83119 MCAT Summary

Epiphysis

bulbous end region of bone filled w/ spongy bone / usually capped off w/ cartilage / often contains red bone marrow

Optic nerve

bundle of axons of ganglion cells; exits the back of the eye at the optic disk (blind spot bc no photoreceptors)

Blood pressure regulation

by modulating the rate of filtration and reabsorption in the kidneys, fluid ca be increasingly retained or excreted / regulation of blood volume → regulation of blood pressure

Strong bases ex:

LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Sr(OH)2, Ca(OH)2 / "Linak Sr Baca" / hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals

Multipotent

can become a few different cell types but limited

Dual-Coding Theory

PIC

Structure of neurons

PIC

Replication in Eukaryotes vs. Prokaryotes

PICTURE

Types of trauma and stressor-related disorders

PTSD, acute stress disorder, adjustment disorder

Ideal gas law

PV=nRT / no IMF, volume of gas molecules negligent, KE conserved

Elastic recoil

after inhalation, lung naturally rebounds; elastin fibers / surface tension of fluid in lungs / elastic recoil decreased in emphysema

Group I

alkali metals / VERY reactive bc they want to lose 1e- to achieve a full octet

Group II

alkaline Earth metals / react vigorously w/ water

Global aphasia

all aspects of language use impaired

Artery

carries blood away from hear / endothelium, smooth muscle, connective tissue / very elastic (must withstand high pressure / fluctuations) / carry oxygenated blood (except for pulmonary artery)

Pheromones

chemical messengers that trigger a social response in members of the same species / species-specific chemicals that affect the behavior of the receiving organism

Insecure attachment

children w/ insensitive, inattentive, or inconsistent caregivers

Sanction

consequences in society that reinforce behavior / negative or positive

Flavoproteins

contain flavin molecules, which often serve as redox prosthetic groups / complex 2 of ETC has FAD prosthetic group that gets reduced to FADH2 during CAC cycle

Saturated fatty acids

contain no double bonds (usually solid at room temp)

Depressive disorders

involve depressed mood / anhedonia / feelings of worthlessness, guilt, and hopelessness / changes in sleeping patterns and appetite / difficulty concentrating, thinking, and remembering

Cones

detect bright light and responsible for color vision / high spatial acuity

Chemoreceptors

detect chemicals and their levels / taste buds and olfactory nerves / also sense changes inside the body such as fluid osmolarity, pH levels, CO2 levels, etc.

To determine hybridization of atom in certain molecule:

draw lewis dot diagram of molecule / count # of "electron groups"

Hydrostatic pressure

due to fact that blood is pumped at high pressure by heart; tends to force fluid out of capillaries

Dissociative disorders

involve dissociation, feelings of detachment or being outside one's body / memory loss or loss of touch w/ one's identity / disconnect btwn thoughts and reality

Amygdala

fear, anger, aggression, anxiety

Embryogenesis: stages of development

fertilization → cleavage → blastulation → implantation → gastrulation → neurulation

Shielding (chemistry)

filled shells btwn the nucleus and the valence e- "protects" or shields the valence e- from the pull of the positively charged nucleus

Nasal cavity

filters and warms incoming air / traps particulate matter

Primary relationships

found in nuclear family

Class I MHC

found on all host cells (except RBCs) / used to detect intracellular infection

Synovial joints

freely movable / contain synovial fluid that lubricates and absorbs shock

Acinar cells

fulfill digestive/exocrine functions → pancreatic juice flows through duct into small intestine

O- individual

has none of the three most common antigens and therefore is a universal donor

Formal organizations

have a fixed set of rules and operation procedures

Irreversible steps of glycolysis

have negative G values, not easily reversed; steps 1, 2, 10

Thermophile

live in extremely high temps

Left brain

logic, language, math, positive emotions, detail-oriented

Psychophysics

looks at the relationship btwn physical stimuli and the resultant sensations and perceptions

Euchromatin

loosely packed and accessible to transcriptional enzymes / transcriptionally active

Oxidation

loss of e- / species oxidized = reducing agent / oxidation state will increase / LEO GER

Forgetting

loss of info from LTM

Negative symptoms of Schizophrenia

loss of normal behaviors

Moro (startle) reflex

loud sound or sudden motion → baby will scream and cry and extend limbs out, then pull them back in

Parkinson's and dopamine

low dopamine

White muscle fibers

low endurance, fast contraction / mainly glycolysis and creatine phosphate to produce ATP / low mitochondria and myoglobin / low capillary density

PDC activated by

low energy charge (high AMP or ADP), high levels of pyruvate, PDH phosphatase (turns PDC "on")

Temperature

measure of average KE of molecules of substance

deltaH

measure of change in heat/energy in a thermodynamic system

Acetylcholine

muscle activity, learning, memory, attention

Ion-exchange chromatography cation exchanger

(-) column traps (+) molecules

Convex mirrors have

(-) radii of curvatures and focal lengths

Anion

(-), has gained e-

Exothermic

(-deltaH) / energy released

Forming bond

(-deltaH) / energy released

Attached atom

1 e- group

Breaking peptide bond

hydrolysis rxn (addition of water and strong base)

Glomerular filtration

hydrostatic pressure pushes fluids and solutes (that are small enough) into Bowman's capsule / water, ions, GLC, urea easily pass through / large proteins hardly pass through and cells never pass through / glomerular filtration rate increases as BP increases

HC, MD

hyperopic treated with Converging lenses, Myopic treated with Diverging lenses

Cultural capital

non-financial social elements that promote social mobility

Hypothyroidism

not enough thyroid hormone / low metabolic rate

Far-sighted (hyperopic)

not good at converging light rays from nearby objects → light rays converge too late (behind retina) / given converging (convex) lenses

Fertility rate =

number of births / 1000 women if all women pass through childbearing years

Palmar reflex

object touches infant's hand → infant grasps object

LH (role in ovulation)

ovulation and formation of corpus luteum (ovulation = follicle becomes corpus luteum and egg released)

Redox rxns involving aldehydes and ketones acidic conditions

oxidation of aldehyde forms a carboxylic acid

In PDC pyruvate is...

oxidized

Authoritative

parent is respectful and supportive of child but sets clear rules/limits and disciplines the child / best style

Libido

part of id... "life instinct"

Gamma rays

photons of high frequency, very difficult to stop

Epididymis

seminiferous tubules empty into epididymis / sperm stored here

Electromagnetic receptors

sense EM waves (such as light) / ex: photoreceptors in the eye

SDS-PAGE

separates denatured proteins by molecular weight

Gas chromatography

separates out liquid components of mixture / mainly analytical / higher BP spend more time in apparatus... higher retention time

Prokaryotic intrinsic termination (transcription)

specific sequence of DNA results in RNA folding back on itself into a "stem-loop" shape, which ultimately knocks RNA pol off of the RNA

Catalysts

speed up rxn by lowering EA / do NOT get used up in rxn / by lowering EA, speed up forward and reverse rxn, so catalysts do influence kinetics (enable rxn rate to increase) / increasing k / do not influence thermodynamics / no effect on Keq

Fertilization

sperm meets egg in fallopian tube / egg completes meiosis II, producing mature ovum

Vas (ductus) deferens)

sperm travels through here toward the urethra

Coccus

sphere-shaped

Spirilla

spiral-shaped / generally harmless to humans

Breakdown of ATP

spontaneous

Cultural diffusion

spread of elements of culture from one group to another

Astrocytes

star-shaped glial cell / support blood brain barrier / repair scarring of injured CNS tissue / regulate ion concentrations in extracellular fluid / provide structural support and nutrition to neurons

GnRH (hypothalamus)

triggers anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH

Double helix

two nucleic acid strands linked by H-bonds btwn nitrogenous base / twisted into right-handed helix

Middle ear

tympanic membrane (eardrum) + ossicles / tympanic membrane vibrates when sound waves arrive / ossicles are the smallest bones of the body / vibrations from the tympanic membrane are passed from the malleus → incus → stapes → inner ear

Aggression

type of behavior that is centered around harming/intimidating another person (physically or mentally) / influenced by limbic system (hypothalamus and amygdala), neurotransmitters (serotonin), and hormones (testosterone and cortisol) / frontal lobe (planning behavior, assessing consequences, and self-restraint) / influenced by culture

Transmembrane protein

type of integral protein that spans the entire length of the plasma membrane

Stem cell therapy

use of stem cells to treat a disease / ex: bone marrow transplant

Faraday's law

use to solve for # moles of e- that power electrolytic cell / can use moles e- to find how much element is deposited on electrode or how much gas is liberated

Geometric isomers cis/trans

use when there is one atoms/group that appears on both sides of the double bond

Liver glycogen

used during fasting (shared)

Muscle glycogen

used for glucose during bursts of activity (not shared)

PCR

used to amplify region of DNA / requires heat resistant DNA pol / Taq pol and complementary primers / repeated cycles of heating and cooling

Complementation test

used to assess if a mutation in two different genes can give rise to the same mutant phenotype / occurs when more than one gene product are required for the same function

Phosphoanhydride bonds

very high energy... release a lot of energy when released / highly spontaneous w/ hydrolysis / phosphoanhydride bond hydrolysis is so exergonic

Sensory memory

very limited duration (less than a few seconds) / brief snapshot of sensory information that rapidly decays unless encoded to be transferred to STM or LTM

Surface traits (Cattell)

very obvious, quickly identified

Tertiary care

very specialized form of care / entire institution dedicated to it

Deviance

violating social norms

Bacteriophage

virus that infects bacteria / punctures through cell wall

SNS

voluntary control of skeletal muscles / acetylcholine used

Front stage

where we play particular roles in front of the audience and follow all societal norms/conventions

Resting potential

~ -70 mV, largely due to Na+/K+ -ATPase pump and K+ leak channels

Lys

~ 10

Arg

~ 12

Fatty acid synthesis

produces 16 C fatty acid using acetyl CoA and NADPH as substrates, and fatty acid synthase as enzyme / NADPH serves as reducing agent / ATP provides energy / 2 NADPH and 1 ATP required per cycle; occurs to store excess fuel as fat or make other lipid molecules

Glycolysis

produces 2 pyruvates, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH per Glucose / NADH are basically electron carriers / glycolysis speeds up during anaerobic conditions to make up for other pathways stopping / occurs in cytoplasm, doesn't require O2

Thymus

produces T cells (T cell maturation) / thymus hormones = stimulate T cell development

Autotroph

produces its own nutrients / producers

Pancreas function

produces pancreatic juice, which contains majority of digestive enzymes as well as bicarbonate / also functions as an endocrine gland as it produces insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin

Actual / Experimental yield

product actually made in procedure

Liver function

production of bile, which facilitates the breakdown of fats / filters through blood that has passed through the digestive tract / detoxification and metabolism/inactivation of drugs / produces blood clotting factors and blood proteins such as albumin / blood-GLC regulation

Exergonic rxn

products have less energy than reactants (spontaneous)

Endergonic rxn

products have more energy than reactants (nonspontaneous)

Twin studies and adoption studies

"How much of the variance in phenotype can be attributed to variance in environment/genetics?" / temperament usually more similar to genetic relatives / personality more similar to environment

Epigenetics

"above the genome" / alteration of genes through changes that occur above or outside of the actual gene sequence itself

Binary fission

"asexual" reproduction / produces two identical daughter cells / no recombination

Pinocytosis

"cell drinking" = liquids taken in

Phagocytosis

"cell eating" = solid particles taken in

Non-template strand

"coding strand", "sense strand", 1st strand

Cognitive changes in elderly: don't decline

"crystallized intelligence", semantic memory. implicit memory, emotional reasoning, verbal skills

Transition metals

"d-block" elements / conduct electricity

Sympathetic NS

"fight-or-flight"

3 types of cones

"green", "red", and "blue" → named based on range of frequencies they detect

Pituitary gland

"master gland" of endocrine system → regulates endocrine glands throughout body via release of tropic hormones / composed of anterior and posterior pituitary

Acetal

"non-reducing sugar" / cannot act as reducing agent

Sinoatrial node (SA node)

"pace maker of heart" → R atrium / spontaneously and regularly depolarizes causing atria to contract and the signal to spread to the next node / self-depolarizing due to huge amount of Na+ leak channels

Reciprocal altruism

"paying it forward"

Hemiacetal

"reducing sugar" because it can act as a reducing agent when it opens to linear form / undergo mutarotation

PaNS

"rest and digest"

Parasympathetic NS

"rest and digest"

Ainsworth and attachment

"strange situation experiments": infants (1-1.5) in a room observed covertly by experimenter while infant's mother and stranger enter and leave room in certain schedule

Cortisol

"stress hormone" / response to stress... especially during chronic stress / raises BGL by triggering fat metabolism and gluconeogenesis / suppresses immune system / inhibits CRH and ACTH

Template strand

"template strand", "antisense strand", 2nd strand

Uterus

"the womb" / supports and protects developing fetus

Steric number

# of attached e- groups on central atom... help determine shape of molecule

"Bond order"

# of bonds btwn two atoms

Energy requirement for translation

#aa x 4 = # ATP needed

Percent composition by mass

% (by mass) of each element in compound

Concave mirrors have

(+) radii of curvatures and focal lengths

Cation

(+), has lost e-

Endothermic

(+deltaH) / energy absorbed

Oral psychosexual stage

(0-1); focus of libido is the mouth → infant chews, sucks, bites / resolved when weaning from breastfeeding / fixation: smoking, thumb-sucking, overeating, etc.

Anal psychosexual stage

(1-3) / focus of libido is the anus → infant earning to develop control over bowel and bladder movements / resolved through "potty training" / fixation = "anal retentive" (overly neat/neurotic)

Formal operational stage

(11 or 12 -> ...) / can think abstractly and hypothetically / develop more mature moral reasoning

Genital psychosexual stage

(12+) / focus of libido is on reproduction; interest in the opposite sex / resolved when reaching sexual maturity and through having meaningful relationships

Preoperational stage

(2-7) / children use symbols (words and images) to think about the world -> language development / lack logical reasoning / pretend play / egocentric

Phallic psychosexual stage

(3-6) / focus of libido is the genitals → masturbation, Oedipus and Electra complex / resolution is overcoming the Oedipus complex for boys and the Electra complex for girls / fixation = problems with relationships or sexual dysfunction

Latency psychosexual stage

(6-12) / no focus of libido, sexual feelings are dormant / resolution is engaging in meaningful social interactions and asexual activities to reduce the residual tension of the phallic stage

Concrete operational stage

(7-11) / can think logically about concrete objects (learn basic addition/subtraction / can do inductive logic) / have difficulty w/ the abstract/hypothetical / loss of egocentrism / develop principle of conservation

Pop growth rate =

(BR + immigration rate) - (DR + emigration rate)

% yield

(actual)/(theoretical) x 100

Sensorimotor stage

(ages 0-2) / infants experience the world directly through their senses and actions / may express separation anxiety / object permanence which signifies movement out of sensorimotor stage

Pop change =

(birth + immigration) - (deaths + emigration)

Hfr cell

(high frequency recombination) cell / has F- factor incorporated into chromosomal DNA / can initiate conjugation and does so very efficiently

Electrolytic cell

*external current source provides flow of e-, forcing non-spontaneous redox rexn / opposite as galvanic cell

Alpha helix "breakers" (a.a. not good at being in alpha helices)

proline (cyclic R group sterically hinders helical shape) and glycine (moves very freely because R group is so small)

Prolonged starvation state regulation

prolonged starvation state → low BGL and glycogen depleted → lipolysis occurs (breaks down fats) / beta ox occurs / acetyl CoA produced by beta ox used in ketogenesis (helps brain) / protein catabolism occurs

P region of Lac operon

promoter / RNA pol binds to begin transcription

Prokaryotic initiation (transcription)

promoters have specific sequences at -10 and -35, which bind to specific regions of RNA pol

AV node

propagates an action potential to the ventricles via the Bundle of His and Purkinje fibers / signal slightly delayed so that ventricle contraction follows atria contraction

State function

property that doesn't depend on path taken to get to a certain state

Cattell theory of intelligence

proposed 2 different forms of intelligence existed: fluid and crystallized intelligence

The "Big 5" theory of personality

proposes 5 main personality descriptors, all of which lie on a spectrum / people vary in each dimension and the sum of these factors can describe their personality / "OCEAN" = openness (to experience) → conscientiousness → extraversion → agreeableness → neuroticism

Social constructionism

proposes that our perceptions of reality are actively shaped by social interactions and are comprised of meaningful social constructs → studies the social process of constructing shared assumptions/understandings about the world and social institutions

Induced-fit model

proposes that the binding of a substrate to its enzyme induces the enzyme to shift its conformation slightly, to one that is even more complementary to the substrate / the induced shape change boosts the affinity of the enzyme for the substrate

