivism"

Central branch of social theory in IR over last three decades • "Constructivism focuses on what Searle has called 'social facts' - things like money, sovereignty, rights, which have no material reality but exist only because people collectively believe they exist and act accordingly." - Martha Finnemore & Kathryn Sikkink • Note: constructivism is a "big tent", not a single theory - Common thread: importance of beliefs, identity, social interaction, and shared ideas/norms Sikkinin + Finnemoree ______________________________________________________________________________________ individuals/groups elites in society-optimistic-socially constructed ->fluid and changing, logic of appreatiness and concepences -soft power or social power

Difference Feminism

Claim: real differences exist between men and women • Claim: women have different skill sets - Ex. Nurturing = conflict resolution - Ex. More adept at social interactions = better group decision- making • Hypothesis: more women in IR = different outcomes (and processes), such as more cooperation and negotiation

3.1 The Waning of War

Compare two explanations for the trend toward less warfare in the past century: recent years-fewer and smaller wars has become evident- long-term trend.-. By historical standards, these are all small wars.-Deaths caused by all types of war,-have fallen quite dramatically over the past 70 years-

Norms

Constructivists are very interested in the power of norms to shape actors' behavior in IR • Definition: a principle of right action binding upon the members of a group and serving to guide, control, or regulate proper and acceptable behavior • Key questions - How do norms develop? - How do norms spread? - Why do states abide by norms? ex: Examples of Norms/Conventions applestore waiting in line

3.5 Peace Studies

Describe the ways in which mediation can be used to resolve conflict in international relations- Peace studies challenges fundamental concepts behind both realism and neoliberalism, broad conception of social relations at the individual and domestic levels of analysis, connects war and peace with individual responsibility, economic inequality, gender relations, cross-cultural understanding, and other aspects of social relationships, ot in the transactions of state leaders but in the transformation of entire societies (through social revolution) and in transnational communities (bypassing states and ignoring borders to connect people and groups globally). , ot in the transactions of state leaders but in the transformation of entire societies (through social revolution) and in transnational communities (bypassing states and ignoring borders to connect people and groups globally). , reject the supposed objectivity of traditional (realist and liberal) approaches., participate in action—not just to observe objectively., normative bias because scholars impose their personal norms and values on the subject, *The development and implementation of peaceful strategies for settling conflicts—using alternatives to violent forms of leverage—are known by the general term conflict resolution. , *Recently, the use of conflict resolution has been increasing, becoming more sophisticated, and succeeding more often. Most conflict resolution uses a third party whose role is mediation between two conflicting parties, regional conflicts are mediated through regional organizations, single states, or even private individuals.-Some mediation is strictly technical—a mediator may take an active but strictly neutral role in channeling communication between two states that lack other channels of communication, works to change each side's view of difficult issues, mediator is like the translator between the two sides,, private individuals and groups can serve as citizen diplomacy to ease tensions as well- sides agree in advance to abide by a solution devised by a mediator, the process is called arbitration. , both sides present their arguments to the arbitrator, who decides on a "fair" solution-can also use confidence-building measures to gradually increase trust., Peace studies scholars argue that war is not just a natural expression of power but one closely tied to militarism in (some) cultures.*Militarism is the glorification of war, military force, and violence through TV, films, books, political speeches, toys, games, sports, and other such avenues. Militarism also refers to the structuring of society around war—for example, the dominant role of a military-industrial complex in a national economy, or the dominance of national security issues in domestic politics. , militarism has had a profound influence on the evolution of societies-less militarized cultures show that realism's emphasis on military force is not universal or necessary., contrast, relatively peaceful societies are more likely to have open decision-making processes, relative gender equality, and permissive and affectionate child rearing., societal attributes could as well be effects of war as causes-realism assumes the normalcy of military conflicts, it recognizes only a negative kind of peace—the temporary absence of war* positive peace refers to a peace that resolves the underlying reasons for war—peace that is not just a cease-fire but a transformation of relationships. -Underpositive peace, not only do state armies stop fighting each other, they stop arming, stop forming death squads against internal protest, and reverse the economic exploitation and political oppression that scholars in peace studies believe are responsible for social conflicts that lead to war, Proponents of this approach see broad social and economic issues—assumed by realists to be relatively unimportant—as inextricably linked with positive peace, structural violence because it is caused by the structure of social relations rather than by direct actions such as shooting people. -Positive peace encompasses a variety of approaches to social change-*The creation of a world government has long been debated by scholars and pursued by activists. Some scholars believe progress is being made (through the UN) toward the eventual emergence of a world government. -Scholars in peace studies also study how to achieve the conditions for positive peace, *peace movements—people taking to the streets in protest against war and militarism-nonviolence is based on a unilateral commitment to refrain from using any violent forms of leverage in bargaining-Proponents of nonviolence emphasize the practical side of nonviolence in addition to its morality, nonviolence is often the most cost-effective approach—because the costs of violent resistance would be prohibitive.