Enzymes

protein catalysts / increase rate of chemical rxns by lowering rxn's activation energy

Synaptonemal complex

protein complex that enables synapsis to occur

Hemoglobin

protein composed of four subunits / carries 4 O2 max

Antibody

protein found in blood that binds to antigens on a foreign particle/cell and leads to its destruction

Antibody structure

protein is composed of 2 light chains and 2 heavy chains associated in a "Y" shape

Transcription factor

protein that controls rate of transcription binding directly to DNA / turn on/off by activating or repressing RNA polymerase / must contain a DNA binding domain / bind to regions of DNA called enhancers or silencers / strength of association btwn RNA pol and promoter affects transcription rate

Trust vs. mistrust (Erickson)

0-1.5 / must develop sense of trust from interactions w/ loved ones and caregivers

Energy equivalence 1 GTP

1 ATP

Polycistronic mRNA

1 RNA molecule can code for more than 1 polypeptide

Bacteria genome

1 circular DNA molecule (chromosomal DNA) + any number of plasmids

Pleiotropy

1 gene that affects multiple different traits / ex: PKU = inborn error for metabolism caused by mutation of a single gene

Monocistronic mRNA

1 mRNA molecule codes for polypeptide

Protein folding

protein's primary structure and the environment it is in (polar vs nonpolar) determine what shape the protein will fold into

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

proteins found on surface of host cells that sample and display proteins (antigens) found w/in that cells / this antigen/MHC enables cells of the immune system to detect self vs. foreign cells

Native-PAGE

proteins separated by size in their native conformation

Repressors

proteins that bind to promoter region or the silencer regions of DNA and decrease rate of transcription / bind to operator regions of DNA and decreases transcription

Ion-exchange chromatography pH < PI

protonated; (+)

Economy

provides means for production/consumption, distributions of goods and services, and earning wages

Functions of religion

provides social support, creates social cohesion and sometimes dissent, serves as a form of social control, and provides an important form of socialization

Communism

public ownership of everything

Arteries

pump blood away from heart (normally carry oxygenated blood... except for pulmonary artery)

Ionization/auto-dissociation of water

pure water ionizes slightly / a fraction of H2O molecules dissociate into H+ and OH-, and the H+ immediately combines w/ another free H2O molecule forming H3O+

Energy equivalence 1 FADH2

1.5 ATP

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (Erickson)

1.5-3 / must develop a sense of autonomy over actions and independence

Net energetic results, per GLC: Glycolysis

2 ATP, 2 NADH (~ 7 ATP)

Net energetic results, per GLC: PDC

2 NADH (~ 5 ATP)

Portal system

2 capillary beds in sequence used for communication and transport / link btwn hypothalamus and pituitary gland

Centrosome

2 centrioles and other associated proteins (prepared to curate cell division)

Tetrad

2 chromosomes, each w/ 2 sister chromatids -> 4 total chromatids

Symbioses

2 organisms interacting closely / mutualism = +,+ (bird and alligator) / commensalism = +,0 / parasitism = +,- (mosquito and human)

Beta pleated sheet

2+ different segments of a polypeptide chain that align and H-bonds btwn adjacent strands form perpendicular to the length of the chain / aligned sheets are pleated at alpha C of the backbone / R groups jut out above and below the sheet / large aromatic residues and large alkyl residues favored

Energy equivalence 1 NADH

2.5 ATP

Net production from one turn / 1 pyruvate molecule of CAC

3 NADH, 1 FADH, 1 GTP, 2 CO2

Triplet code

3 base pairs code for a specific a.a. of the polypeptide

Codon

3 nucleotides of the mRNA / complementary to DNA template strand

Anticodon

3 nucleotides of the tRNA / complementary to the mRNA codon / anticodon in at the tip of the tRNA molecule and base pairs w/ mRNA

Psychoanalytic perspective of personality (Freud)

3 parts of personality = id, ego, superego

Semicircular canals

3 round, interconnected tubes that are oriented at right angles to each other / filled w/ endolymph / each canal contains a bundle of hair cells, which have their cilia embedded in a gelatinous cupula / certain body movements result in movement of the endolymph in a given direction, deflecting the cupula and bending the cilia w/in → impulse is sent to the brain / these detect rotational movement and acceleration of the head

Initiative vs. guilt (Erickson)

3-6 / must take initiative and learn to exert control over the environment / exploratory

Stability of Carbanions

3<2<1<methyl / more EWGs = more stable / more EDGs = less stable / resonance = more stable

Stability of Carbocations

3>2>1>methyl / more EDGs (alkyl groups) = more stable; more EWGs (EN atoms) = less stable / resonance = more stable

Cap and Tail

5' cap consisting of a methylated guanine is added / 3' poly-A tail consisting of multiple adenine nucleotides is added / both modifications increase the mRNA's stability and protect it from degradation in the cytoplasm

Racemic mixture

50:50 mixture of two enantiomers / optically inactive

Net production of CAC (per GLC molecule)

6 NADH, 2 FADH, 2 GTP, 4 CO2

Net energetic results, per GLC: CAC

6 NADH, 2 GTP, 2 FADH2 (~ 20 ATP)

Kohlberg: stages of moral development

6 stages of moral reasoning through which we develop / not all reach top stages, most only reach stage 4 or 5

Industry vs. inferiority (Erickson)

6-12 / develop competence in school and cope w/ new demands in academic setting

Average US lifespan

78

Weak base + weak acid =

??? → must compare dissociation constants to determine if acidic or basic / if A- is a stronger base than B+ is an acid = basic salt

Instrumental aggression

purpose to achieve/obtain some goal / planned, controlled, "cold-blooded"

Religiosity/devoutness

quality of being devoted to one's religion

Recombination frequency (Rf)

quantification of genetic linkage / likelihood of two genes being involved in a crossover event / larger Rf = further apart = more likely to crossover and independently assort / Rf = # of recombinant offspring / total # offspring

Relearning

quicker and requires less cognitive resources

Racial formation theory

racial categories seen as a social construct / each category has been defined by economic and political powers

Rxn Rate

rate of change of concentration of products or reactants

Aldosterone

reabsorb Na+, excrete K+ / stimulates kidney to reabsorb Na so that more water is retained (more concentrated urine) → raises BP

Loop of Henle (nephron)

reabsorption and secretion of water and salts occurs as tubule passes through concentration gradient of interstitial fluid / interstitial fluid at highest concentration in inner medulla (closer to bottom of loop)

Hemiacetal formed by

reacting an aldehyde or ketone w/ one equivalent alcohol plus acid

Acetal formed by

reacting an aldehyde or ketone w/ two equivalents alcohol plus acid / or by reacting a hemiacetal w/ one equivalent alcohol plus acid

Electronic effects

reactivity of acid derivative can be assessed by strength of LG / LG must take on a lone pair of e- and usually a negative charge / better LGs are those that can better take on those e- due to high EN or resonance stabilization

Frameshift

reading frame of the gene is changed so that all of downstream region of the gene will also be affected / the cat ran... tuh eca tra

Aging

recall generally declines / prospective memory declines / recognition generally stable

State-dependent learning

recall is better if individual is in the same internal state as when the memory was formed (usually referring to states of consciousness, such as caffeine versus no caffeine)

Context-dependent memory

recall is better if the individual is in the same context as they were when memory was encoded (ex. location)

Cognitive changes in elderly: decline

recall, episodic memory, working memory, processing speed and rxn time, ability to multitask (capacity for divided attention)

Wernicke's aphasia

receptive aphasia

NK cells

recognize and kill / recognize stress of cells but don't use specific markers

Hematocrit

red blood cells (erythrocytes) / 45% of blood volume

In PDC NAD+ is...

reduced

Respiratory alkalosis

reduced levels of CO2 in blood results in elevated pH / less CO2 = less H2CO3 → equilibrium shifts to left and H+ ion combine w/ HCO3- → increased pH / caused by hyperventilation

Hydride reduction of carbonyls

reduction of ketone forms secondary alcohol / reduction of aldehyde forms primary alcohol / reduction of aldehydes and ketones is most readily and commonly performed using a hydride ion

Secondary care

referrals to specialty care

Stages of motor development

reflexive movement (0-1) / rudimentary movement (0-2) / fundamental movement (2-7) / specialized movement (7-14) / application of movement (14+)

Nucleosome

region of DNA wrapped around a histone octamer (8 histone proteins) / histones have + charge to attract - charge DNA

Active site

region of enzyme that substrate binds to (forming the E-S complex) and where catalysis occurs / 3D shape at that region and chemical interactions from residues to the substrate enable the specificity to that substrate / proposes that enzymes and their substrates interact in a "lock and key" fashion → enzyme (lock) has a specific shape that only one substrate (key) will fit into

The islet of Langerhans

region of pancreas / has different cell types, each of which release a different hormone

Fovea

region of retina w/ highest visual acuity; high concentration of cones

Reticular activating system

region of the brainstem that mediates alertness and arousal / assessed by EEG

I band

region that contains thin filaments only / shrinks during contraction

Pupil

region through which light enters eye

Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) (nephron)

region where hormone controlled reabsorption occurs

Enhancers

regions of DNA that activator proteins can bind to / association increases rate of transcription usually at a position on the DNA molecule that is distant from the gene

Introns

regions of a gene that are transcribed but not translated / don't encode the protein

Exons

regions of a gene that encode the protein sequence (EXons are EXpressed)

Ribosome sites

regions of the ribosomal large subunit / tRNA moves from A -> P -> E site during protein synthesis

Tropic hormone

regulates release of other hormones

Enteric NS

regulation of digestive organs

Dalton's law

relates mole fractions and partial pressures to total pressure

Rxn quotient (Q)

relative ratio of P:R when rxn is not at equilibrium / comparing Q to K indicates what direction the rxn will proceed in order to reach equilibrium / Q > K - rxn moves in reverse direction / Q < K - rxn moves in the forward direction

Monocular cues

relative size, relative motion, motion parallax, perspective, interposition, texture gradient, light and shadows, etc.

R

relaxed state / high affinity for O2 / favored at high pO2 (in lungs)... facilitates O2 pick-up in lungs

Topoisomerase

relaxes DNA supercoils that accumulate due to unwinding

Pons

relay center for info / vital visceral motor functions

Thalamus

relay center of sensory info / attention

Medulla

relays sensory info / vital visceral motor functions

Alpha cells

release glucagon

Delta cells

release somatostatin

Leptin

released by adipose cells when excess fuel is present → decreases hunger / resistance in obesity

Ghrelin

released when hungry → increases hunger and prepares GI tract for food

ADH

released when osmolarity is high / results in increased water retention in kidneys → increased plasma volume and decreased blood osmolarity

Positron emission

relies on "weak force"

Fundamentalism

religion w/ a strict set of beliefs and practices that are well-integrated into the followers' daily lives / generally embraces a literal interpretations of the scripture

Modernization

religions can promote social changes or are forced to respond to social changes that occur alongside modernization / modernization and secularization go hand in hand

Sect

religious organization that is not part of mainstream society/culture / usually formed by breaking away from a large existing church to promote a more orthodox or distinct version of the religion / exclusive membership

Heterotroph

rely on organic nutrients made by autotrophs / consumers

NER and BER

remove bulky DNA lesions that are caused by UV radiation, chemicals, and other mutagens / prevent future error in next DNA replication / small region of DNA surrounding error is removed, DNA pol replaces the region, DNA ligase joins fragments

Negative punishment (operant conditioning)

remove desirable stimulus to decrease incorrect behavior

Negative reinforcement (operant conditioning)

remove undesired stimulus to increase correct behavior

Temporal summation

repeated inputs sent from a single neuron are summed

Classical conditioning

repeatedly pairing a stimulus that produces an innate/reflexive response w/ a neutral stimulus until the neutral stimulus also evokes that response on its own

Effective nuclear charge

represents the "charge" or amount of pull that an e- experiences due to the + nucleus

Gonads

reproductive organs that produce gametes (haploid germ cell; eggs and sperm) and sex hormones

Replication of viroid

require RNA poly / rolling circle replication mechanism

Aerobe

require oxygen to survive

F (fertility factor)

required for conjugation to occur / region of extrachromosomal DNA / pilus attachment and formation of the conjugation bridge, etc.

Monocyte

resident macrophages

Acid-base catalysis

residues of the enzyme participate in the reaction by donating or accepting hydrogens

Covalent catalysis

residues of the enzyme participate in the reaction by forming temporary covalent bonds w/ the substrate

Hallucinogens

result in hallucinations, changes in sensory perception, mood, thoughts / ex: LSD, shrooms, marijuana, PCP, ketamine

Depressants

result in reduced levels of arousal and mental/physical functioning / generally stimulate GABA (inhibitory) or inhibit glutamine (excitatory) / ex: alcohol, barbiturates, cannabis, opioids

Privilege

result of power and prestige / perks and special rights/advantages

Dipole moment

results from asymmetrical charge distribution

Punishment (operant conditioning)

results in decrease in frequency of behavior

Allosteric regulation (fast control)

results in enzyme inhibition when certain products of the pathways buildup or enzyme stimulation when reactants buildup / caused by specific substrates that act as allosteric regulators

Reinforcement (operant conditioning)

results in increase in frequency of behavior

Binocular cues

retinal disparity and convergence

Gluconeogenesis

reverse glycolysis... enzymes in reversible steps of glycolysis used in reverse in gluconeogenesis... irreversible steps of glycolysis require different enzymes / requires ATP / operates in liver and kidneys

Chirality when lowest priority group is solid...

reverse... CW = S, CCW = R

Fixed ratio (schedules of reinforcement)

reward given after a certain fixed number of instances of correct behavior / frequency of behavior increases as learner reaches end of each block of behavior

Variable ratio (schedules of reinforcement)

reward given after a randomly changing number of instances of the correct behavior / best and quickest way to reinforce new behavior

Fixed interval (schedules of reinforcement)

reward given after fixed interval of time / frequency of behavior increases as learner reaches end of each time interval

Variable interval (schedules of reinforcement)

reward given after variable interval of time

Dopamine

reward pathway, mood, control of movement

rRNA

ribosomal RNA: makes up ribosomes

RER

ribosomes associated w/ membrane (rough appearance) / translational and post-translational protein modification (ribosomes temporarily docked on membrane of RER) / ribosomes synthesize growing polypeptide into ER lumen

Bacillus

rod-shaped / generally very dangerous to humans

Oxytocin (posterior pituitary)

roles in social bonding and sexual behavior

R strain (Griffith)

rough / non-lethal

Autocracy

rule by one person

Meritocracy

rule by people based on merit

Aristocracy

rule by people born into ruling class

Oligarchy

rule by small select people

Democracy

rule by the people / representative / direct

Saponification

rxn in which triglycerides react w/ strong base to form soap / ester bond cleaved and fatty acids liberated → form a salt w/ cation → soap

Esterification

rxn of an acid and alcohol to produce an ester and water / involved in making triglycerides / carboxylic acid + alcohol → ester

Aldol condensation

rxn of enol/enolate ion w/ another C=O to form beta-hydroxy-aldehyde/ketone (aldol addition product / often product is dehydrated to form conjugated enone / enolate ion has a nucleophilic C / rxn must be acid or base catalyzed

Concentration of R increased

rxn will shift towards P (move in forward direction)

Concentration of P increased

rxn will shift towards R (move in reverse direction)

Zaitsev's rule

rxns favor the production of more substituted alkene

Alveoli

sacs where gas exchange occurs / O2 diffuses from the air into the blood (of capillaries that surround the alveoli) and CO2 diffuses from the blood into the air to be exhaled / walls are 1 cell layer thick

Homozygous

same alleles

Silent mutation

same amino acid will be translated despite a base pair error / usually in third base pair

Constitutional/structural isomers

same molecular formula, diff bond connectivity

Heinz's Dilemma

save wife and steal medicine, or don't steal medicine

Parietal cells (stomach)

secrete HCl, which activates pepsin and destroys pathogens

G cells (stomach)

secrete gastrin (peptide hormone that triggers parietal cells to secrete HCl)

Mucus / Goblet cells (stomach)

secrete mucus lining of the stomach

Chief cells (stomach)

secrete pepsinogen

Proteins made in RER will be...

secreted by cell, become part of plasma membrane, used in endomembrane system

Secretin

secreted by small intestine / stimulus = duodenum in response to acidic chyme / target organ = pancreas / response = secretion of alkaline, digestive pro-enzyme, inhibits intestinal motility

Cholecystokinin

secreted by small intestine / stimulus = intestinal cells in response to food / target organ = pancreas, gallbladder / response = secretion of proenzymes and bile

Gastrin

secreted by stomach mucosa / stimulus = stomach in response to food / targe organ = stomach, small intestine / response = release of HCl, increase of intestine movement, release of pepsinogen

Cooley's looking glass self

self identity determined largely by our interactions w/ others and how we think others perceive us

"SEVEn UP" (path of sperm during ejaculation)

seminiferous tubules → epididymis → vas deferens → ejaculatory duct → urethra → penis

Function of neurons

send and receive signals and interact w/ each other in neural networks to coordinate how body functions

Mechanoreceptors

sense a mechanical disturbance, such as stretching or compression / Pacinian corpuscles, Ruffini endings/corpuscles, and Meissner's corpuscles in skin / auditory and vestibular hair cells

Somatosensation

sense of touch, pain, and temperature at the surface of the body

Nociceptors

sense pain / found in skin and throughout most body tissues

Baroreceptors

sense pressure / found in the aortic arch and sense arterial pressure

Thermoreceptors

sense temp (cold or hot) / found in skin

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

Afferent nerves

sensory = carry sensory signals from resto of body to CNS

Polysynaptic reflex

sensory neuron → interneuron(s) → motor neuron

Monosynaptic reflex

sensory neuron → motor neuron

Liquid-liquid extraction

separate a liquid mixture by distributing its components btwn two immiscible solvents

Distillation

separate liquids based on boiling point (requires much more liquid than gas chrom) / lower BPs (weaker IMF) evaporate more quickly and collected first

TLC

separate out pigments of a mixture / mainly analytical (separated pigments can't be collected/recovered)

Size exclusion chromatography

separates molecules / larger proteins elute out first (go straight through) / smaller proteins enter all holes/tubes and take longer

Column chromatography

separates out components of a liquid mixture / mainly separation

HPLC

separates out, quantifies, and often identifies components of a liquid mixture / mainly analytical and separation

Affinity chromatography

separates specific proteins / based on attraction btwn protein and specific ligand/substrate (antigen or antibody)

Complete dominance

AA and Aa organisms both show dominant phenotype

Components of attitude

ABC / affective, behavioral, cognitive

Saltatory conduction

AP "jumps" from node to node down length of axon

Secondary active transport

ATP used to create an electrochemical gradient -> energy of releasing that gradient is harnessed to pump different solute particle against its gradient

Expected phenotypic ratios from cross btwn two heterozygotes (1 gene)

Aa x Aa -> ? / complete dominance -> 3:1 / lethal recessive allele -> 2:1 (aa is lethal) / codominance and incomplete dominance -> 1:2:1

Expected phenotypic ratios from cross btwn two double heterozygotes (2 genes)

AaBb x AaBb -> ? / complete dominance -> 9:3:3:1 / recessive epistasis -> 9:3:4 (aa for gene 1 is dominant over gene 2) / dominant epistasis -> 12:3:1 (A- for gene 1 is dominant over gene 2)

Ion-exchange chromatography

separation of ionic molecules

Primary structure

sequence of covalently linked a.a. in polypeptide chain / held together by peptide bonds / only broken by hydrolysis rxn requiring catalysis / proteases degrade peptide bonds / determined by DNA sequence of gene

Antisocial

serious behavior issues / no remorse or guilt / poor impulse control / disregard of others (limited empathy)

Self schema

set of memories and categorizations that guide our self-identity / concept

Freud: psychosexual stages of development

sexuality (driven by libido of id) and unconscious desires/thoughts largely determine our personal development / 5 stages / failing to overcome any stage results in behaviors of fixation

Erickson: psychosocial stages of development

sexuality and social interactions largely determine our development / 8 stages - each stage has a conflict that must be overcome

Behavioral component of reciprocal determinism (Albert Bandura)

shaped by observational learning, operant conditioning, classical conditioning

Popular culture

shared by the masses

Menstruation

shedding of the endometrium (bleeding) / occurs once per month

Urbanization

shift in an area from being rural to becoming more urban

Increase pressure / decrease volume

shifts to side w/ less moles of gas (trying to reestablish Keq ratio of partial pressures)

Decrease pressure / increase volume

shifts to side w/ more moles of gas

Absorption spectrum

shine light through a substance and it will absorb certain specific frequencies (or colors) of that light / visualized as dark bands on a rainbow spectrum / the dark bands show which frequencies of light were absorbed / what frequencies of light does a substance absorb

Duodenum

short frontal region that receives chyme and secretions of pancreatic juice and bile / enzymes enable digestion of nutrients and bicarbonate neutralizes the chyme

Paracrine signaling

signal affects cell nearby cell that secreted it

Autocrine signaling

signal affects same cell type as one that secreted it

Hormone

signaling molecule travels in blood to reach distant target organ, where it causes response / produced by glands / involved in a bunch of feedback loops / regulate metabolism, behavior, growth, mood, digestion, sleep, etc. / slower to act but longer-acting than neurotransmitters / have high specificity for target organ

Endocrine signaling

signals produced in glands and released into bloodstream

Exocrine signaling

signals produced in glands and released into ducts

Normal phase HPLC stationary phase

silica particles (polar)

Analogous structures

similar traits not due to common ancestry but due to adaptation to similar environment / convergent evolution

Bohr atom

simplified model of an atom in which electrons orbit nucleus in circular paths / distance of e- from nucleus is related to energy of the e- (further away = higher energy e-; because negative e- want to be close to +ly charged nucleus) / transitions btwn energy levels are accompanied by an input of energy (if e- goes to higher energy level) or release of energy (if e- goes to lower energy level)

Sigma bond

single covalent bond / end-to-end overlap of electron orbitals / stronger than pi bonds / double bond = sigma and pi bond

Spearman theory of intelligence

single general intelligence, that could be quantified

Gram positive

single lipid bilayer surrounded by cell wall / staining color = violet / produces mainly exotoxins (diffuse into surroundings)

miRNA

single stranded RNA molecules that are complementary to the mRNA molecule, bind to it, and result in its degradation

Capillaries

site of gas exchange in body

Secondary traits (Allport)

situational traits / specific circumstances

Size exclusion chromatography basis of separation

size

Weber's law

size of JND is a constant proportion of the original stimulus value

Atomic radius

size of the atom / depends on number of e- shells as well as how much the + nucleus pulls on those e- (increased pull on e- → decreased radius) / across row/period = radius decreases / down column/group = radius increases

Genome

small circular extra-genomic DNA molecule / can provide advantages such as antibiotic resistance / shared btwn bacteria via conjugation / contain genes that may benefit the organism / can replicated independently from the chromosomal DNA

Primary group

small group comprised of intimate and long-lasting relationships / constantly interact w/ each other; key part of individual's identity

snRNA

small nuclear RNA: used in RNA processing

snRNPs

small nuclear ribonucleoproteins / RNA-protein complexes (snRNP = RNA + proteins) / form the spliceosome

Pili

small protrusions from the cell / enable bacterial conjugation = two cells attach to each other and form a bridge to transfer genetic material (via plasmids)

Prokaryotic initiation (translation)

small ribosomal subunit plus IF bind to mRNA at Shine-Dalgarno sequence -> initiator tRNA joins (bonding to AUG start codon) w/ another IF -> large subunit joins / initiator tRNA has slightly modified methionine (fMet)

Prokaryotic ribosomes

small subunit = Kozak sequence / sedimentation sequences = 30S small subunit, 50S large subunit, 70S combined, complete ribosome

Eukaryotic ribosomes

small subunit = Shine-Dalgarno sequence / sedimentation sequences = 40S small subunit, 60S large subunit, 80S combined, complete ribosome

Bacteria size

smaller than eukaryotic cells... about same size as eukaryotic organelles

Arterioles

smaller version of artery / highly involved in vasoconstriction -- control blood flow into capillary beds

Venule

smaller version of vein

S strain (Griffith)

smooth / lethal

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

smooth ER of muscle cells (myocytes) that stores / stores and secretes Ca2+

Mores

social norms that are morally significant / prescribe right vs. wrong

Networks

social ties and relationships btwn people

Anomie

society in which there is little mora/ethical guidance of behavior

Labelling theory of deviance

society largely creates deviance by arbitrarily labelling certain behaviors as such and by negatively labelling and stereotyping minority groups; majority group in society contributes to stereotyping, stigmatizing, and self-fulfilling prophecies in individuals from minority groups

Socialism

society owns and operates

George Herbert Mead (symbolic interactionism)

sociologist largely credited w/ symbolic interactionism / formulated dramaturgical approach; argues that "self" is a social product

Babinski reflex

sole of foot stroked → big toe curls up and others splay outward

Column chromatography stationary phase

solid substance (often polar silica gel)

Common ion effect

solubility of a partially soluble salt will decrease if there is a "common ion" (ion that salt will dissolve into) present in the solution / does NOT suggest that Ksp changes

Solution

solute dissolved into solvent / if solvent = water, aqueous solution / favorable for solute to dissolve if IMF formed btwn solute and solvent particles are overall stronger than those being broken (btwn solute molecules)

Simple diffusion

solute particle diffuses across membrane w/o requiring helper protein / solute is small and hydrophobic

Amphoteric

solution that can act as an acid or a base / bicarbonate

Normal phase HPLC mobile phase

solvent (nonpolar)

Column chromatography mobile phase

solvent that the mixture is dissolved into / usually nonpolar, in which case nonpolar substances will come out first

Types somatic symptom and related disorders

somatic symptom disorder, illness anxiety disorder, conversion disorder, factitious disorder

Collecting duct

some reabsorption of H2O and of urea (to maintain high concentration of solutes in interstitial)

Sleep disorders

somnipathy / parasomnia (abnormal sleeping), insomnia (difficulty sleeping), sleep apnea (breathing), narcolepsy (excessive sleeping)

2 e- groups

sp hybridized

3 e- groups

sp2 hybridized

4 e- groups

sp3 hybridized

Ring strain

sp3carbon atoms are tetrahedral therefore prefer to have a bond angle of 109.5 / in a ring structure, the bond angle between attached carbons is often significantly below 109.5 -> destabilizing / smaller rings have high ring strain / forced to have a bond angle less than what is most favorable

A band

spans full of thick filaments / contains both thin and thick filaments

Node

specialized region of cardiac muscle cells that can generate electrical impulse

Neural plate

specialized region of ectoderm / invaginates, forming neural folds

Divergent evolution

species w/ common ancestor diverge away from each other over time (accumulate differences)

Mutarotation

spontaneous conversion btwn two anomeric forms of a sugar / an equilibrium exists btwn the two forms

Radioactive decay

spontaneous process by which an unstable nucleus emits particles and/or energy from the nucleus / unstable parent atom/isotope → daughter atom/isotope

Epithelial tissue

squamous cells, cuboidal cells, columnar cells / simple or stratified / lines surface of body cavities

Types of natural selection

stabilizing selection / directional selection / diversifying selection / disruptive selection / sexual selection / kin selection

Traits (trait perspective of personality)

stable dispositions that vary across individuals / ex: five factor model

Action potential pathway in heart

starts in SA node → spread throughout atria and atria contract → signal spreads to AV node after slight delay → signal spread from AV node to Bundle of His and Purkinje fibers causing ventricles to contract

Starvation state regulation

starvation state → low BGL → glycogenolysis in liver raises BGL and sending out GLC / some gluconeogenesis to produce GLC and raise BGL

Master status

status that the individual feels is most important/influential to them

Chiral carbon

stereocenter = carbon atom that is sp3 hybridized and has 4 different atoms/groups attached to it

Anomers

stereocenter that differs is the anomeric C (attached to OH group and O in ring)

Hydrophobic hormones

steroid hormone / made from cholesterol in smooth ER / regulate gene expression / slower to act but longer acting / diffuse through plasma membranes / bind in cytoplasm or nucleus / cortisol, aldosterone, testosterone, progesterone, estrogen

Capsule

sticky layer of gelatin surrounding bacterial cell / virulence factor because it prevents host eukaryotic cell from engulfing bacteria

Negative impacts of medicalization

stigma and labelling, may impact individual's identity, over-diagnosis, overlooking social contributions, etc.

Stimulants

stimulate the sympathetic NS / often increase catecholamine levels in the synapse (dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine) / ex: caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamine

Fatty acid / beta ox and synthesis

stimulated by ADP / inhibited by high levels of ATP / occurs when insulin is low and glucagon is high / high levels of ATP and NADPH → acetyl CoA molecules go into fatty acid synthesis / stimulated by insulin

Growth hormone (anterior pituitary)

stimulates cell growth and division

Insulin

stimulates cells to uptake GLC and store as fat or glycogen to decrease BGL / released after a meal when BGL spikes

Estrogen (ovaries)

stimulates development of female sexual characteristics and behavior... builds up endometrium

Testosterone (testes)

stimulates development of male sexual characteristics and behavior / stimulates spermatogenesis / will inhibit GnRH and FSH and LH

Glucagon

stimulates glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and inhibits GLC uptake by cells to increase BGL / released when BGL low / "glucose-gone"

ADH/ (posterior pituitary)

stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys to increase blood volume and therefore increase BP

Secondary (conditioned) reinforcement

stimuli must have been conditioned at some point seen as desirable to learner

Action potential process

stimuli received at dendrites of neuron and result in either excitation (EPSP) or inhibition (IPSP) / effects of multiple concurrent inputs are summed together in soma (axon hillock) and result in net depolarization or hyperpolarization that determines cell's response → cell responds by firing action potential if threshold is reached or is temporarily inhibited from firing / AP is all-or-none even / intensity of signal coded by frequency of AP firing

Retrieval cues

stimuli that facilitate retrieval of a memory / priming, encoding specificity principle, emotion and retrieval, serial position effect

Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)

stimulus = intestinal cells in response to fat / target organ = stomach, pancreas / response = insulin secretion, inhibits gastric secretion and motility

Positive (operant conditioning)

stimulus added

Negative (operant conditioning)

stimulus removed

Generalization (classical conditioning)

stimulus similar to CS can also elicit CR

Singer Schachter (theories of emotion)

stimulus → physiological changes → cognitive interpretation of physiological changes, using context and reasoning → conscious feeling of emotion

Termination (translation)

stop codon enters A site causing release factor (RF) proteins to join the complex at P site / bond btwn last tRNA and peptide chain is cleaved, releasing the protein / GTP and other proteins allow the entire complex to dissociate

Long-term fasted state

stored glycogen runs out in less than 24 hours / gluconeogenesis must run in order to create new GLC

Regulation

strength of the association btwn RNA pol and the promoter affects the transcription rate / if RNA pol has stronger affinity for the promoter -> higher transcription rate

Distress

stress perceived as negative

Eustress

stress perceived as positive

Rooting reflex

stroke/touch baby's mouth → baby will turn towards object / helps w/ breastfeeding

Neutralization rxn

strong acid and strong base react to form a neutral salt plus water

Authoritarian/totalitarian

strong central power enforces strict control over people / limited freedom

Biological basis of Schizophrenia

strong genetic basis, traditional dopamine hypothesis (too much dopamine), newer glutamate hypothesis (abnormal glutamate signaling and NMDA activation), enlarged ventricles in brain

Strong nuclear force

strongest of nature's four basic forces / overcomes repulsion

Roles of cytoskeleton

structural support, cell movement, transport

Placenta

structure that lines uterine wall and supports the fetus → delivers nutrients and oxygen, enables waste elimination and gas exchange, and more

Homologous structures

structures that appear in diff animals due to shared common ancestry / has often been adapted to a diff purpose / divergent evolution

Social epidemiology

studies impact of social, cultural, and economic factors on one's health

Behaviorist perspective of personality

study only observable behavior / personality is sum of behavioral tendencies / behaviors are learned through environment / begin as blank state

Surfactant

substance that decreases surface tension of a liquid

Exponential decay

substance undergoes decay if rate at which it decays is directly proportional to amount present at that time

Endocytosis

substances taken into cell when part of plasma membrane invaginates, forming vesicle that is then released into cell / particles enter cell

Uncouplers

substances that allow H+ ions through the mitochondrial inner-membrane... diffusing the proton gradient but not harnessing energy to make ATP

Random genetic drift

sudden change in allele frequencies due to chance alone

Spontaneous recovery (classical conditioning)

sudden reappearance of previously-conditioned response that had gone extinct / conditioning → extinction → rest period → spontaneous recovery

MRI

superior to CAT / magnetic field / structural

Bronchi (2)

supply each lung with air / branch repeatedly into smaller tubes called bronchioles / bronchioles terminate in alveoli

Intermediate filaments function

supports overall cell shape and structure / bears tension / cell-to-cell adhesion

Bowman's capsule (nephron)

surrounds glomerulus and captures filtered blood plasma

Paranoid

suspicious of people / paranoid / hypersensitive

Chirality when lowest priority is planar...

switch group of dashed wedge w/ lowest priority group... CW = S, CCW = R

Theories of microsociology

symbolic interactionism, rational choice / exchange theory

Key diagnostic criteria for psychological disorders

symptom type, severity, frequency, and interference w/ daily function

Bipolar and related disorders

symptoms of mania and of depression to differing extents

Eukaryotic initiation (translation)

tRNA, small ribosomal subunit and other initiator proteins (eIF) associate a 5' end of mRNA (Kozak sequence recognized) -> scan for start codon (AUG) -> large ribosomal subunit joins