3.6.5 Difference Feminism Versus Liberal Feminism?

Difference feminists argue that realism reflects a masculine perception of social relations, whereas liberal feminists think that women can be just as realist as men. Liberal feminists believe that female participation in foreign policy and the military will enhance state capabilities, but difference feminists think women's unique abilities can be put to better use in transforming (feminizing) the entire system of international relations rather than in trying to play men's games, The evidence in favor of both positions can be reconciled to some extent by bearing in mind that the character and ability of an individual are not the same as that of his or her group. Rather, the qualities of individuals follow a bell curve distribution,-Liberal feminist arguments emphasize the overlap of the two bell curves, —most women on most relevant dimensions—are well within the male curve and thus can perform equally with the men., women in nontraditional gender roles may well perform better than their male counterparts because presumably women who self-select into such roles (such as joining the military) are near the high end of the female bell curve, whereas the men are closer to the middle of the male curve (because more of them join)-Difference feminists are more interested in the shift in the two bell curves, not their overlap. On average, according to this perspective, women tend to see international relations in a somewhat different way than men -and a shift away from the utility of realism in explaining state behavior—would occur only if many women participated in key foreign policy positions.-Of course, these theories of difference feminists have never been tested because women have never attained predominance in foreign policy making in any country—much less in the international system as a whole. In addition to the liberal and difference strands of feminism, the third strand, postmodern

Gender and Feminism in IR

Differing perspectives in the field - Someputfeministapproachesonparwithrealism,liberalism,etc. - OthersnotegenderasakeyvariabletoexplainIRoutcomes/issues,but not a full-fledged "theory" • As with all of the "isms", our focus is on key variables, causal arguments, and observable implications (how we might know if a hypothesis is "right") • Key takeaways - GenderplaysaroleinmanydimensionsofIR,fromwar/securityto economics/development - Focusingongenderhighlightsoft-neglectedissuesinIR,suchassexual violence and the role of women in conflict

Gender and Women's Studies 101: Sex/Gender Distinction

Distinction between biological sex and the social/historical construction of gender • Sex: Biologically defined. Mostly considered in binary terms— male/female • Gender: Socially-constructed roles, behaviors, and characteristics attributed to a person based on their sex - A power relation that intersects with race/ethnicity, class and sexual orientation to construct hierarchies Simone de Beauvoir: One is not born a woman, but becomes one."

3.2 Liberal Theories

Distinguish between two different theories to explain why democracies do not wage war on one another. If realism offers mostly dominance solutions to the collective goods problems of international relations (IR), -these approaches generally are more optimistic than realism about the prospects for peace.-slowly, incrementally evolving through time and becoming more and more peaceful. -gradual buildup of international organizations and mutual cooperation (reciprocity) and secondarily from changes in norms and public opinion (identity)-

4.1.2 Individual Decision Makers

Every international event is the result, intended or unintended, of decisions made by individuals, The study of individual decision making revolves around the question of rationality, Individual rationality is not equivalent to state rationality: States might filter individuals' irrational decisions to arrive at rational choices, or states might distort individual rational decisions and end up with irrational state choices. But realists tend to assume that both states and individuals are rational and that the goals or interests of states correlate with those of leaders.-individual decisions reflect the values and beliefs of the decision maker., Individual decision makers not only have differing values and beliefs but also have unique personalities—their personal experiences, intellectual capabilities, and personal styles of making decisions.,. Clinton himself has noted that his experience of growing up with a violent, alcoholic stepfather shaped him into a "peacemaker, diverges from the rational model in at least three systematic ways. *from misperceptions and selective perceptions: the mistaken process of aviavable information about a decisions; one of serval ways -along with affective and cognitive bias-in which individual decision making diverges from the rational model. (taking in only some kinds of information) when they compile information on the likely consequences of their choices, Decision-making processes must reduce and filter the incoming information on which a decision is based; the problem is that such filtration is often biased., *are subconscious filters through which people put the information coming in about the world around them. Often they simply ignore any information that does not fit their expectations., U.S. intelligence agencies failed to interpret available evidence adequately because too few analysts were fluent in Arabic, Misperceptions can affect the implementation of policy by low-level officials as well as its formulation by high-level officials.-Second, the rationality of individual cost-benefit calculations is undermined by emotions that decision makers feel while thinking about the consequences of their actions—an effect referred to as affective bias. -hird, cognitive biases are systematic distortions of rational calculations based not on emotional feelings but simply on the limitations of the human brain in making choices, These terms refer to the tendency people have to try to maintain mental models of the world that are logically consistent (this seldom succeeds entirely).-One implication of cognitive balance is that decision makers place greater value on goals that they have put much effort into achieving—the justification of effort. , U.S. leaders found it difficult to admit to themselves that the costs of the war were greater than the benefits.-wishful thinking—an overestimate of the probability of a desired outcome.-Cognitive balance often leads decision makers to maintain a hardened image of an enemy and to interpret all of the enemy's actions in a negative light (because the idea of bad people doing good things would create cognitive dissonance). A mirror image refers to two sides in a conflict maintaining very similar enemy images of each other-historical analogies to structure one's thinking about a decision.-All of these psychological processes—misperception, affective biases, and cognitive biases—interfere with the rational assessment of costs and benefits in making a decision. Two specific modifications to the rational model of decision making have been proposed to accommodate psychological realities.-bounded rationality takes into account the costs of seeking and processing information,* f optimizing, or picking the very best option, people usually work on the problem until they come up with a "good enough" option that meets some minimal criteria; this is called satisficing, or finding a satisfactory solution.-* prospect theory provides an alternative explanation (rather than simple rational optimization) of decisions made under risk or uncertainty.-editing phase, they frame the options available and the probabilities of various outcomes associated with each option., evaluation phase, they assess the options and choose one., comparison with a reference point, which is often the status quo but might be some past or expected situation. .