Non-associative learning

takes place in CNS / not same as sensory adaptation

Psychoanalytic therapy

talk therapy, dream analysis / make unconscious desires and repressed memories known / free association

Base peak

tallest peak on spectrum which represents the most abundant fragment/species

Taste (Gustation)

taste receptors are chemoreceptors that bind to chemicals from food / receptors detect a specific taste: sour, sweet, salty, bitter, or umami / bitter, sweet, and umami receptors use a GPCR signal transduction mechanism / salty and sour receptors have ion channels

Globalization: Contributing factors

tech advancement, expanded global trade, rapid global transport, development of multinational companies, mobility of labor and outsourcing, increasing economic interdependence, expanded role of NGOs (ex: UN)

NMR spectroscopy

technique that assesses the magnetic properties of the nuclei of specific elements

Resolution

technique used to separate a racemic mixture into its two constituent enantiomers / turn two enantiomers into diastereomers, separate them, turn them back into enantiomers / racemic mixture + resolving agent -> mixture of diastereomers -> separate diastereomers by physical properties -> remove resolving agent and turn each diastereomer back into original enantiomer

Wernicke's area

temporal lobe of dominant hemisphere / controls comprehension of speech and written language

Group polarization

tendency of groups to make decisions that are more extreme than they would have been if each individual answered alone

Mcdonaldization

tendency of society to shift towards and adopt the operating principles of a fast-food restaurant → embracing efficiency, calculability, standardized and predictable services, replacement of human labor with technology

Actor/observer bias

tendency to attribute our own behavior to the situation (external causes), and other people's behavior to their disposition/personality (internal causes)

Just-world fallacy

tendency to believe that the world is fair and people will get what they deserve

Fundamental attribution error

tendency to explain other people's behavior as caused by their personality (internal causes) as opposed to the environment / often place undue emphasis on internal factors as the cause of a situation

Halo effect

tendency to let a certain dominant impression of an individual influence our perception of their character and behavior

Hindsight bias

tendency to retrospectively overestimate their ability to have predicted a situation ("I knew it all along")

T

tense state; low affinity for O2 / favored at low pO2 (in tissues)... facilitates O2 drop-off in tissues / favored by high CO2, low pH, high temp, high 2,3-BPG

Terpenoid

terpene w/ additional functional groups

Texture gradient

texture more clear on closer objects

Forebrain

thalamus, hypothalamus, cortex, and parts of the limbic system

Educational stratification/segregation

the academic achievement of students depends extensively on their social background

RNA processing

the addition of a 5' cap and 3' tail is a modification that increases the stability of the RNA, making it last longer in the cytosol and therefore enabling it to be translated an increased number of times / in eukaryotes, transcription produces hnRNA (pre-mRNA), which must be further processed to form mRNA / occurs in nucleus / mature mRNA exits nucleus to be translated

Methylation/demethylation

the addition of a methyl group to histone proteins can result in the repression OR activation of transcription, depending on the location of methylation

Acetylation/deacetylation

the addition of an acetyl group to histone proteins causes the DNA to be more transcriptionally active

Henry's law

the amount of gas that can dissolve into a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and the solubility of the gas / high partial pressure O2 in the alveoli = more O2 that dissolves into capillaries

Gas chromatography basis of separation

BP

Hybridization (chemistry)

the hybridization of each atom in a given molecule / which bonds are formed from which orbitals (hybridized or unhybridized) / the resultant (molecular) geometry of a molecule / name of the geometry and bond angles

Zymogen

the inactive form of an enzyme which must be modified in some way (usually be cleavage of some region of the zymogen) in order to perform its bio function / prevents enzymes from doing damage by performing their function at the wrong time/place

Peer pressure

the influence of peers on an individual → coerces the individual to behave like his/her peers in order to fit in

Sound intensity

the larger the intensity, the larger the amplitude of the wave

Framing

the manner in which a situation is presented affects the decision

Perception

the process of becoming aware of, organizing, and interpreting sensory info

Law of mass action

the rate of a rxn is only dependent on the concentration of the pertinent species (usually just the reactants) / also says that for a rxn in equilibrium, the ratio of products: reactants is constant

Degenerate

the triplet code is degenerate (redundant) bc multiple codons often code for the same amino acid

Gardner theory of intelligence

theory of multiple intelligences / 8 different ones / "you can't judge a person by a single number, everyone's a winner and has different strengths"

Broadbent's Filter Model

theory proposes that the inputs are filtered at a very early stage of processing → only the attended ear passes the selective filter, others blocked / only the attended input makes it to higher level processing (interpreting the meaning) / can't explain the Cocktail Party Effect or priming / PIC

Treisman's Attenuation Model

theory proposes that, the unattended input(s) are not fully eliminated from higher level processing but are attenuated ("turned down") / it is assigned less attentional/cognitive resources but still processed at some level / can explain the cocktail party effect → some key words or phrases only need a small amount of processing to be picked up as important and consciously noticed / PIC

Persuasion: elaboration likelihood model

theory to describe how attitudes are formed, how attitude change occurs, and how persuasion can be effectively used to influence how others think and/or behave

Reciprocal determinism (Albert Bandura)

there are reciprocal interactions btwn environmental/social factors, personal factors, and behavior / behavior is determined by personal, and environmental factors, but also shapes them

Natural selection

there is variation and traits are heritable in a pop / phenotypes that = more offspring = higher fitness = more passed down

Stage 1

theta waves / very light sleep

Dermis

thick layer of connective tissue below dermis that cushions the body / connective tissue full of collagen and elastic fibers which provide structural support and elasticity

Ventricle

thicker and more muscular than the heart -- must send blood through pulmonary or systemic circulation at high pressure / ventricular pressure higher than arterial; L ventricle thicker/more muscular than R

Redox rxns

those in which there's a transfer of e-

Weber (conflict theory)

thought there was more than one source of ongoing conflict and assessed the diversity of rxns to inequality / did not think capitalism was doomed to collapse

Beck's cognitive triad

three key belief systems involved in depression = negative views about self, world, future / CBT aims to target and change these maladaptive beliefs and the associated behaviors

Systemic circulation

through entire body and brain / blood passes through pulmonary circulation then through one capillary bed of systemic circulation / exception: portal systems - 2 consecutive capillary beds / hypothalamus-pituitary and hepatic portal systems

Pulmonary circulation

through lungs

M line

through middle of sarcomere, only ever contains thick filaments

Osmoregulation

through reabsorption and excretion, the kidneys modulate ion concentrations in the blood

Thyroid

thyroid hormone = important for growth... increase metabolism and raise body temp... will inhibit TRH and TSH / calcitonin = lowers Ca in blood by stimulating osteoblasts to use Ca in production of new bone and kidneys to secrete excess Ca in urine

Half-life (T ½)

time it takes for ½ of sample of radioactive material to undergo decay

Equivalence point

titrant has converted ALL unknown compound into its conjugate

DNA Hybridization/Annealing

to complementary single strands of DNA (or RNA) come together and bind via H-bonds between the complementary bases / spontaneous

Le Chatelier's principle

too much bicarbonate leads to an increase in pH; to little bicarbonate leads to drop in pH

Hyperthyroidism

too much thyroid hormone / excessively rapid metabolic rate

Hess's law

total enthalpy change for multi-step rxn is sum of all enthalpy changes of each individual rxn/step

Ideal gases

total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to sum of all partial pressures

Antigen

toxin or any foreign substance

Bundles of CNS axons

tracts

Folkway

traditional behavior for casual day-to-day interactions / not following them is considered rude

Traditional economy

traditional economic system based on customs/traditions

How well someone can multitask depends on

training/practice, complexity, task similarity

Polygenic trait

trait controlled by 2+ diff genes / ex: height

Specialization

traits become more specialized as organisms occupy a particular environment/niche

tRNA

transfer RNA: facilitates the conversion from mRNA → polypeptide chain by carrying and linking a.a.

Culture transmission

transfer of elements of culture from one generation to next

Radiation

transfer of energy in electromagnetic waves that radiate away from the object

Griffith

transformation / conclusion = S strain somehow conferred virulence to R strain... R strain transformed

Exceptions to valence shells being filled

transition metals lose e- from s-subshell before d-subshell / some transition metals can achieve higher stability by promoting an e- in order to achieve a half filled (5e-) or fully filled (10e-) d-subshell

Channel protein

transmembrane protein w/ tunnel through middle that selectively allows solute particles to pass through based on size/charge

Primary active transport

transport of particle directly coupled to ATP hydrolysis

Sternberg theory of intelligence

triarchic theory of intelligence / intelligence is more broad than a single factor, but Gardner included a little too much (some of which Sternberg viewed more as hobbies and activities)

FSH and LH (role in ovulation)

trigger ovary to secrete steroid hormones (estrogen and progesterone) / E and P maintain the endometrium and are important in feedback on LH and FSH

ACTH (anterior pituitary)

triggers adrenal cortex to release cortisol

CRF (hypothalamus)

triggers anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH

TRH (hypothalamus)

triggers anterior pituitary to secrete TSH

TSH (anterior pituitary)

triggers release of TH from thyroid glands

Proteases

trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen

Collecting duct (nephron)

tube that DCTs drain into / more hormone-controlled reabsorption / fluid from here eventually drains into ureter

Diaphysis

tubular middle portion / mainly compact bone / cavity in middle filled w/ yellow bone marrow

Fallopian tubes

tunnel through which ovum is transferred from ovaries to uterus / fertilization occurs here

Hybridization (biology)

two individuals from distinct populations breed... may or may not produce viable offspring

Law of effect

underlies principles of operant conditioning / behaviors that result in desirable outcome will increase in frequency and behaviors that result in an undesirable outcome will decrease in frequency

Cultural relativism

understanding that people must be understood w/ respect to and regard for that person's culture / no culture is right/superior, all are worthy in their own right

Social norms

understandings that guide appropriate behavior in a society / guide behavior for specific instances

Discrimination

unfair and unjust treatment of an individual on basis of social characteristics such as race/ethnicity, gender, religion, SES, disability, etc. / acting on prejudiced beliefs; power, prestige, and class

Sn1

unimolecular / two steps / forms R and S enantiomers / stability of carbocation intermediate determines rate of rxn

Latent functions

unintended and less recognizable functions of a structure

Freudian slip

unintentional error in speech... reveals unconscious thoughts/desires

Irregular bones

unique and irregular shapes → vertebra

Mole

unit used to discuss quantity of a substance that's made up of many individual repeating particles

Instinct

unlearned and innate behaviors due to our bio programming

LTM

unlimited capacity / explicit/declarative / implicit/nondeclarative

Drive reduction theory of motivation

unmet need(s) → state of tension/discomfort and drive to reduce the feeling → actions are performed that meet the need(s)

More fluid bilayer

unsaturated and shorter fatty acids

Borderline

unstable mood / extreme vacillations in emotion / self destructive, impulsive, and reactive / often self-harm

DNA Helicase

unwinds parent DNA strands

Anaerobe

use fermentation or anaerobic respiration

Gene cloning

use machinery of bacteria to clone the gene / put gene into bacterial plasmid using restriction enzymes followed by DNA ligase / when it replicates that plasmid, bacteria will inadvertently replicate the inserted gene

Coefficient of thermal expansion

used to describe how size of object changes w/ changes in temp

Southern blot

used to detect certain fragment of DNA from sample

Northern blot

used to detect certain fragment of RNA from sample

Western blot

used to detect certain fragment of protein from sample

Testcross

used to determine if individual w/ dominant phenotype is homozygous (AA) or heterozygous (Aa) / cross individual w/ homozygous recessive ind (aa) -> assess offspring / if any recessive inds in offspring (aa), then ind in question must be heterozygous (Aa)

UV-visible spectroscopy

used to determine wavelength of light absorbed by a compound; similar to IR / measuring absorbance of light w/in UV and visible spectrums / compounds w/ extensive conjugation usually absorb w/in visible spectrum / compound is colored if there is a smaller energy gap btwn its ground and its excited state

IR spectroscopy

used to determine which functional groups are present in a molecule / certain bonds vibrate at certain frequencies and absorb those specific frequencies of light

Mercury barometer

used to measure atmospheric pressure / height of column = air pressure

HPLC area under peaks

used to quantify amount of each component present in mixture

Simple distillation

used to separate components that have > 15 degree difference in BPS or to separate a liquid out from other impurities

Factional distillation

used to separate components w/ smaller differences in BPs / long "fractioning column" above mixture enables better separation of components bc more condensation-evaporation cycles

Gel electrophoresis

used to separate macromolecules (DNA, RNA, proteins) by size and charge / macromolecules migrate through gel

Isoelectric focusing

used to separate proteins based on pI

PPP

uses GLC-6P as a substrate to make NADPH, ribose-5P, and other pentoses / occurs in cytosol / doesn't use ATP / flexible / oxidative and non-oxidative phase

X-ray diffraction

uses radiation from X-ray portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to create 2D interference patterns / this info can be used to determine the chemical composition of the compounds through which the X-ray radiation was passed

PET scan

uses radioactive tracer / info about activity and functioning of brain

Availability heuristic

using examples that are most readily recalled to you in order to evaluate a situation or solve a problem

Game theory

using models to study choice, cooperation, and conflict in rational decision-makers / choices involve a cost-benefit analysis / rational choice theory proposes that inds make choices to maximize gains and minimize losses / "Zero-sum game" → loss for one person results in gain for other individual

Bottom-up processing

using the sensory info to compile a cohesive understanding of the whole / "data-driven"

Intrapleural pressure

usually less than atmospheric pressure → negative pressure keeps the two pleura stuck to each other and keeps the lungs from collapsing inward

TLC mobile phase

usually nonpolar / nonpolar compounds move further up plate (higher Rf) / may have to add different mobile phases in a sequence of increasing/decreasing polarity

RNA structure

usually single stranded; may be wound up, twisted, and uniquely folded due to IMF / has 2' OH unlike DNA... makes it less stable due to intramolecular nucleophilic attack... more likely to be cleaved by itself

Genomic library function

usually used to determine or analyze the sequence an organism's entire genome

Extraction

usually uses solvents differing in polarity to create one aqueous phase (polar) and one organic phase (nonpolar)

Steps of coagulation

vasoconstriction of smooth muscle surrounding vessel - reduces blood flow through damaged vessel / platelets aggregate and form plug / coagulation cascade = clotting factors become activated in a cascade, ultimately resulting in fibrinogen becoming fibrin and forming a fibrin mesh

Thermoregulation by circulatory system

vasoconstriction of vessels near skin when cold to avoid heat loss / vasodilation of vessels near skin when hot to get rid of excess heat

Isotopes

versions of an element / same number of protons, different numbers of neutrons / mass number noted below each element on periodic table is weighted average of all naturally occurring isotopes of that element / generally have similar chemical properties but differing stabilities

Symbolic interactionism

views society as accumulation of everyday interactions and individual perceptions / analyzes the subjective meaning that people assign to objects, interactions, and behaviors → these subjective meanings influence how people think, behave, and interact w/ others in society / society and culture constructed through these symbolic interpretations, which are negotiated, modified, and transmitted / language and communication used to generate and transmit these interpretations

Transduction

virus (bacteriophage) latches onto bacteria and injects genetic material into cell

Pyrimidines

C, U, and T

Viral life cycle (general)

virus attaches to cell (absorption) and penetrates cell wall if present → enters cell by endocytosis or injects viral genome into cell, leaving capsid outside → uses host cell's machinery, building blocks, and energy to replicate viral genome and synthesize viral proteins → proteins and viral genetic material associate, forming many viral progeny

Virus size

viruses are hundreds of times smaller than prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Iconic memory

visual info

Occipital lobe

visual processing

Membrane potential

voltage across cell membrane / on average btwn -40 and -80 mV / resting = -70 mV

Somatic NS

voluntary control of skeletal muscles of body / acetylcholine = neurotransmitter

Skeletal muscle

voluntary movements / controlled by somatic NS / striated / long, cylindrical, a true syncytium (multinucleated cell); use troponin + tropomyosin / found throughout body, often attached to bones

Hershey and Chase

wanted to verify that DNA is transforming agent conferring virulence / conclusion = DNA is the genetic material of the phage

Plasma

water + solutes + proteins / 55% of blood volume

Gas chromatography stationary phase

wax-like liquid absorbent packed into column (not necessary)

Strain theory of deviance

way society is set up results in strain btwn culturally define norms and the acceptable methods to achieve certain goals

Incentive theory of motivation

we are motivated by the presence of extrinsic motivators

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

we are motivated to behave in certain ways in order to take care of our needs (which are hierarchically organized) / fulfillment of self-actualization needs = personal development

Arousal (motivation)

we are motivated to perform certain actions in order to reach an optimum state of arousal

Drive

we are motivated to reduce internal tension/discomfort that results from unmet physiological needs such as hunger, fatigue, etc.