The Liberal Tradition in IR

Morgenthau: before realism, focused on international law • Wilson: emphasized moral liberalism/universal truths/principles in politics (Fourteen Points, national self-determination, democracy)

4.2.5 Legislatures

One conduit through which interest groups and public opinion may wield influence is legislatures, egislatures play a direct role in making foreign policy by passing budgets, regulating bureaucratic rules, creating trade law, and even controlling immigration policy. , agreement they sign must be approved by their domestic legislature.-would argue that legislatures in presidential democracies do not influence foreign policy generally, different rules may apply to the use of military force.-rally around the flag during times of international crises, Others point to a different dynamic in which legislatures do stand up to executive power regarding military force.-Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF), gives the president the right to use military force against any threat linked to terrorism. F, military force when their own political party is in power in Congress-executives (for example, prime ministers) are chosen by the political parties that hold a dominant position in the legislative bodies, do not need to submit treaties or policies for formal approval by the legislature., parliamentary systems, if a policy is controversial, parties that do not have a majority in the legislature can attempt to call elections—meaning that the country votes again on which parties will hold seats in the legislature.

Critique 2: Relative Gains

Which scenario do you prefer out of a US-China trade deal? Economic growth rates, 2019-2030 Scenario 1 Scenario 2 China 8% 3% U.S. 5% 3% • Key debate/question: do states forego mutual (but uneven) gains from cooperation knowing it will cost the other side more?_________________________________________________________________________________________ states forgo cooperation knowing that it will also befits the other person ->states prioritize having more than the other not mutail gains

Security Dilemma?

Who Am I Describing? • A non-state actor • Takes captives, forces them into slavery • Engages in mass rape • Attacks civilians and militaries alike • Pledges loyalty to no state Barbary Pirates: "To the shores of Tripoli..." 200 years ago, piracy was seen as a main threat to US national security and budget... • But what is our modern image of pirates...? pirates now on team sports

International regime

• "A set of rules, norms, and procedures around which the expectations of actors converge in a certain issue area" • May encompass formal IOs, informal cooperation (summits), networks of experts, regional organizations, etc.

Feminist IR Theory

• Challengeshiddengenderedassumptionsinthefield - Keypoint:manyconceptsinIRthatareconsideredobjective and gender-neutral rest on implicit/explicitly gendered views - Examples:Headsofstates,soldiersandarmiesaremale.War and weapons connected to masculinity • Challengestraditionalnotionsofgender - Example:Menfightwars,womenstayathome - Example:womenaremorepeacefulthanmen

Liberal Feminism

• Claim: No real social differences between women and men • Women are excluded from leadership, which is bad not just normatively, but also positively - More women must assume key roles in IR, since most capable leaders, policymakers, soldiers, etc. may be female • Hypothesis: Women would behave similarly to men in positions of power - Implication: IR/outcomes would not be fundamentally different RBG

Realist vs. Liberal Theories of IR

• Do not agree on fundamental nature of IR: - Pessimistic vs. optimistic • Yet, agree on some basic things: - Anarchy - Centrality of material power (+ institutional power) - States or domestic actors act in broadly rational ways to achieve their preferences/goals • Now: Let's relax all of these assumptions! (social theories)

The European Union

• Europe, 1870-1945: - 1870-1871:Franco- Prussian War [200k dead] - 1914-1918:WorldWarI [8 million dead] - 1939-1945:WorldWarII [12.9 million dead] • How to prevent another war? - Createpolitical institutions to change actor incentives - 1951:EuropeanCoaland Steel Community (ECSC) - 1957:TreatiesofRome What does the EU do? Eu: a group of European countries that participate as one global economy, operate under one currency the euro, it started with 12 members now has 28, the irregancy to unify europe after the wars, barrier-free trade zone with a more efficient marketplace that would help grow European wealth, key role in goal economy. • Multi-issue cooperation: trade, money, finance, regulation, agriculture, energy, foreign aid, foreign policy, etc. • Creates (many) permanent forums for interaction, negotiation, "horse- trading", bargaining, etc. • Promotes reciprocity and issue linkage • Solves collective action problems • Creates enforcement mechanisms to punish defection

International organizations (IOs)

• Formal international institutions (e.g., UN, IMF, WTO) • Book: "Intergovernmental organizations" (IGOs)

Example 2: What Do States Value?

• How will a state maximize its security? - Build alliances and weapons • But which weapons? - Are some weapons considered "cool" or "macho"? - Are some weapons considered "modern" or "prestigious"? • Several constructivist scholars have argued that technological arms races are about social factors... -talked about having those airforce boats that could have a more effective use but have these instead bc the seem cool Example 3: Science Policy • United Nations Education, Science, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) - Founded in 1945 to promote collaboration • Promoted science policy (R&D) programs (1965-) - Would not "do" science but oversee it • Science bureaucracies then begin to sprout up everywhere! - Ex: Guatemala: .01% GDP on R&D

Liberal Institutionalism

• International institutionsàless conflict, more cooperation in IR • Accepts many (neo)realist assumptions: - Anarchy; importance of material power; state-centric; rational, outcome of anarchy is optimistic rather than pessimistic unitary actors; focus on third ("system") level of analysis: international institutions, IOs, NGOs • Yet, reaches a very different conclusion: - Cooperation is difficult, but possible...perhaps even likely! • There are solutions to the Prisoner's Dilemma (and other games)... keohane _______________________________________________________________ Core argument • International institutions mitigate the problems of anarchy • Implication: contra realism, cooperation is more likely What do institutions do? • Lengthen the "shadow of the future" (time horizons) • Reduce fears about cheating • Provide/exchange information • Facilitate "side payments" and "issue linkage" • Monitor and enforce agreements • We'll talk more about particular institutions after the first midterm, but for now one (big) example...