Attentional spotlight

we focus our visual attention on a specific area, like shining a spotlight on it / visual stimuli in areas directly surrounding the spotlight are slightly attended to, but are a lower resolution

Observational learning underlies our identity

we learn right vs wrong from others / we mimic behavior of those we spend extensive time with / environment we are raised in shapes our values, attitudes, and personality

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (Whorfianism)

we understand and interpret the world through language / linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity

Buffer

weak acid and base conjugates together in solution / best buffer system has a 1:1 ratio of HA:A-

Hydrophobic interactions

weak individually but present in such high quantity that they contribute immensely to overall structure and stability of a folded protein / main force driving folding of a protein / maximizes the entropy of the folded protein / enables water molecules to engage in a maximum amount of highly dynamic and disordered H-bonds

Well-fed state regulation

well-fed state → high BGL → cells uptake GLC / glycolysis, CAC, oxidative phosphorylation stimulated to make ATP / glycogenesis occurs / high ATP and NADPH enables fatty acid synthesis

Corpus luteum

what the follicle becomes after ovulation / secretes E and P

Cognitive dissonance theory

when an ind. holds concurrent contradictory beliefs/attitudes, when their beliefs and behaviors are contradictory, or when they are confronted w/ new info that contradicts their existing beliefs / results in discomfort... ind. strives to re-achieve consistency by changing his/her belief, behavior, attitude, or perception of the behavior / often results in attitude changing to match behavior or vice versa

Stereotype threat

when an individual is in a situation in which they think they are at risk of conforming to a particular stereotype that has been assigned to them

Wobble pairing

when base pairing doesn't follow the Watson-Crick rules (A w/ U/T, C w/ G) / 3rd nucleotide of mRNA codon / allows more than 1 mRNA codon to pair w/ the same tRNA and code for the same a.a.

Fertilization (oogenesis)

when contact w/ sperm made, secondary oocyte completes meiosis II forming a mature ovum (and a polar body) / then sperm and egg nuclei fuse, forming the zygote

Diastole

when heart refills w/ blood after ventricles have contracted / die = resting period

Nondisjunction

when homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids do not separate correctly during meiosis or mitosis / meiosis I = homologous chromosomes fail to separate (n+1, n +1, n-1, n-1) / meiosis II and mitosis = sister chromatids fail to separate (n+1, n-1, n, n) / results in too many or too few chromosomes in daughter cells

Role-playing effects

when ind. takes on a role that requires specific behaviors/actions, there is usually a shift in their attitude as a result (attitude shifts to align w/ newly acquired role) / Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment

Vygotsky: zone of proximal development (ZPD)

when learning something, the ZPD is the region in btwn what we can and cannot do alone / having experiences in ZPD encourages development

Representativeness heuristic

when looking a specific situation/problem we tend to compare new situations/problems to a prototype that exists in our mind and assess their similarity / then we extrapolate about causality and probability of a specific outcome based on this comparison

Discrimination (classical conditioning)

when only a particular CS can elicit CR / similar stimuli won't be able to elicit same response

DNA Denaturing

when the H-bonds between bases in DNA are disrupted and the two strands begin to unwind and separate ("melt") / usually due to high temps

Systole

when ventricles contract to push blood into lungs and into aorta to go to rest of body / blood from vena cava and pulmonary veins enters atria at this time / atria contract in late systole; pumping of heart

Self serving bias

when we succeed we attribute situation to ourselves (internal causes such as personal qualities), but when we fail we attribute the situation/outcome to the environment or to other people

Capillary

where solute and gas exchange occurs / smallest diameter vessels and thinnest / no smooth muscle

Back stage

where we can let our guard down

Thermodynamics

whether rxn will occur at all (spontaneous or not?) / science of energy transfers

Sclera

white and protective outer layer of eye

Leukocytes

white blood cells / found in circulatory and lymphatic system / < 1% blood volume

Spinal cord

white matter on outside and grey matter on inside / sensory (afferent) neurons enter at dorsal root / motor (efferent) neurons exit at ventral root / DAVE

Stereotype

widely-held generalization of a particular group of people

Increasings temp

will always cause rxn rate to increase (kinetic effect), so that rxn reaches equilibrium sooner

Molecule w/ n different chiral centers...

will have 2nstereoisomers

Polyandry

woman married to multiple men

CAT/CT scan

x-rays / quicker and cheaper than MRI / structural

Bone marrow

yellow and red bone marrow / both have high number of blood vessels / both make some RBCs and WBCs, red marrow (hematopoietic stem cell) makes more / yellow bone marrow has many fat cells / where all blood cells produced

UV light nm

~ 200-400 nm

Net energetic results, per GLC: Total Eukaryotes

~ 30 ATP / GLC

Net energetic results, per GLC: Total Prokaryotes

~ 32 ATP / GLC

Asp

~ 4

Glu

~ 4

Pregnancy

~ 40 weeks / 3 trimesters / high levels of hCG → produced by placenta following implantation... maintains corpus luteum in early pregnancy / high estrogen and progesterone / low GnRH, LH, FSH... endometrium maintained and blastocyst is implanted into it

Visible light nm

~ 400-750 nm

His

~ 6.5

COO- main chain pKa

~2

NH2 main chain pKa

~9.5

Nucleophilic addition to C=Os

C=O carbon slightly positive and therefore electrophilic / nucleophilic addition results in breaking of pi bond and addition of nucleophile (new sigma bond)

Efferent neuron

CNS to rest of body

Exchange of oxygen in lungs

CO2 moves out of capillaries and into alveoli / O2 moves from alveoli into capillaries → CO2 exhaled from lungs and O2 delivered to tissues

Extinction (classical conditioning)

CR decreases over time as CS presented alone

Parathyroid hormone

Ca+2 reabsorption / increases [Ca+2] by stimulating osteoclasts to break down bone

Nativist perspective (theories of language development)

Chomsky / innate ability / due to LAD / vocab acquired through experience

The Cell Theory

Clumsy (all made up of Cells) Little (basic units of Life) Panthers (all come from Preexisting cells)

Chromatin

DNA + histone proteins / bundles up and condenses into long rods

Genomic library procedure

DNA extracted from cells and digested w/ a restriction enzyme / DNA fragments inserted into cloning vectors / bacterial cells transformed w/ vectors

Recombinant DNA (rDNA)

DNA molecule made from combining DNA from 2 or more different sources

Transcription

DNA->RNA / mRNA is synthesized by RNA poly using DNA as a template / occurs in nucleus of eukaryotes and cytoplasm of prokaryotes

Functionalism

Emile Durkheim (father of sociology) / views society as a system of many interdependent components that work together to achieve dynamic equilibrium and social stability / all parts interact w/ and rely on each other; the elements shape society as a whole / social dysfunctions must be corrected or society must readjust in order to re-achieve equilibrium

Donor cell

F+ cell → possesses F-factor

Recipient cell

F- cell → receives plasmid in addition to F-factor genes

Nonpolar a.a.s

GAVLIM TTP / R group is alkyl or aromatic

Fed state

GLC consumed in food goes into glycolysis to make ATP (excess GLC stored as glycogen)... glycogenesis

Common electrophiles

H+, H3O+, BF3, partial+C

Strong acids ex:

HClO4, HI, HBr, HCl, H2SO4, HNO3

Halogenation of carboxylic acid at alpha-C

Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky Rxn / substitution in which halogen replaces alpha H

Overall Sn1 mechanism

LG leaves molecule, forming carbocation → carbocation attacked by nucleophile

Antiparallel sheet

N-terminus of one aligns w/ C-terminus of the other (strands run in opposite directions)

Parallel sheet

N-terminus of one sheet aligns w/ N-terminus of the other

Cofactors of PDC

NAD+

Hb picks up

O2 in capillaries surrounding alveoli, where [O2] is high and [CO2] is low

Hb drops off

O2 in tissues, where [O2] is low and [CO2] is high

Amides

OH group replaced by amine / formed by reacting carboxylic acid w/ amine

5 psychosexual stages

Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital

Steps of Replication Acronym

Orin Hates To See Pretty Dames Outside / O(origin of replication found).H(helicase unwinds).T(topo relaxes supercoils).S(ssbps stabilize separated parent strands).P(primase lays down rna bases as primers).D(dna poly builds new strand).O(on lagging strand, okazaki fragments are formed and joined together by ligase)

Touch

Pacinian corpuscles, Meissner's corpuscles, Merkel's disks, Ruffini's corpuscles / touch receptors differ in their speed of adaptation, size of the receptive field, and location (depth) in the skin

D sugars

R configuration at penultimate carbon / OH on right / more common

RNA interference

RNA molecules reduce translation by resulting in the degradation of specific mRNA molecules

Ribozymes

RNA molecules w/ catalytic activity (like "RNA enzymes") / found in ribosomes (which catalyze translation) / also required for splicing

Elongation (transcription)

RNA pol adds free-floating nucleotide triphosphates to synthesize the RNA strand / they are complementary to the DNA template strand / RNA moves downstream along the DNA, elongating the RNA in a 5' -> 3' direction

Initiation (transcription)

RNA pol enzyme plus factor sigma (helper molecule) form holoenzyme (complete and ready enzyme) and bind to promoter region of DNA, just upstream from the start site -> closed complex formed / RNA unwinds this region of DNA -> open complex formed

Retroviruses

RNA virus that uses DNA intermediate in lysogenic life cycle / genome encodes for reverse transcriptases / DNA incorporated into host cell genome

Translation

RNA->protein / polypeptides are made by ribosomes and tRNA using the instructions encoded by mRNA / occurs in cytoplasm

Prokaryotic Rho-dependent termination (transcription)

Rho protein recognizes a specific RNA sequence and latches onto the RNA molecule, knocking off RNA pol

L sugars

S configuration at penultimate carbon / OH on left

Encoding

STM to LTM / hippocampus involved / semantic encoding > acoustic encoding > visual encoding

Behaviorist/Learning perspective (theories of language development)

Skinner / trial and error, mimicry, classical conditioning / reinforcement principles

Prosthetic groups in PDC

TPP (vitamin B1), FAD, lipoic acid

Social interactionist theory (theories of language development)

Vygotsky / social communication and interactions / environment (social and cultural)

Importance of introns

a "gene" is composed of both introns and exons, but only exons make it into mRNA and are translated / may become functional non-coding RNA molecules after being spliced out / enable alternative splicing to occur, which allows more than one different proteins to be made from the same mRNA transcript / break the gene up into distinct exons and contain sequences ("splice sites") that are recognized by the spliceosome

Covalently-modified enzyme

a group of atoms may be covalently added to a protein to change its activity

Negative

a product (or later intermediate of a metabolic pathway inhibits an earlier step in the pathway / when there's already a lot of the product being made and accumulating, the pathway needs to slow down in order to conserve energy and resources

Positive

a product (or later intermediate) of a metabolic pathway increases the activity of an earlier enzyme, resulting in even more product being made

Feedback regulation

a product or later-made compound of a rxn pathway allosterically regulates an earlier enzyme of the pathways / feedback bc regulator goes back to an earlier step of the pathway and increases or decreases the rate of that step (in order to increase or decrease the amount of product that is made)

Shielding (spectrometry)

a proton is shielded from the magnetic field that is applied during NMR spectroscopy if the nucleus has high e- density / nucleus is shielded if that atom is nearby atoms w/ low EN, like C / nucleus is deshielded if it is nearby highly EN atoms or pi bonds bc the e- of that H are being pulled away so are unable to shield the proton from the externally applied magnetic field

Empirical formula

a ratio of elements in a compound to each other... find by reducing subscripts of molecular formula by common denominator

The sick role

a role that individuals take on when sick / include certain rights and obligations

Role strain

a single role that requires conflicting responsibilities/expectations

Splitting

a single signal on spectrum (representing one group of equivalent hydrogens) may be split into multiple different peaks clustered in the same region

Brain and vicarious emotion (observational learning)

a vicarious emotional response (empathy) often occurs when a brain region is activated both by our own emotions and by observing others experience those same same emotions

Parallel processing

ability of the brain to simultaneously process different streams of sensory info

Power

ability to control situation and other people

Regenerative capacity

ability to restore and renew damaged tissue / relies on presence of stem cells / differs extensively across different species and tissues w/in an organism

Biological basis of depressive disorders

abnormal neurotransmitter levels (catecholamines and serotonin), decreased hippocampal size and neurogenesis, big role of genetics

Visible light

absorption and complementary colors / the color that a substance appears to be is the complementary color to the one that it absorbs

Height of mass spec peak

abundance of fragment

Resonance structures

account for true distribution of e-

Ketone bodies

acetoacetate, acetone, beta-hydroxybutyrate

Parasympathetic in heart

acetylcholine inhibits/delays SA node to slow down its firing → always occuring (vagal tone) to keep the heart rate down from its max to a normal rate of 60-70 BPM

Lewis

acid = e- acceptor / base = e- donor / donates electron pair / forms covalent bond

Bronsted-Lowry

acid = proton (H+) donor / base = proton (H+) acceptor

Arrhenius

acid = releases H+ / base = releases OH- / both in aqueous solution

Polyprotic acid

acid that can denote more than one H+ / H2CO3, H3PO4

Polar a.a.s

acidic R groups, basic R groups, other R groups that contain 1+ very polar bond(s) in R group

Strong acid + weak base =

acidic salt

Phototroph

acquire energy from light

Chemotroph

acquire energy from oxidation of chemicals

Conformity

act of complying w/ group standards, rules, and expectations

All-or-none AP

action potential is all or none / if threshold is reached then an AP fires / if not, it doesn't / once initiated, it will continue to completion / all APs are of the same magnitude

T cells

activate macrophages and other immune cells / destroy virus-infected and cancerous body cells / central to cell-mediated immunity

HCl (stomach)

activates pepsinogen to pepsin

Acute stress

activation of SNS / heightened epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol

Sodium-potassium pump

actively transports 3 Na+ ions out of cell and 2 K+ ions in / maintains excess of sodium outside of the cell and an excess of potassium inside of the cell

Positive reinforcement (operant conditioning)

add desirable stimulus to increase correct behavior

Positive punishment (operant conditioning)

add undesired stimulus to decrease incorrect behavior

Identity vs. role confusion (Erickson)

adolescence / develop a sense of identity in social settings

Assimilation (culture)

adopting culture of another group / usually occurs when small group assimilates into dominant culture

Generativity vs. stagnation (Erickson)

adult / care for others and contribute positively to things or people that will outlive them

Autosomal recessive

affected individual may have 2 unaffected parents (if both are carriers) / 2 affected parents produce all affected offspring

Blood osmolarity

affects erythrocyte volume / increased volume of blood due to increased water retention or overhydration = decreased solute concentration = decreased osmolarity → water moves into RBCs by osmosis

Affinity chromatography basis of separation

affinity for other specific molecules/ligands bound to column (stationary phase)

Dishabituation

after a repeated stimulus is removed for a period of time then reintroduced, there is an enhanced responsiveness to it

Clonal selection

after initial exposure to a pathogen, many clones are produced of the B and T cells specific to that pathogen

Creation of immunological memory

after initial exposure to pathogen, immune system more efficient at recognizing and eliminating pathogen at subsequent exposures

Post-translational protein modification

after translation, some proteins immediately fold into their native conformation, while others may require a chaperone protein

Selye's general adaptive syndrome

alarm stage = initial recognition of stressor / resistance stage = body uses up all resources trying to manage stressor / exhaustion stage = body can no longer resist stressor or negative impacts

Redox rxns involving aldehydes and ketones

alcohols can be oxidized to form aldehydes and ketones / aldehydes are much easier to oxidize than ketones

Primary alcohol + weak oxidizing agent

aldehyde (redox rxn)

Imine formation

aldehyde/ketone reacted w/ primary amine at low pH

Enamine formation

aldehyde/ketone reacted w/ secondary amine (plus acid catalyst)

Addition of alcohol to carbonyls (ketone or aldehyde)

aldehyde/ketone w/ 1 equivalent of alcohol to produce hemiacetals, then another equivalent of alcohol to form acetal / reverse rxn requires water

Approaches to problem solving

algorithms, heuristics, trial and error, insight

Network covalent solid

all atoms are connected by covalent bonds in a continuous network/lattice structure / stronger than normal covalent bond

Diamagnetic

all e- are spin paired (each orbital has 2e-) / diamagnetic elements have no internal magnetic field but are repelled by presence of an external magnetic field

Iron law of oligarchy

all organizations, even ones that start out democratic, eventually turn into oligarchies

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

allele frequencies in gene pool will stay constant if... no mutation, migration, or natural selection, random matin, and large pop / null hypothesis = if allele frequencies are changing then one of the above rules must have been violated

Law of independent assortment

alleles of one gene separate into daughter cells independently of the alleles for another gene -> traits are inherited randomly and independently

Fructose 2,6-Bisphosphate

allosteric regulator of phosphofructokinase (glycolysis) and FRC 1,6-bisphosphate (gluconeogenesis) → reciprocal regulation / stimulates PFK to increase flux through glycolysis / inhibits FRC 1,6-bisphosphatase to decrease flux through gluconeogenesis / abundance of FRC 2,6-bisphosphate is under hormonal control

Patterns of immigration

almost all individuals in US are immigrants or descended from immigrants / immigration in US increasing over past few decades / majority of immigrants from Mexico, Central America, India, China / immigration from European countries to US dropped significantly

Sexual orientation

along a spectrum

Microtubule tracks

along the axon facilitate the transports of materials (proteins, neurotransmitters, etc.) from the soma to the axon terminals (anterograde transport) and vice versa (retrograde transport)

Alpha decay

alpha particle = low energy / ejected at low velocity / dangerous if inside body / easily blocked by material because large and slow

Three main types of radioactive decay

alpha, beta [beta-, beta+ (positron), e- capture], gamma

Acidity of alpha-H

alpha-H is slightly acidic / can be removed by strong base

Kinetic enolate

alpha-H removed from less substituted alpha-C (H isomer sterically accessible -> easier access for base) / enolate ion that forms is less stable bc less substituted alkene / favored under condition of: lower temp / sterically hindered base used

Thermodynamic enolate

alpha-H removed from more sterically hindered alpha-C / enolate ion that forms is more stable bc more substituted alkene / favored under conditions of: higher temp / non-bulky base

Amide hydrolysis

amide hydrolyzed into carboxylic acid and amine / acid or base catalyzed / N protonated so that NH2R is the leaving group

Peptide bond

amide linkage btwn amino acids in a polypeptide (protein) / has resonance (increased stability) / difficult to break / partial double bond character makes region of peptide planar and rigid / formation = condensation rxn; breaking = hydrolysis rxn

A site

aminoacyl-tRNA site / where tRNA molecule enters the ribosome and delivers the a.a.

Weak bases ex:

ammonia, tertiary amine, pyridine, carbonate ion / often N w/ lone pair

Cardiac output (CO)

amount of blood flowing through your vessels per unit of time

Electron affinity

amount of energy released w/ addition of an e- (to neutral atom) / (-)EA value implies a favorable (exothermic) process bc energy is released / willingness of a neutral atom to gain an e- / across row = EA increases / up column = EA increases

Specific heat capacity (C)

amount of heat/energy required to raise a certain amount of mass of a substance by 1 degree

Heat capacity

amount of heat/energy required to raise temp of a substance by 1 degree

Expressivity

amount that genotype affects individual's phenotype

Molecular weight

amu.. weight of one molecule/atom of substance, given that 1 neutron and 1 proton each weigh approximately 1 amu

Altruism

an action that increases fitness of another organism while decreasing the fitness of acting organism / seen in kin relationships and tight knit social groups

Incomplete dominance

an intermediate phenotype is expressed / ex: R = red, r = white, Rr = pink

Trp operon

anabolic role / transcription repressed by presence; repressible / under high levels of trp, repression of operon itself will occur

Mass spec

analytical technique that enables one to determine the molecular weight of a molecule and/or identify a molecule based on its fragmentation pattern

Alpha substitution

another atom (from an electrophile) replaces the H atom at alpha C / enol or enolate intermediate is part of rxn mechanism

Cluster C

anxious, fearful, or obsessive behaviors / avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive

Ribozyme

any RNA that is capable of catalysis

Mutagen

any agent that causes damage to and changes in DNA

Quinones

any number of -CH= groups into -C(=O)- groups / aromatic molecules / lipid soluble and mobile e- carriers / specifically ubiquinone/Coenzyme Q is in the ETC

Diastereomers

any stereoisomer that isn't an enantiomer / may be optically active or not / optically active diastereomers have diff orientations at some chiral centers / have diff physical and chemical properties

Pi bond

any subsequent covalent bond (2nd, 3rd, 4th) / side-to-side (parallel) overlap

Largest artery

aorta

Top-down processing

applying one's knowledge, experiences, and expectations in interpreting and understanding the sensory info / applying higher level info to lower level (more basic) info

Ion-exchange chromatography mobile phase

aq solvent

Obligate anaerobe

are poisoned by oxygen

Industrialization

area transitions from agrarian society to industrial society

Integration

area under the peak -> proportional to the # of hydrogens represented by that signal (# of H atoms w/in that group of equivalent hydrogens)

Blood flow

arteries → arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins → heart

Motion parallax

as you move, if image moves a lot in visual field then it is farther

Racialization

ascribing a racial identity to someone who doesn't identify w/ that label

cDNA library function

assess the genetic material being actively expressed in that cell/tissue at that time the sample was collected

Milgram's experiment

assessed whether individuals obey commands of an authority figure or follow their conscience when the commands are unethical / performing shocks as ordered

H-NMR

assesses things about H atoms and is used to decipher structure/identity or purity / spectrum has peaks at various ppm values, w/ each peak representing specific "type" of H atom in the molecule / height of the peak is its "relative intensity"

Appraisal

assessment/evaluation of event / processes results in diff emotions depending on one's conclusion of their ability to handle the stressor

Phosphorylation

associated with increased transcriptional activity

Recognition

association / ex: multiple choice tests

Optimism bias

assumption that we have a lesser chance of experiencing something bad than other people or that we have a greater chance of experiencing something good than other people do

Cocktail Party Effect

at a loud party, one can filter through all the surrounding conversations, choose one of interest, and focus on it, while filtering out the others / but, while focusing on one input, the listener can still catch words or phrases of particular importance/significance from unattended inputs / therefore the unattended inputs must be processed at some level (not completely blocked)

Coordinate covalent bond

atom w/ a lone pair donates them to an e- deficient species (both e- are from the Lewis base)

Electron Withdrawing Groups

atoms/group of atoms w/ high EN (O, N, F, Br, Cl, etc.) / minimize the effect of a (-)

Electron donating groups

atoms/group of atoms w/ low EN (alkyl groups) / minimize the effect of a (+)

Heart

atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) = stimulates kidney to secrete more dilute urine to decrease blood pressure

Electron group

attached atoms and/or lone pairs

Signal detection theory

attempts to assess/quantify when an individual will detect the presence of a stimuli against all other background "noise"

Feature detection

attempts to understand how various and diverse features of an image are extracted and compiled to form a cohesive and useful understanding

Attention

attending to an input of info / allocating processing and cognitive resources towards the info/stimuli

Divided attention

attending to multiple tasks or inputs simultaneously / "multitasking"

Personal component of reciprocal determinism (Albert Bandura)

attitudes, beliefs, self-efficacy, goal, attributions, etc.

Electromagnetic force

attraction between + and - or repulsion between like charges / acts w/in nucleus as repulsion btwn positively charged protons

Dipole-dipole

attraction btwn two polar molecules (both w/ permanent dipoles)

Situational attribution

attribute behavior to external causes (factors of environment)

Dispositional attribution

attribute behavior to internal causes (factors related to individual/oneself)

Midbrain

auditory and visual input / reward circuit and movement

Echoic memory

auditory info / lasts longer than iconic

Temporal lobe

auditory input, receptive speech and understanding language, memory, expressive behavior

Outer ear

auricle/pinna + auditory canal / captures sound waves and directs them into the ear

KMT and Temp

average KE of all gas particles is proportional to temp of gas / average KE is same for ALL gases at a given temp

Kinesthetic sense

awareness of and ability to control our bodies' movements / relies on info from the vestibular sense and proprioception

Existential self

awareness of having a constant self that is separate from others

Categorical self

awareness of our existence in the world along w/ all others / can assess our characteristics and compare ourselves to others

Proprioception

awareness of the position of one's body in space

Conjugation (bacteria)

bacteria exchange genetic material through direct cell-to-cell contact / increases in genetic diversity

Transformation

bacteria take up foreign DNA from surroundings / must be competent bacteria - able to directly uptake exogenous DNA

Domain

bacteria, archaea, eukarya

Lysogen

bacterium w/ viral genome integrated into its own chromosome but lying dormant

Arcuate fasciculus

band of axons connecting the Broca's and Wernicke's areas

Glass ceiling

barrier that prevents women from advancing in the corporate world

Nonsense mutation

base pair change causes the DNA and transcribed mRNA to encode a stop signal so that transcription and translation terminate prematurely

Missense mutation

base pair change results in a change in the amino acid that is translated / conservative is when new amino acid has similar biochemical properties to the original one

Social identity

based on affiliation w/ certain groups and socially define attributes of our identity

Geometric isomers E/Z

based on arrangement of highest priority groups on either side of a double bond

Ethnicity

based on cultural characteristics/affiliations

Race

based on physical characteristics such as skin color

Needs

basic physiological needs that must be met, as well as higher-level needs such as love and belonging

Strong base + weak acid =

basic salt

Proto-oncogenes

basically a pre-oncogene... is converted into an oncogene and becomes cancerous

Oncogenes

basically any gene that can cause cancer

Rectum

begins at end of large intestine

Spermatogenesis

begins occurring at puberty and continues rest of life; occurs in seminiferous tubules / spermatogonia divide by mitosis → primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis I → secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis II → spermatids mature → spermatozoa (sperm) / spermatogonia are "going" to become sperm / spermatozoa

Follicular phase

begins on first day of menstruation (day 1 of cycle) / FSH triggers selection and maturation of one follicle / follicle secretes estrogen → E levels begin to increase / menstruation followed by proliferative phase in which endometrium begins to thicken / endometrium will continue to thicken for rest of the cycle, preparing for the implantation of a zygote

Behavioral component of attitude

behavior and attitude influence each other

Taboos

behaviors that are strongly prohibited and even seen as wrong to discuss

Elements of culture

beliefs and values, language, rituals/traditions/customs, norms, media, religion, arts/literature, political and economic system, etc. / elements passed down via socialization

Cultural universals

beliefs, traits, or behaviors common to all cultures

Awake

beta (alert) and alpha (relaxed) waves / high frequency and low voltage

Insulin inhibits

beta ox, gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, and protein catabolism

Leaving group

better LG = more stable existing on its own (apart from the molecule that it leaves) and better at holding the e- (and the negative charge) that it receives / weak bases (conjugates of strong acids) = good LG / in ochem, an alcohol will almost always be protonated before it acts as a leaving group

Acidosis

bicarbonate reabsorbed by kidneys

Sn2

bimolecular; one step / forms 1 enantiomer (opposite of original) / rate depends on how sterically hindered the carbon atom is / methyl > 1 > 2 >> 3

Single Strand Binding (SSB) Proteins

bind to a single parent DNA strand, stabilize strands once unwound

Activators

bind to enhancer regions of DNA and increase transcription / usually at position distant from gene

Positive cooperativity

binding of a substrate to the protein increases the protein's affinity for that substrate, making it easier for more substrates to bind to it / ex: 4 O2 molecules can bind to 1 hemoglobin

Mixed inhibition

binds at an allosteric site of the E or ES complex / decreases max rxn rate / if it acts more like a competitive (binds more effectively to E) then it will result in an apparent increase in Km / if it acts more like an uncompetitive (binds more effectively to ES) then it will result in an apparent decrease in Km / decrease in Vmax / increase or decrease in Km

Primary reinforcement

biologically (innately) desirable stimuli

Implantation

blastocyst implants itself into thick, vascularized endometrium around day 9 / trophoblast cells of blastocyst penetrate and grow into endometrium → grow into long finger-like projections that make contact w/ maternal blood supply → structure eventually becomes the placenta

Hemostasis

blood clotting / stops extensive blood loss from damaged vessels

Osmotic pressure (blood)

blood is hypertonic to surrounding fluids due to high concentration of solutes/proteins → surrounding fluid tends to want to move into capillaries by osmosis

Main symptoms of ketoacidosis

blood pH drops, heavy breathing, fruity breath smell

Complement system

blood proteins become activated in a chemical cascade, resulting in stimulation of inflammatory response and the activation of phagocytic cells

Coagulation

blood turning from liquid to solid form (scabbing)

Ketogenesis fasted state

blood-GLC levels low / beta oxidation occurs in order to make acetyl CoA as energy source / excess acetyl-CoA molecules in liver combine to form ketone bodies / ketone bodies then sent to other tissues as source of fuel during GLC-deprived state

Dependance

body adapts to constant administration of the drug so that once an individual stops taking it, many dangerous physiological changes occur (withdrawal)

Afferent neuron

body to brain/spinal cord/CNS

Ionic bond

bond btwn a metal and nonmetal / one atom donates e- (becomes +, cation) on atom receives e- (becomes -, anion)

Metallic bond

bond btwn metals / delocalized valence e- of metals shared amongst the molecules

Connective tissue

bone, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, adipose tissue, blood / cells have extensive ECM / gives them support/strength / loose and dense forms / fibers

Codominance

both alleles of gene are expressed / ex: AB blood type -> both A and B

CNS

brain + spinal cord / bundle of axons = tract / control centers and integration

Retinal disparity

brain compares images from the right and left retinas -> the more different they are, the closer an object is to you

Neural plasticity

brain is extremely malleable and dynamic

REM

brain more active / HR and BP increase slightly / dreaming / waves similar to beta / low voltage and high frequency

Coronary arteries

branch from aorta to supply cardiac muscle w/ blood

Feminist theory

branch of conflict theory that focuses on different experiences of men and women as a result of gender-based inequality and power differences / assesses sources and outcomes of gender inequality

Nucleases

break down nucleic acids

Peroxisome

breakdown of long chain fatty acids into shorter chain fatty acids (beta oxidation) / metabolize drugs and other toxins / carry out redox rxns w/ variety of substrates, often producing H2O2 as byproduct... uses catalase to break down H2O2

Catabolism

breaking larger molecules into smaller ones / releases energy

Electrolysis

breaking molecule into constituent atoms

Proteolysis

breaking protein down into smaller chains and/or into its constituent a.a / peptide bonds hydrolyzed by proteases and by low pH / may occur during metabolism of proteins, zymogen activation, or apoptosis

Amylase

breaks down starch into simple sugars, which can then be broken down into GLC monomers / enzyme in saliva

Pancreatic lipase

breaks down triglycerides into glycerol + fatty acids

Thermoregulation by respiratory system

breathing enables us to lose excess heat

Veins

bring blood back to heart (normally carry deoxygenated blood... except for pulmonary veins)

Coronary veins

bring blood into R atrium

Retrieval

bringing info out of storage / recognition, recall, relearning, retrieval cues

Trachea

brings air from nose into lungs / reinforced by rings of cartilage / branches into two bronchi

Aorta

brings blood from L ventricle to rest of body

Pulmonary artery

brings blood from R ventricle to lungs

Pulmonary veins

brings blood from lungs to L atrium

Superior/inferior vena cava

brings blood returning from upper and lower body (respectively)

Recall

brining it out / free-response tests / free recall or cued recall

Lipids

broad and diverse category of nonpolar molecules / main functions = energy storage, signaling, forming cell membranes

Telegraphic speech

broken speech

Respiratory bronchiole

bronchioles that have some alveoli along their walls and can therefore directly participate in gas exchange

Bicuspid/mitral valve

btwn L atrium and L ventricle

Tricuspid valve

btwn R atrium and R ventricle

Metaphysis

btwn diaphysis and epiphysis / contains epiphyseal plate (growth plate)

Interspecific communication

btwn individuals of different species

Intraspecific communication

btwn individuals of the same species

Anabolism

building larger molecules from smaller ones / requires energy

DNA Polymerase

builds daughter strand of DNA / proofreads and corrects errors / replaces the RNA primer

Phototransduction pathway w/o light

cGMP levels are high → Na+ channels kept open → rod/cone cells are depolarized → glutamate released to bipolar cells → glutamate inhibits (hyperpolarizes) bipolar cells

Glucogenic amino acids

can be metabolized into molecules (CAC intermediates) that can enter gluconeogenesis after being converted to oxaloacetate; can become GLC

Ketogenic a.a.

can be metabolized into molecules that enter ketogenesis (acetyl CoA) / can become acetyl CoA, used in ketogenesis

Pluripotent

can become any cell of body of developing organism / can become any cell of three germ layers

Totipotent

can become any cell of developing organism or of the supportive structures / not yet determined

Decay

can counteract w/ active rehearsal / Ebbinghaus forgetting curve / decay most pronounced at beginning... levels off

Facultative anaerobe

can grow w/ or w/o O2

Retrograde amnesia

cannot retrieve previously-encoded memories

Hepatic portal system

capillary beds of GI tract → hepatic portal vein → capillary beds of liver → hepatic vein → heart