International cooperation

• Keohane: "mutual policy adjustment" • Cooperation ≠ harmony (shared interests)

Logics of Behavior

• Logic of consequences (realism, liberal theories) - A state or actor behaves a certain way because it calculates the possible consequences of its actions - Baseline "rationality" we've discussed • Logic of appropriateness (social theories) - A state or actor behaves in a certain way because it believes it should behave a certain way - Why "should" it? Where do these beliefs come from?

Liberal Theories of IR

• Modern liberalism in IR has two strands: - The theories stressing the importance of international institutions ("liberal institutionalism") - Theories stressing the importanceof domestic politics("liberal internationalism") • Both challenge realist assumptions & conclusions - Liberal institutionalism:i nternational in stitutions can limit conflict/ facilitate cooperation • Anarchy and the Security Dilemma do not make conflict inevitable - Liberal internationalism :conflict is not inevitable ,because not all states behave alike • Domestic politics can facilitate cooperation

Other Types of Variation in Domestic Politics

• Political institutions - Electoral:proportionalrepresentationvs.single-memberdistricts - Legislative: one chamber vs. two (House/Senate) - Informal institutions • Bureaucratic institutions (central banks, regulatory bodies) • Interest groups/civil society - Labor unions - Industries/business lobbies - Religious/social organizations

What Makes a Democracy a Democracy?

• Political institutions? - Competitive elections - Broad adult suffrage • Political rights? - Protection of minority rights - Respect for civil liberties

Why the Democratic Peace? Possible causal mechanisms

• Public opinion/representation ("audience costs") • Leadership turnover • Cultural similarities/mutual understanding • Debate: a one country argument (monadic), or an argument about pairs of countries (dyadic)? • Maybe it's not about democracy, but trade? (the "capitalist peace") ~goldan gates mcdonels

Realism's Response(s)

• Realist scholars have not taken the liberal challenge lightly • Realists critique liberal internationalism as we did: - Evidence for domestic politics explanations is mixed (e.g., democracies are often not peaceful) - Broader critique: unitary actor assumption is still the best baseline for understanding the key sources of state behavior • Two main realist responses to liberal institutionalism: __________________________________________________________________________________________ liberal internationalism: wrong because all states want oiler regardless of regime type, democracies are not always peaceful, assumptions the all states is the broadest

Postmodern Feminism

• Rejects any gender-based assumptions • Claim: gender roles are entirely socially constructed and flexible - Gender is a completely fluid category; no male/female binary - No fixed or inherent meaning in either male or female gender - Focus on language and how it creates gendered subtexts in IR - Nuclear weapons: "Fat Man" and "Little Boy" - Cohn and the sexual/masculine imagery of WMD - Postmodernfeministscriticizebothliberalanddifferencefeminists - Question liberal feminists as merely trying to integrate women into traditional masculine concepts/structures of war and foreign policy - Criticize difference feminists for glorifying traditional feminine virtues/roles

2. Liberal Internationalism

• State preferences and outcomes in IR depend not just on the structure of the international system (anarchy, relative power), but also on domestic politics • Since domestic politics varies, state preferences can vary, too (second or "unit" level of analysis) • Therefore, anarchy and the Security Dilemma do not inevitably lead to conflict, as realists claim • Intellectual godfather: Immanuel Kant - 1795: "Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch"

Social Construction in Action Example 1: Who is a Threat?

• The realist answer: who has the most guns (or money)? • The constructivist answer: some actors more threatening than others, but not because of size/wealth/military - Past "social" interactions - Perceptions of intentions - Shared beliefs about what/who is dangerous • Why are we not threatened by certain actors? • Do perceptions of threats change over time?

How To Prevent Cooperation From Unraveling?

• What do we need for cooperation to come about/persist? - Long time horizons: a repeated game that does not end - More information exchange (are you bluffing?) - Ability to punish defection (what if you cheat?) • How do we get these things? - International institutions!

3.6.1 Why Gender Matters

feminist scholarship in various disciplines seeks to uncover hidden assumptions about gender in how we study a subject. What scholars traditionally claim to be universal often turns out to be true only of males.,realist approach simply assumes male participants when discussing foreign policy decision making, state sovereignty, or the use of military force., feminist critics then ask is that scholars explicitly recognize the gendered nature of their subject (rather than implicitly assuming all actors are male), our understanding of male actors in IR can be increased by considering how their gender identity affects their views and decision processes.-feminist scholars often challenge traditional concepts of gender as well.,broader construction of masculinity as suitable to public and political spaces, whereas femininity is associated with the sphere of the private and domestic.-

3.2.1 Kant and Peace

peace and cooperation are possible.-reciprocity principle, was that states could develop the organizations and rules to facilitate cooperation, specifically by forming a world federation resembling today's United Nations (UN). -present-day liberal institutionalism-peace depends on the internal character of governments-peace depends on the internal character of governments-states' preferences based on the social interactions within the state-that trade promotes peace, relies on the presumption that trade increases wealth, cooperation, and global well-being—all while making conflict less likely in the long term because governments will not want to disrupt any process that adds to the wealth of their state.-*This mutual dependence between states is referred to as economic interdependence.-Realists are skeptical of the peace-promotes-trade argument,more tensions,leverage over them,interdependence and peace were common prior to World War I, yet war occurred anyway.