Fatty acids

carboxylic acid w/ long hydrocarbon tail / important source of fuel / broken down via beta ox / synthesized by fatty acid synthesis

Glycolipids

carbs attached to a lipid / found on exterior surface of eukaryotic cell membranes / enable cell-cell communication, recognition, binding, interaction

Autonomic nervous system (ANS) and emotion

carries out physiological responses to emotion-provoking stimuli / sympathetic = responses to shocking, fear-provoking, stress-inducing stimuli / parasympathetic = content, rest-and-digest

Vein

carry blood back to heart / carry deoxygenated blood (except for pulmonary vein) / endothelium, smooth muscle, connective tissue / valves prevent backflow / carry blood at low pressure -- smooth and surrounding skeletal muscle contraction aid in return of blood to heart

Lac operon

catabolic role / transcription induced by presence of lactose / inducible / required for breakdown of lactose in bacteria... when GLC is low

Hydrolase

catalyze hydrolysis rxns (break a molecule w/ addition of water or form a molecule w/ removal of water) / ex: lipase

Ribosomes function

catalyze protein synthesis in cytosol

Oxidoreductase

catalyze redox rxns (transfers of electrons) / ex: dehydrogenase

Lyase

catalyze rxns in which functional group is added, breaking a double bond (or the reverse)

Transferase

catalyze rxns in which group of atoms is transferred from one substrate to another / ex: kinase

Ligase / synthetase

catalyze rxns in which two substrates are joined (new C-C, C-O, etc.) and rxn coupled to ATP hydrolysis / ex: DNA ligase

Amnesia

caused by disease or brain damage

Increased peripheral resistance

caused by global vasoconstriction of arteries or increased blood viscosity

Transition metal complexes

causes d-orbitals to become different in energy and the electrons jumping around btwn the orbitals is caused by the absorption or release of light w/in the visible spectrum

Determination

cell committed to become a specific cell type (fate is determined)

Differentiation

cell is in the process of becoming that specific cell type / follows determination

Osteoclasts

cells that dissolve/breakdown bone releasing minerals and releasing Ca+2 to blood / found on surface of bone

Helper T Cells

central mediator of adaptive immune system / don't kill, but organize other immune cells to manage their destruction / signal to and activated cytotoxic T and B cells, and other immune cells using specific signals / recognize antigens presented on APCs (class II MHC) / attacked by HIV

Locus

certain position on chromosome, usually representing location of a gene

Role of gender in expressing and detecting emotion

certain societal/cultural expectations surrounding masculinity vs. femininity in the expression of emotion / women expected to be more emotional / men expected to withhold their emotions but express aggression

Transcriptional regulation (slow control)

certain substances may upregulate or downregulate transcription of enzymes involved in metabolic pathways / often times, hormones trigger a signal cascade that results in transcriptional activation/inhibition

Hexose conformations

chair, boat, skew, half-chair, envelope / chair is most stable... all groups staggered / steric hindrance for all other conformations decreases their stability

Evolution

change in heritable traits of a pop/species across multiple generations

Sensory adaptation

change in responsiveness of one's sensory system to a constant stimulus

Huntington's and dopamine

changes in dopamine

Iris

changes size of pupil to control how much light gets into eye

Chromatin remodeling

changing btwn the two states turns the gene on and off / occurs due to covalent modifications of histone proteins

T-tubules

channels that surround skeletal and cardiac muscle fibers, enabling an action potential to be rapidly transmitted throughout the cell

Anxiety disorders

characterized by frequent and excessive fear, worrying, or dread / occur more often in females than in males / most common disorders

Point mutations

characterized by their effect on the transcribed mRNA/translated polypeptide / silent, missense, and nonsense

Ion-exchange chromatography basis of separation

charge and attraction/repulsion to charged column

Formal charge

charge of each atom in a molecule (sum should add to net charge of molecule)

Ion-exchange chromatography stationary phase

charged beads

Electrochemical gradient

chemical gradient is the difference in ion concentrations across a membrane / electrical gradient is the difference in charge across a membrane

Olfactory receptor neurons

chemoreceptors embedded in nasal epithelium... detect chemicals that bind to receptors

Caspases

class of protease enzymes / initiator caspases trigger effector caspases, which carry out apoptosis

Types of associative learning

classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning

Cornea

clear tissue in front of the eye that acts like a lens to begin to focus & refract light

Variety of different modifications

cleavage of a region of the polypeptide (zymogens) / glycosylation (addition of sugars) / lipidation (addition of lipids) / acetylation and methylation / formation of disulfide bonds

Relative motion

closer objects move faster

crp gene of Lac operon

codes for CAP which activates transcription / binds upstream of promoter when GLC absent / induces transcription by activating RNA pol

Lac I gene of Lac operon

codes for lac repressor which inhibits transcription / repressor binds to operator when lactose absent / not bound when present

Components of emotion

cognitive (experience of emotion) / physiological (changes in our bodies... some form of arousal) / behavioral (expression of emotions)

Functions of lymphatic system

collect and filter plasma fluid lost by capillary filtration to return it to blood / proteins from blood that leak out of capillaries returned to blood / fats reabsorbed from food in intestines get transported in lacteals (lymphatic capillaries) / immune response = lymphoid cells (B and T) found in organs of lymphatic system (spleen and lymph nodes)

Genomic library

collection of all DNA of organism... represents entire genome

Self concept = self-identity

collection of beliefs/ideas that you have about who you are

The endomembrane system

collection of vesicles, membranes, organelles that collectively modify, sort, transport, and export macromolecules

R atrium

collects deoxygenated blood returning from the body

Size exclusion chromatography stationary phase

column filled w/ porous substance

Strong bases

completely dissociate in water / conjugate acid formed is very stable and hardly reacts w/ water

The PDC

complex of three enzymes that facilitates decarboxylation rxns / turns pyruvate into acetyl CoA / bridge btwn glycolysis and CAC

Obedience

complying w/ law and order / following requirements of authority

Phospholipids

comprise phospholipid bilayer / flexible and dynamic / allow small nonpolar molecules through / water, ions, other large and polar molecules pass through special protein channels / polar/hydrophilic head / two nonpolar/hydrophobic tails / amphiphilic (allows them to form bilayer/membranes)

Otolithic organs

comprised of 2 chambers, the utricle and saccule / each has hair cells w/ their cilia embedded in a gelatinous membrane; sense linear acceleration

Steroids

comprised of 4 connected hydrocarbon rings (6, 6, 6, 5) / main functions = signaling (steroid hormones) and structural (cholesterol)

Loops of Henle

concentration gradient of interstitial fluid drives flow of alts and water into or out of the tubule / loop has selective permeability

Medicalization

conceptualization of human conditions as physiological issues and diagnosable diseases / condition viewed from a scientific/medical standpoint in attempts to understand causes, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment

Avery, McCarthy, and MacLeod

conclusion = Wanted to assess what macromolecule of the heat killed S strain enables virulence to be conferred / DNA most likely to be transforming agent

Material culture

concrete, tangible, and visible elements

Role conflict

conflict btwn multiple statuses held by one person

Ligament

connect bone to bone, stabilizing joints

Tendon

connect muscle to bone, enabling muscle to move the bone

Immovable

connection btwn bones w/ fibrous tissue btwn them providing strength / ex: multiple skull bones fused at sutures

Umbilical cord

connection btwn fetus and placenta

Interneuron

connections btwn neurons / reflex arc

Desmosome

connects cells at certain spots by linking cytoskeletons / more permanent connection / provide mechanical strength to tissue

Cortex

conscious thought processes and cognitive functions, memory and emotion, processing and integration of sensory input, skeletal muscle / four lobes

Frontal lobe

conscious thought, planning, behavioral control, decision making, reasonsing, personality, expressive language, movement / motor cortex and prefrontal cortex (executive functions)

Beta- decay

consequence of "weak force" / beta particles are harder to stop and more energy than an alpha particle

ATP

considered coenzyme / often associated w/ Mg2+ (stabilizes ATP) / often an allosteric regulator of enzymes involved in pathways

Unsaturated fatty acids

contain 1+ double bonds / results in hydrocarbon chain being kinked → less London dispersion forces → usually liquid at room temp

Appendix and tonsils

contain lymph tissue and have immune roles / not required

Jejunum and ileum

contain villi which maximizes surface area for the absorption of nutrients / crypts (btwn villi) contain many different cell types, including: goblet cells (make and secrete mucus), entero-endocrine cells (secrete hormones), and stem cells

tRNA in translation

contains anticodon complementary to mRNA codon / brings the correct amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain due to this codon-anticodon interaction

H zone

contains only thick filaments / shrinks during contraction

Large intestine function

convert chyme into feces by reabsorption of excess water as well as the actions of a divers bacterial population / water absorption enables chyme to solidify / bacteria digest substances that the human digestive system can't, and release many different types of vitamins / waste stored until ready for secretion

Low ball technique

convincing / ex: first ask someone to donate small sum to charity, once they agree, ask if they can make monthly donations

Glycosidic linkage

covalent bond btwn carbohydrate and some other molecule, which may or may not be another sugar / forms btwn hemiacetal of a sugar and alcohol of some other molecule / classified as alpha or beta by conformation of anomeric carbon and labelled by which carbons it joins

B Cells

create antibody (immunoglobulin) proteins that travel in blood, bind to specific antigens of foreign substances/pathogens, and result in attack of that foreign substance via a variety of mechanisms / each B cell has unique antibody bound to their membrane that recognizes and binds to a specific antigen

Microtubules function

create tracks in cells for transport by motor proteins a.k.a. cell highway, cell division, microtubules organization center, makeup cilia and flagella

Countercurrent multiplier mechanism

creates concentration gradient by actively transporting solutes across a membrane / gradient surrounds a region in which a fluid flows in opposite directions through a tube (loops of Henle)

Speciation

creation of new species (by branching off from preexisting species)

Right brain

creativity, art, music, intuition, negative emotions, holistic

Third law of thermodynamics

crystal solid at 0 degrees K has 0 entropy

Cognitive development affected by

culture (Vygotsky), genetics, environment, bio factors

Flat bones

curved and flat / protect organs like a shield → ex: ribs, skull

Cytochrome c

cytochrome specific to ETC / water soluble / mobile e- carrier that shuttles e- btwn proteins of the ETC / also immobile cytochromes in complexes 3 and 4

Microfilaments function

cytokinesis, amoeboid movement, muscle contractions, exo and endocytosis

Fatty acid synthesis location

cytoplasm of cells, when excess fuel is present

MMR

daughter strand is recognized and the mismatched base of that strand is removed then replaced

Semi-Conservative model

daughter strands are half old and half new

Conservative model

daughter strands are one old and one new

Dispersive model

daughter strands are parts old and parts new

Habituation

decrease in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus

Calcitonin

decreased Ca+2 reabsorption / reduced [Ca+2] by inhibiting osteoclasts / "calci-tone-it-down"

Chronic stress results in

decreased immune system functioning, poor sleep, decreased cognitive capabilities, fatigue, trouble concentrating, mood disorders, excessive muscle tension, high BP, increased risk of diabetes, weight gain, digestive problems, breathing problems, increased risk of stroke and heart disease, decreased sex drive, etc.

Somatostatin

decreases secretion of growth hormone, insulin, and glucagon / decreases digestion

Functions of circulatory system

deliver oxygen to tissues / nutrients, hormones, solutes, and fluids travel in blood and can be picked up by tissues / CO2 removed from tissues and carried in blood as carbonic acid/bicarbonate / other metabolic wastes travel in the blood to reach the kidneys where waste is excreted in urine / thermoregulation

Stage ¾

delta waves / low frequency and high voltage / deep sleep

Exergonic

deltaG<0→ rxn is spontaneous (proceeds in forward direction)

Equilibrium

deltaG=0→ rxn is at equilibrium (rate fwd rxn = rate reverse rxn)

Endergonic

deltaG>0→ rxn is nonspontaneous (proceeds in reverse direction

SDS

denatures proteins and gives them a uniform mass to charge ratio... all a (-)

Heterochromatin

densely packed and not accessible to enzymes of transcription / transcriptionally silent

Colligative properties of the plasma membrane

depend only on ratio of solute particles to solvent particles, not on identity of the solute / ex: osmotic pressure, boiling point elevation (increase BP), vapor pressure lowering (decrease VP), freezing point depression (decrease FP)

Blood type

depends on antigen expressed on surface of RBCs and on antibodies present in one's blood

pH

depends on identity of solution and its concentration

Ion-exchange chromatography pH > PI

deprotonated; (-)

Hydroxyquinone

derivative of benzoquinone formed by replacing one or more hydrogens w/ hydroxyl groups

Power and authority

derived from laws, rules, and regulations, designated customs/traditions and norms of society, and authority figure

Hydration / solvation

describe interaction btwn ions and water molecules / ions in solution interact w/ water molecules via ion-dipole force / favorable interaction and decreases the potential energy of the involved molecules, resulting in a release of energy

Molecular formula

describes atomic constituents of a molecule w/ a subscript denoting how many of each atom

The endosymbiotic theory

describes how, long ago in evolutionary history, an ancestral eukaryotic species engulfed another prokaryotic cell -> engulfed prokaryote and host cell lived in symbiosis -> engulfed species became an organelle in newly formed eukaryotic cell

Central Dogma

describes process by which proteins are synthesized from the genetic code / DNA->RNA->protein

Subshells

describes shape of the region of space in which an electron may exist / possible subshells are s, p, d, and f

Cis / trans unsaturated fatty acids

designates conformation of double bond / H atoms of unsaturated carbons on same side of double bond = cis

Motivation

desire/willingness for one to do something

Schizoid

detached, reclusive and indifferent / little interest in relationships

Rods

detect light at low levels and motion / vision in the dark; only black and white / low spatial acuity

DNA sequencing

determining nucleotide sequence of a DNA sample / sanger sequencing is popular

Allport (trait perspective of personality)

developed list of thousands of trait words / grouped these words into three main categories

Differential association theory of deviance

deviant and criminal behavior is learned through interactions w/ others (learning the motives, techniques, attitudes, etc.) / criticism = fails to account for genetics and bio factors

Inspiration/inhalation

diaphragm contracts (pulls down), intercostal muscles contract pulling ribs outward → thoracic cavity expands → pressure inside cavity decreases → air rushes into lungs / P and V inversely related (PV = nRT)

Expiration/Exhalation

diaphragm relaxes (moves upward), intercostal muscles relax, and ribs pull in slightly → volume of thoracic cavity decreases → pressure inside cavity increases → air forced out of lungs

Division of labor

diff facets of manufacturing process split up and assigned to diff people/systems / improves efficiency and accountability of production

"Differential pressure"

diff in pressure btwn two regions

Differential reproduction

diff traits, diff abilities to survive and reproduce / not all will survive and reproduce

Heterozygous

different alleles

Conformational isomers

different momentary rotation about a sigma bond (no chiral center) / differ in position of atoms due to rotation about a single bond / Anti (most stable), Eclipsed (least stable / highest energy), Gauche

Geometric isomers

different orientation of groups across double bond or ring (no chiral center)

Gestalt principles

different rules that describe how people tend to organize, group, and perceive sensory stimuli (usually visual) / "Whole exceeds the sum of its parts"

Convergent evolution

different species w/o a common ancestor evolve similar traits / due to adaptation to similar environment

Small intestine function

digestion of chyme and absorption of nutrients and minerals from food, as well as some water absorption

Gap junction

directly connects intracellular environments / regulated / specific to animal cells

Notochord

directs cell movement of neurulation / eventually forms part of the vertebrae

Stigma

disapproval of a person or group based on their social characteristics

Ageism

discrimination based on age

Schizophrenia

disorder involving seeming loss of touch w/ reality / abnormal thoughts, behavioral patterns, emotions, sensory perceptions / presence of positive and negative symptoms

Strong acids

dissociate almost completely in water / bc strong acids have weak conjugate bases, the conjugate base that forms following the dissociation (A-) will hardly react with H2O molecules... bc it is very stable / high Ka values bc the molecule readily donates a proton

Types of dissociative disorders

dissociative identity disorder (DID) and dissociative amnesia

If ionic solids are so strong, why can we easily dissolve them in water?

dissolving ions in solution is favorable / spontaneous / enough energy provided by water

Bond length

distance btwn nuclei of two atoms in a bond

Rf

distance travelled by pigment/solvent front / if = 1, pigment moved as far as solvent front / lower = pigment travelled less far

Molecular geometry

distinguish btwn attached atoms and lone pairs / theoretically describes the shape you would actually see if looking at a 3D rep of the molecule