3.3.2 Postmodernism

postmodernism: an approach that denies the existence of a single fixed reality and pays attention to text and discourses-that is how people talk and write about a subject. -Because of their literary roots, postmodernists pay special attention to texts and to discourses—how people talk and write about their subject (IR),center on analyzing realists' words and arguments, postmodernism is that there is no single, objective reality but a multiplicity of experiences and perspectives that defy easy categorization-From a postmodern perspective, realism cannot justify its claim that states are the central actors in IR and that states operate as unitary actors with coherent sets of objective interests , see nothing objective about state interests, and certainly nothing universal-postmodernism calls into question the whole notion of states as actors. States have no tangible reality; they are "fictions" that we (as scholars and citizens) construct to make sense of the actions of large numbers of individuals, None of these is an objective reality, and all are filtered through an interpretive process that distorts the actual experiences of those involved,see multiple realities and experiences lurking below the surface of the fictional entities that realists construct (states)-Postmodernists seek to "deconstruct" concepts such as states, the international system, and the associated stories and arguments (texts and discourses) with which realists portray the nature of international relations,*The hidden meanings not explicitly addressed in the text are often called the subtext.-Omissions are an aspect of subtext, for example, when realist theories of IR omit women and gender

3.2.3 International Regimes

Achieving good outcomes is not simple,difficult to resolve conflicts without a third party to arbitrate or an overall framework to set common expectations for all parties.-*international regime is a set of rules, norms, and procedures around which the expectations of actors converge in a certain issue area (whether arms control, international trade, or Antarctic exploration). ,participants in the international system have similar ideas about what rules will govern their mutual participation: Each expects to play by the same rules.-Regimes can help solve collective goods problems by increasing transparency—because everyone knows what everyone else is doing, cheating is riskier.,better international communication, states can identify conflicts and negotiate solutions through regimes more effectively.-regimes combines elements of realism and liberalism.,egimes do not play a role in issues in which states can realize their interests directly through unilateral applications of leverage. Rather, regimes come into existence to overcome collective goods dilemmas by coordinating the behaviors of individual states,states continue to seek their own interests, they create frameworks to coordinate their actions with those of other states if and when such coordination is necessary to realize self-interest (that is, in collective goods dilemmas).-Regimes do not substitute for the basic calculations of costs and benefits by states; they just open up new possibilities with more favorable cost-benefit ratios. Regimes do not constrain states, except in a very narrow and short-term sense. Rather, they facilitate and empower national governments faced with issues in which collective goods or coordination problems would otherwise prevent these governments from achieving their ends. Regimes can be seen as intervening variables between the basic causal forces at work in IR—for realists, the relative power of state actors—and the outcomes such as international cooperation (or lack thereof).-power in the international system is most concentrated—when there is a hegemon to keep order,ecline with the power of hegemons that created them,hegemony may be crucial in establishing regimes, it is not necessary for maintaining them.-egimes rests on their becoming embedded in permanent institutions such as the UN, NATO, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF),tangible manifestation of shared expectations-

4.2.6 Making Foreign Policy

Foreign policies are the strategies that governments use to guide their actions in the international arena, *foreign policy process—how policies are arrived at and implemented, policy processes lead to certain kinds of decisions—whether certain processes produce better outcomes (for the state's self-defined interests) than do others., Comparative foreign policy is the study of foreign policy in various states in order to discover whether similar types of societies or governments consistently have similar types of foreign policies, Such studies have focused on three characteristics: size, wealth, and extent of democratic participation in government. , Some political scientists have tried to interpret particular states' foreign policies in terms of each one's political culture and history. , Thus the military might of the Soviet Union, and its control of buffer states in Eastern Europe, seemed defensive in nature to Soviet leaders but appeared aggressive to U.S. leaders., Foreign policy outcomes result from multiple forces at various levels of analysis. The outcomes depend on individual decision makers, on the type of society and government they are working within, and on the international and global context of their actions., The differences in the foreign policy process from one state to another are also influenced by a state's type of government, such as military dictatorship, communist party rule, one-party (noncommunist) rule, and various forms of multiparty democracy-To summarize, foreign policy is a complex outcome of a complex process. It results from the struggle of competing themes, Yet foreign policy does achieve a certain overall coherence., Out of the turbulent internal processes of foreign policy formation come relatively coherent interests and policies that states pursue..

4.2.2 Interest Groups

Foreign policy makers operate not in a political vacuum but in the context of the political debates in their society, societal pressures influence foreign policy, In pluralistic democracies, interested parties influence foreign policy through interest groups and political parties. In dictatorships, similar influences occur but less visibly, foreign policies adopted by states generally reflect some kind of process of domestic coalition formation.-*Interest groups are coalitions of people who share a common interest in the outcome of some political issue and who organize themselves to try to influence the outcome-Lobbying is the process of talking with legislators or officials to influence their decisions on some set of issues. , he ability to gain a hearing with busy officials, the ability to present cogent arguments for one's case, and the ability to trade favors in return for positive action on an issue. -Ethnic groups within one state often become interest groups concerned about their ancestral nation outside that state. Many members of ethnic groups feel strong emotional ties to their relatives in other countries; because the rest of the population generally does not care about such issues one way or the other, even a small ethnic group can have considerable influence on policy toward a particular country, emerging as a powerful foreign policy influence in various ethnic conflicts in poor regions- interest groups have goals and interests that may or may not coincide with the national interest as a whole-the key domestic influences on foreign policy in capitalist countries are rich owners of big businesses..

3.3 Social Theories

Illustrate how social theories could explain two countries moving from rivalry to alliance.-eaning that they rely on social interaction to explain individuals' and states' preferences,contrast with the assumption of fixed, timeless preferen-*Constructivism, a fast-growing approach in IR, asks how states construct their interest through their interactions with one another

3.6.3 Gender in War and Peace

In addition to its emphasis on autonomy and anarchy, realism stresses military force as the key form of leverage in IR., hidden assumption of masculinity, men are inherently the more warlike gender, and women the more peaceful., Difference feminists find much evidence to support the idea of war as a masculine pursuit.-One supposed link between war and masculinity is the male sex hormone testosterone (along with related hormones), which some biologists have connected with aggressive behavior in animals. However, testosterone does not cause aggression. Rather, social interactions "feed back" to affect testosterone levels (winners' testosterone levels rise while losers' levels fall).,Even some feminist scholars who see gender differences as strictly cultural, and not biological at all, view war as a masculine construction.-Although they rarely take part in combat, women sometimes provide logistical support to male warriors and sometimes help drive the men into a war frenzy by dancing, shaming nonparticipating males, and other activities supportive of war-The idea of women as peacemakers has a long history. In ancient Athens, the (male) playwright Aristophanes speculated about how women might end the unpopular Peloponnesian War with Sparta, then in progress. , the men come to their senses and make peace. Women have formed their own organizations to work for peace on many occasions-Nonetheless, U.S. public opinion on foreign policy issues since the 1930s partially vindicates difference feminists. A gender gap in polls shows that women are about ten percentage points lower than men on average in their support for military actions. *, Meanwhile, feminists in recent decades have continued to organize women's peace organizations., Women's Action for Nuclear Disarmament (WAND) opposed the nuclear arms buildup,-Through these various actions, difference feminists began developing a feminist practice of international relations that could provide an alternative to the masculine practice of realism, For difference feminists, war does indeed begin in the minds of men, but the foundations for peace would better be sought in the minds of women.

3.4 Marxism

Marxist approaches to IR hold that both IR and domestic politics arise from unequal relationships between economic classes *Economic class: a categorization of individuals based on economic class implying that the domestic and economic attributes of societies shape external relations with other states—contrasts with the realist approach to IR, with its separation of domestic and international politics

Critique 1: Power & International Institutions

Institutions are common and maybe even powerful, but they are simply reflections of/masks for the interests of the great powers (i.e., the United States). • Ex. UN Security Council... • Ex. International Monetary Fund (IMF) voting... -IOs are the reflection of the distribution of power-U.N is just what U.S wants to do-what strongest states want.

What functions do domestic and international institutions perform in international relations?

Its solve and renforce rules, coordinate states on rules, France and England -help solve battle of sects which side of road is driven on and help solve collective actions probs ->help share norms and behaviors domestic-> regulate people, orgazning and setting rules of behavior provide stability ex: U.S forgien policy is always concrete and stays the same with people in the office change

3.2.5 The Democratic Peace

Kant argued that lasting peace would depend on states' becoming republics, with legislatures to check the power of monarchs (or presidents) to make war. He thought that checks and balances in government would act as a brake on the use of military force—compared to autocratic governments in which a single individual (or small ruling group) could make war without regard for the effects on the population.-democracies are generally more peaceful than authoritarian governments -democracies almost never fight each other. No major historical cases contradict this generalization, which is known as the democratic peace*,democracies for very long, -Although mature democracies almost never fight each other, a period of transition to democracy may be more prone to war compared to either a stable democracy or a stable authoritarian government.

3.6.4 Women in IR

Liberal feminists are skeptical of difference-feminist critiques of realism. They believe that when women are allowed to participate in IR, they play the game basically the same way men do, with similar results, Liberal feminism focuses on the integration of women into the overwhelmingly male preserves of foreign policy making and the military., In support of their argument that, on average, women handle power just as men do, liberal feminists point to the many examples of women who have served in such positions, Female state leaders do not appear to be any more peaceful, or any less committed to state sovereignty and territorial integrity, than are male leaders ,

How do norms and "social facts" emerge?

Norm "entrepreneurs" - Ex. activists/NGOs: slavery, land mines, etc. • "Epistemic" (knowledge) communities - Ex. scientists & global warming • Socialization - Ex. NATO & military officers

4.2.1 Bureaucracies

Of the many substate actors that influence states' actions in the international arena, those closest to the action are the bureaucratic agencies that states maintain for developing and carrying out foreign policy., Diplomats: Almost all states maintain a foreign service of diplomats working in embassies in foreign capitals, as well as diplomats who remain at home to help coordinate foreign policy. States appoint ambassadors as their official representatives to other states and to international organizations. Diplomatic activities are organized through a foreign ministry or the equivalent (for example, the U.S. State Department), political appointees, career diplomats, provide much of the information that goes into making foreign policies, but their main role is to carry out rather than create policies, foreign ministry bureaucrats often make foreign relations, Tension is common between state leaders and foreign policy bureaucrats, Size alone does not guarantee power for a bureaucracy. , Sometimes state leaders appoint a close friend or key adviser to manage the foreign policy bureaucracy. , At other times, state leaders may appoint rivals with differing views of foreign policy—as President Barack Obama did with his former political rival Hillary Clinton. Interagency Tensions Interagency tensions also affect the formulation of foreign policy. Certain agencies traditionally clash, and an endless tug-of-war shapes the foreign policies that emerge.bureaucracies promote policies under which their own capabilities will be effective and their power will increase., One can often predict just from the job titles of participants how they will argue on a policy issue.,- Although representatives of bureaucratic agencies usually promote the interests of their own bureaucracies, sometimes heads of agencies try to appear loyal to the state leader by forgoing the interests of their own agencies. Also, it is not always possible to predict the preferences of leaders of bureaucratic agencies, given the goals of their institutions. , Units within agencies have similar tensions, Of special concern in many poor states is the institutional interest that military officers have in maintaining a strong military, bureaucratic rivalry as an influence on foreign policy challenges the notion of states as unitary actors in the international system..

3.3.1 Identities and Ideas Matter

in how actors define their national interests, threats to those national interests, and their interests' relationships to one another, States decide what they want based not only on material needs but also on "social" interaction. Just as shoppers may decide to buy a particular smartwatch because they perceive it as cool (that is, more socially acceptable), so states may choose policies based on what they perceive will be "popular" with other states. Yet, just as shoppers may have limits placed on which smartwatch they can afford to buy (limited resources), constructivists also recognize that power is not absent from international relations.-line examines how states' interests and identities are intertwined, as well as how those identities are shaped by interactions with other states. For example, why is the United States concerned when North Korea builds nuclear weapons, but not when Great Britain does? , Constructivist scholars would point out the shared history, shared alliances, and shared norms that tell Americans and the British they are not a threat to each other, although they are very powerful militarily.-he identity of the potential adversary matters, not just its military capabilities and interests. This is a rejection of the realist assumption that states always want more, rather than less, power and wealth as well as the assumption that state interests exist independently of a context of interactions among states. , tates can conceptualize one another so that there is no danger of a security dilemma, arms races, or the other effects of anarchy., For constructivists, power politics, anarchy, and military force cannot explain this change. They see institutions, regimes, norms, and changes in identity as better explanations.-ocieties as a whole also change over time in what they consider to be threatening. Two hundred years ago, pirates were the scourge of the high seas., today we celebrate pirates by making them sports mascots, naming amusement rides after them, and glorifying them in movies. -Yet we find it acceptable to play down the piracy threat by incorporating it into popular culture. No doubt someone from two centuries ago would find such acceptance odd.-oint out that what societies or states consider dangerous is not universal or timeless. Social norms and conventions change,Similarly, Canada's foreign policy contains its own identity-driven imperatives usually revolving around peacekeeping and humanitarian operations.-These identity-based theories can help to explain the behavior of great powers as well.-Liberal theorists would quickly recognize a collective goods problem in paying for the tribunal.-A constructivist explanation might point to changing norms about which kinds of people are worthy of protection., The United States in this example tried to act in an appropriate fashion rather than according to the dictates of cost-benefit calculations.-Examples of this identity approach can be found in the developing world as well,changed policies in response to international norms—not because it provided large benefits but because doing so was perceived as the appropriate course of action, any developing states have raced to create science bureaucracies and/or begin technological modernization of their militaries, spend their limited resources on such projects is their desire to be perceived as "modern" by the international system.,constructivists emphasize that identities and norms must be used to explain this seemingly puzzling behavior.-How are these international norms spread around the world? In an age of global communication and relative ease of transportation, many possibilities exist, norm entrepreneurs, through travel, writing, and meeting with elites, change ideas and encourage certain types of norms, Others show how international organizations (such as the UN and NATO) can diffuse norms of what is appropriate and inappropriate behavior-Scholars have examined the role of the EU in socializing elites in new member states as well as the role of the United Nations in conferring legitimacy on the use of force as a source of its power., constructivist scholars have begun to investigate how notions of identity and symbolism are important for understanding terrorist movements and counterterrorism policy- both realists and liberals point out that it is difficult to tell when a person's identity is genuine or is adopted for strategic reasons to bring material benefits (such as more aid, trade, or membership into an exclusive organization), onstructivist thinking and its emphasis on the identity principle will continue to be at the core of IR research for years to come..

3.6.6 Postmodern Feminism

Postmodern feminism seeks to deconstruct realism with the specific aim of uncovering the pervasive hidden influences of gender in IR while showing how arbitrary the construction of gender roles is. Feminist postmodernists agree with difference feminists that realism carries hidden meanings about gender roles but deny that there is any fixed inherent meaning in either male or female gender. Rather, feminist postmodernists look at the interplay of gender and power in a more open-ended way, postmodern feminists have challenged the archetypes of the (male) "just warrior" and the (female) "beautiful soul., Women act not only as nurses and journalists at the "front" but also as mothers, wives, and girlfriends on the "home front." These scholars believe that stories of military forces should not omit the roles of prostitutes at military bases, nor should stories of diplomacy omit the roles of diplomats' wives-Postmodern feminists reject not only realism but also some of the alternative approaches that emphasize the protection of women and other noncombatants-Postmodern feminists have tried to deconstruct the language of realism, especially when it reflects influences of gender and sex., The plane that dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima (the Enola Gay) had female gender; it was named after the pilot's mother., postmodern feminists would note that the feminine gender of vehicles, targets, or decorations amplifies the masculinity of the weapon itself.-Female models are hired to market tanks, helicopter missiles, and other "potent" weapons to male procurement officers at international military trade shows.-All three strands of feminist theories provide explanations that often differ from both realist and liberal theories.,importance of gender roles such as the need for state leaders to prove their manhood by standing up to the bad guys.

Social Theories of IR: What's Different?

Preferences (what states or leaders want) - Not fixed, but but shaped (or "constructed") by relationships, interactions, or context - Realism/liberalism: "How did a state achieve its national interest?" - Social theories: "How did a state come to have that particular national interest?" • Power - Not just about material things. It can also be social - Norms, persuasion, social pressure, etc. to influence behavior • Logic of behavior - Logic of consequences vs. logic of appropriateness

The Big Question (for IR Theorists): Do Norms Matter?

Realists • No. Window dressing. Liberals • Possibly. Usually through institutions. Social theorists • Yes. They shape and constrain state behavior. Realism: - Source of leverage • Liberal Institutionalism: - Institutions promote (IMF, World Bank, regional banks) • Liberal Internationalism: - Domestic groups promote • Constructivism: - Logic of appropriateness - Social identity

3.6.2 The Masculinity of Realism

feminists have argued that realism emphasizes autonomy and separation because men find separation easier to deal with than interconnection-his view rests on a psychological theory that boys and girls grow up from a young age with different views of separateness and connection.-moral reasoning, according to this theory, boys tend to apply abstract rules and stress individual rights, but girls pay more attention to the concrete contexts of different situations and to the responsibility of group members for each other.,In social relations, boys form and dissolve friendships more readily than do girls, who are more likely to stick loyally with friends. -Realism, of course, rests on the concept of states as separate, autonomous actors that make and break alliances freely while pursuing their own interests (but not interfering in each other's internal affairs). Such a conception of autonomy parallels the masculine psyche just described. ,some feminist scholars find in realism a hidden assumption of masculinity, realism constructs IR as a man's world.-feminine principles might give greater importance to the interdependence of states than to their autonomy, stressing the responsibility of people to care for each other with less regard for states and borders.-The realist preoccupation with the systemic level of analysis presumes that the logic of war itself is autonomous and can be separated from other social relationships such as economics, domestic politics, sexism, and racism,It suggests new avenues for understanding war at the domestic and individual levels of analysis—underlying causes that realists largely ignore.-rom this difference-feminist perspective, neoliberalism has gone backward from traditional liberalism, by accepting the realist assumption of separate unitary states as the important actors and downplaying substate and transnational actors, including women

3.2.2 Liberal Institutionalism

first answer to the question of how peace can evolve, namely, the ability of states to develop and follow mutually advantageous rules, with international institutions to monitor and enforce them,core principle of reciprocity lies at the heart of this approach because international institutions operate by reciprocal contributions and concessions among formally equal members (peers)-Kant argued that states, although autonomous, could join a worldwide federation like today's UN and respect its principles even at the cost of forgoing certain short-term individual gains. To Kant, international cooperation was a more rational option for states than resorting to war.-*The neoliberal approach differs from earlier liberal approaches in that it concedes to realism several important assumptions—among them, that states are unitary actors rationally pursuing their self-interests in a system of anarchy,States achieve cooperation fairly often because it is in their interest to do -States can create mutual rules, expectations, and institutions to promote behavior that enhances cooperation.-reciprocity in IR helps international cooperation emerge despite the absence of central authority.,reciprocity underlies the gradual improvement of relations sought by arms control agreements and peacekeeping missions,international political economy (IPE), in which cooperation can create great benefits through trade,restrict trade in retaliation for unfair practices is a strong incentive to comply ,WTO and its predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT),,principle—states that defect on their obligations by increasing tariffs must suffer punishment by allowing other states to place tariffs on their goods.-reciprocity can be an effective strategy for achieving cooperation in a situation of conflicting interests.,-Neoliberals use the Prisoner's Dilemma (PD) game (see Chapter 2) to illustrate their argument that cooperation is possible. Each actor can gain by individually defecting, but both lose when both defect. Similarly, in IR, states often have a mix of conflicting and mutual interests. The dilemma can be resolved if the game is played over and over again—an accurate model of IR in which states deal with each other in repeated interactions,nicknamed tit-for-tat-eciprocity contains a danger of runaway hostility,v

4.1.1 Models of Decision Making

foreign policy process is a process of decision making. States take actions because people in governments—decision makers—choose those actions, decision-making process is the rational model*: a model in which decision makers calculate the costs and benefits of each possible course of action, then choose one with the highest benefits and lowest costs-The choice may be complicated by uncertainty about the costs and benefits of various actions, accepting of risk, whereas others are averse to risk-one may believe decision makers are rational but not accept the realist assumption that states may be treated as unitary actors, U.S. secretary of state may have a different goal than the secretary of defense,, rational model of decision making is somewhat complicated by uncertainty and the multiple goals of decision makers. Thus, the rational model may imply that decision making is simpler than is actually the case.,* organizational process model:a decision making model in which policy makers or lower-level officials rely largely on standernized responses and standard operating procedures, relying instead for most decisions on standardized responses or standard operating, These low-level decisions may not even reflect the high-level policies adopted by top leaders but rather have a life of their own. The *organizational process model: a model that sees forgien policy decision making as flowing from bargaining process among various government agencies that have somewhat divergent interest in outcomes " where you stand depends on where u sit" implies that much of foreign policy results from "management by muddling through, government bargaining model (also known as the bureaucratic politics model), in which foreign policy decisions result from the bargaining process among various government agencies with somewhat divergent interests in the outcome- Thus, according to the government bargaining model, foreign policy decisions reflect (a mix of) the interests of state agencies.

4.1.3 Group Psychology

groups promote rationality by balancing out the blind spots and biases of any individual, *Groupthink refers to the tendency for groups to reach decisions without accurately assessing their consequences because individual members tend to go along with ideas they think the others support. , Unlike individuals, groups tend to be overly optimistic about the chances of success and are thus more willing to take risks, structure of a decision-making process—the rules for who is involved in making the decision, how voting is conducted, and so forth—can affect the outcome, especially when no single alternative appeals to a majority of participants, A common technique is to control a group's formal decision rules