Non-verbal communication

doesn't involve words

Pop culture

dominant and well-recognized images, ideas, beliefs, and practices in a culture

Cardinal traits (Allport)

dominate people's personality / rare / develop later on

Weak bases

don't fully dissociate in water / less capable of accepting protons than strong base / conjugate acid is less stable than that of a strong base

Weak acids

don't fully dissociate in water / less capable of releasing protons than strong acid bc conjugate base is less stable than that of a strong acid (stable = favorable to form and unlikely to react)

Ill-defined

don't have clear goals/expected solutions

Aero-tolerant anaerobe

don't use O2, but can survive in its presence

Nucleophile

donates a pair of electrons to an electrophile, forming a bond (Lewis base) / pi bond or atom w/ a lone pair / likes and attacks positively charged species / nucleo (nucleus, + charged) Phile (loving)

Catecholamines

dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine / Cats are tired so they sleep in the DEN / derivatives of tyrosine

siRNA

double stranded RNA that forms a complex with a protein, then binds to a specific mRNA molecule, cleaving it

Cluster B

dramatic, emotional, impulsive behaviors / antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic

Histrionic

dramatic, impulsive, and needs to be the center of attention

Drug addiction and reward circuit

drugs of abuse target the reward circuit in the brain (dopaminergic) → activation by flooding it with dopamine → trains the brain to seek out this highly rewarding activity / activation of the reward circuit by drugs is at far greater levels than produced by normal stimuli (food, sex, etc.) / individual seeks out the drug despite the detrimental consequences

Opioids

drugs that act on opioid receptors, resulting in pain relief, feelings of euphoria, sedation, and respiratory depression / ex: codeine, morphine, heroin, fentanyl

London dispersion forces (induced-induced)

due to nearby e- clouds inducing temporary dipoles in each other / exist in all molecules / very weak and transient (momentary and constantly changing) / as size of molecules and # e- increases, this force increases

Lewis acid

e- acceptor (such as H+, which can accept an e- pair)

Lewis base

e- donor (usually have lone pairs on central atom which get shared w/ Lewis acid)

Nonpolar covalent

e- equally shared

Covalent bond

e- shared btwn atoms in bond (two non-metals)

Polar covalent

e- unequally shared (hogger is more EN)

Humanistic/person-centered therapy

each client unique and special

Intimacy vs. isolation (Erickson)

early adult / develop intimate and meaningful relationships

Achieved status

earned by the person

Induction (chemistry)

effect that a nearby electron group has on a certain atom

Bohr shift

efficiency of O2 delivery can be improved by right-ward shift of the curve (overall lessened O2 affinity) → slightly less O2 picked up in lungs but much more dropped off in tissues

Parts of voltaic/galvanic cells

electrodes (metal rods)... anode = oxidized, cathode = reduced, An-ox red-cat / half-cells... separated, one has anode, one has cathode

Parts of an electrolytic cell

electrodes = anode and cathode / electrolyte = solution in which ions are dissolved and ions of electrolyte are attracted to electrode w/ an opposite charge to their own / end result = either metal electrode is plated OR gas is liberated

Electrophile

electron deficient species that accepts an electron pair by forming a bond w/ a nucleophile / Lewis acid / has + or partial + charge and/or an incomplete octet

Excited state vs. ground state of an e-

electrons are usually at their "ground state" energy level but can absorb energy and be promoted to an "excited state" of higher energy

Hund's rule

electrons in the same subshell occupy available orbitals singly first before pairing up

Social facts

elements of society that serve some function in enforcing social control

Excretion of waste

elimination of soluble waste products of metabolism (nitrogenous wastes via the urea cycle) / urine = water + urea + salts + sugar

Lipid-soluble carriers

embedded in mitochondrial inner-membrane

Integral protein

embedded to some degree into plasma membrane; inner region is full of nonpolar a.a. / exterior region full of polar a.a.

Cannon-Bard (theories of emotion)

emotional stimulus → physiological changes / emotional stimulus → cognitive awareness / independent and simultaneous

James-Lange (theories of emotion)

emotional stimulus → physiological changes interpreted → cognitive awareness

Three main types of social support

emotional, instrumental (tangible support), and informational (advice and suggestions) / extremely important for health and well-being / promotes resistance to and recovery from psychological disorders; helps reduce stress levels

Darwin and emotion

emotions are adaptive (ex: fear leads to taking action to escape stimulus that triggered fear) / facilitate social bonding and convey one's needs (ex: baby crying elicits response from mother and father)

Opsin proteins

enable photon to be converted into chemical signal

Alternative splicing

enables more than 1 different mRNA molecules to be made from the same hnRNA / some exons skipped/spliced out so that differing combos of exons can be used to make mRNA / allows for different proteins to be produced

Flagella

enables propulsion/motility of the cell

Operator

enables regulation of genes of operon / region of DNA to which repressor protein binds, decreasing transcriptional activity (silencer) / regulated by activator proteins, increasing rate of transcription (enhancer)

Clitoris

enables stimulation/arousal during copulation

Arrhenius equation

enables you to calculate rate constant for a given rxn and set of conditions

Memory

encoding → storage → retrieval

Restriction enzyme

endonucleases that recognize and cleave at a specific DNA sequence / cleavage often produces "sticky ends" → matching sticky ends from 2 different DNA sources can be annealed together, producing rDNA

Gibbs free energy (G)

energy a system has available to do work / indicates whether rxn is spontaneous (proceeds in forward direction), or nonspontaneous (reverse direction is spontaneous)

First law of thermodynamics

energy cannot be created or destroyed, just transformed

Active transport

energy input required bc particles transported against their gradient (from region of low concentration to region of higher concentration -> non-spontaneous movement)

Second IE

energy needed to remove a second e- / second IE > first IE = once e- removed, there is a higher proton: e- ratio, therefore increased pull on that second e- from the nucleus and it's harder to remove

First IE

energy needed to remove first valence e-

Ionization energy

energy needed to remove/ionize an e- (+ nucleus attracts e- therefore energy is needed to remove them) / across row/period = IE increases / up column = IE increases

BDE

energy required to break a bond (homolytic cleavage - each atom receives same # e- from the bond) / also a measure of the strength of that bond / + # bc energy required to break a bond (bonded atoms are more stable) / large BDE = more stable bond

BDE (bond dissociation energy)

energy required to break bonds

Binding energy

energy required to break the nucleus down into its constituent parts / this amount of energy was released when the nucleus formed from individual nucleons

Informal sanction

enforced informally by others in society

Keto-enol tautomerization

enol and keto forms of a molecule are structural isomers and tautomers / keto form more stable than enol form

Cortical rxn

ensures that only a single sperm will fertilize egg

Second law of thermodynamics

entropy of an isolated system will never decrease over time

Bandura (social cognitive perspective of personality)

environment cognitions, observational learning determine behavior / reciprocal determinism / Bobo doll

Social cognitive theory of behavior (Albert Bandura)

environment, social interactions, and how we process our interactions w/ others and w/ the world shape our personality and attitude

Holoenzyme

enzyme complete w/ its prosthetic groups/cofactors

Proximity and orientation

enzyme positions the substrates near each other (proximity) and in the correct orientation for them to react

Telomerase

enzyme that catalyzes lengthening of telomeres / uses reverse transcriptase

Metal ion catalysis

enzyme uses metal ions to assist in catalysis

Lipases

enzymes / cleave triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol

Enzyme activity and pH

enzymes have a specific optimal pH range in which they function best, which depends on their role / digestive enzymes, for ex, function most optimally at low pH / changes in pH will change the protonation state of the protein's residues and disrupt its biological function / severe pH changes may denature a protein

Acrosome rxn

enzymes in tip of sperm released and degrade through outer layers of egg → sperm penetrates egg → sperm and egg plasma membrane fuse and sperm donates its haploid genetic material → form zygote

Adrenal medulla

epinephrine/norepinephrine = role in activating SymNS

Rate law

equation that relates rate of a rxn to the concentration of the reactants

Retro-aldol rxn

essential reverse of aldol rxn / bond btwn alpha and beta carbons broken

Transesterification

ester added to alcohol and original OR group of ester exchanged for incoming OR group of alcohol / acid catalysis required / these two esters exist in equilibrium / nucleophilic attack by O of alcohol on partial positive C of carbonyl

Ester hydrolysis

ester → carboxylic acid + alcohol / addition-elimination rxn / biological application: triglyceride → fatty acid + glycerol / requires an acid or base catalyst and water / forward direction = acid-catalyzed hydrolysis / reverse direction = Fischer esterification

Ovulation

estrogen produced by follicle trigger a spike in LH (and FSH) levels by positive feedback → egg is released from follicle into fallopian tube → egg can now be fertilized by sperm for a brief window of time / released egg paused in metaphase II of meiosis / completes meiosis II if fertilized / follicle becomes corpus luteum after ovulation / occurs around day 14 of cycle

Ethnocentrism

evaluation of people from other cultures based on the values and beliefs of your own culture; assume that your way of doing things is the "right way" and is superior to other cultures

Autosomal dominant

every affected individual must have an affected parent / often appears in almost every generation

Puberty through menopause (oogenesis)

every menstrual cycle, a few primary oocytes complete meiosis I, forming one polar body (not used) and one secondary oocyte per primary oocyte / in maturing follicles during ovulation, secondary oocytes proceed w/ meiosis II up until metaphase; pause at metaphase

Arousal theory of motivation

every person has their own optimum level of arousal / at this level they perform optimally → behavior occurs in order to achieve this level of arousal

Respiratory acidosis

excess CO2 causes drop in blood pH bc carbonic acid produces H+ ions / caused by hypoventilation

Renal compensation

excess carbonic acid excreted and bicarbonate reabsorbed

Glutamate

excitatory neurotransmitter

Multiculturalism (ethnic pluralism)

existence of many different cultures w/in one society / various cultures all respected and individuals do not have to give up their cultural identity to live in the society

E site

exit site / tRNA has transferred the growing peptide to tRNA in the P site, and exits the ribosome

Harlow and attachment

experiments using monkeys to study attachment and distress / demonstrated that infant monkeys had an innate need for tactile bonding with mother / attachment not solely for food/nourishment purposes

Cooperativity

explains how changes in the concentration of the substrate may affect the enzyme's activity / refers to proteins that can bind to more than one of the substrate molecules

Encoding specificity principle

explains how the conditions present at encoding influence memory retrieval / state-dependent and context-dependent

Misinformation effect

exposure to misleading information after an event can alter the memory and lead to errors in recall

Epistasis

expression of alleles for 1 gene dependent on alleles for another ("modifier") gene / presence of 1 gene completely masks presence of another gene

Broca's aphasia

expressive aphasia

Penis

external muscular structure required for copulation

Osmotic pressure (membranes)

external pressure that would need to be applied in order to prevent water movement by osmosis / greater diff in concentration across membrane -> more water movement occurs -> higher osmotic pressure

Formal

external sanctions are put in place to prevent chaos/anarchy

Arousal (sexual)

facilitated by parasympathetic NS, enabling erection, lubrication, etc.

Orgasm (and ejaculation)

facilitated by sympathetic NS

Formation of peptide bond

facilitated by tRNA during translation / addition-elimination rxn btwn carboxylic acid and primary amine (amine attacks carbonyl) / rxn is non-spontaneous... requires catalysis and ATP

FSH (anterior pituitary)

facilitates production of eggs/sperm / facilitates puberty and reproductive processes

Prolactin (anterior pituitary)

facilitates production of milk in mammary glands

Explicit / Declarative

facts, events, experiences / episodic (personal experiences, autobiographical events) / semantic (facts, concepts, general knowledge)

Self-fulfilling prophecy

fals perception of a situation (often a stereotype) become internalized and affects the behavior of that person, ultimately resulting in manifestation of that perception

"Recovered memories"

false/implanted memories

Main structures of functionalism

family, education, religion, crime, economy; element of society may be functional, dysfunctional, or both

Four main agents that facilitate socialization

family, school, peers, mass media

Hyperopia

farsightedness / lens not curved enough so too little refraction of light / correct w/ convex lens

Cardiac myocytes have 2 types of voltage-gated channels

fast sodium and slow calcium

Beta ox activation

fatty acid must first be activated before it can enter beta oxidation / occurs in endoplasmic reticulum, cytosol, or outer mitochondrial membrane / product of activation is fatty acyl CoA molecule / requires 2 ATP and 1 CoA

Glucagon inhibits

fatty acid synthesis, glycolysis, glycogenesis

Beta ox

fatty acids undergo a repeated series of 4 rxns (one cycle), to liberate 1 acetyl CoA, 1 FADH2, and 1 NADH per turn of the cycle / each turn cleaves two Cs

Hypodermis

fatty layer that stores fat and provides skin w/ insulation and cushioning

Universal emotions

fear, anger, contempt, disgust, sadness, happiness/joy, surprise

Mixed economy

features of market and command economy (US)

Avoidant

feeling inadequate, inferior, and ashamed of oneself / extremely sensitive to rejection

Endorphins

feelings of euphoria and well-being / released after exercise

Affective component of attitude

feelings/emotions about an object/person/situation that influence our attitudes towards it

LH (anterior pituitary)

females = triggers formation of corpus luteum and ovulation / males = triggers production of testosterone in Leydig cells of testes

Theories that are both micro and macro

feminist theory, social constructionism

Anaerobic respiration

fermentation

Epinephrine/Norepinephrine

fight-or-flight hormones / released under stress / epinephrine more of a hormone / norepinephrine more of a neurotransmitter

Spleen

filters damaged cells from blood and other debris / filters bloods, destroys/recycles old RBCs, provides a place for platelets and WBCs to mature and reside

Gastrulation

first cell movements and formation of three germ layers

Innate (non-specific) immunity

first line of defense / general protection, not specific / skin, hair, mucus membrane, cilia in trachea, saliva and tears

Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) (nephron)

first region of tubule where reabsorption and secretion occurs

Primary care

first-line of care / preventative medicine and ongoing care

HEJ

fix double strand breaks and removals of DNA regions / must be done after DNA replication because requires a sister chromatid

NHEJ

fix double strand breaks and removals of regions of DNA when homologous DNA is not available / cleaved ends of DNA are ligated together / mutagenic

Mental set

fixate on using a problem solving method that has worked in the past

Functional fixedness

fixate on viewing the functions of a certain object as fixed and failing to explore other options

Cartilage

flexible connective tissue involved in supportive framework / structural component of many body parts / found at end of long bones as cap

Aortic valve

flow from L ventricle to aorta

Pulmonary valve

flow from R ventricle into pulmonary artery

Perfusion

flow of blood through a tissue

Gender

fluid, like sexuality / social construct

FISH

fluorescent in situ hybridization / use to determine gene expression in a specific tissue/region of an organism

Marx (conflict theory)

focus on class struggle btwn those who control production (bourgeoisie) and the working class / thought that this was the predominant and most influential ongoing conflict in society / believed capitalism was doomed to collapse

Lens

focuses light onto the retina; biconvex shape refracts light / curvature of lens is constantly changing (accommodation) due to ciliary muscles → enables one to focus on objects at different distances / ciliary muscles under parasympathetic control

Conflict theory

focuses on conflict over resources, values, and interests, as well as differences in power / society as a constant struggle for social, political, economic, and material resources; these struggles and power differentials are inherent and maintain order in society / social structures and institutions have inherent inequality

"Social exchange theory"

focuses on decisions regarding interaction and costs/benefits that can be tangible, or intangible

Macrosociology

focuses on large-scale structures/institutions and social processes / looking at society as a whole

"Rational choice theory"

focuses on measurable resources/profits/costs

Microsociology

focuses on small-scale interactions and considerations of the individual

Selective attention

focusing on a single input while filtering out all other inputs

Cleavage

following fertilization, zygote undergoes rapid round of cell division w/minimal growth btwn divisions → cells form a compacted mass called the morula

Beta ox products

for a fatty acid w/ n Cs... # acetyl CoA produced = n/2 / # cycles of beta oxidation = # NADH = # FADH2 = n/2 - 1... "-1" bc the last round produced 1 acetyl CoAs

Osteoblasts

form new bone through Ca+2 and mineral deposition and creating collagen

Tight junction

form tight seal btwn cells / prevent substances from passing btwn cells / form impermeable barrier

Characteristics of ideal bureaucracy

formal structure comprised of hierarchy, governed by written rules and regulations, division of labor into specialized units, impersonality (all matters conducted in an unbiased manner), impartial employment based on qualifications/merit

Formal sanction

formally enforced by an institution or organization

Initiation (translation)

formation of initiation complex / tRNA is in the P site at the end of initiation and start of elongation

Ketogenesis

formation of ketone bodies from acetyl CoA and from ketogenic amino acids / requires 2 acetyl CoA molecules per ketone body formed

Neurulation

formation of nervous system from ectoderm / type of organogenesis

Angiogenesis

formation of new blood vessels

Acid anhydride

formed from addition of two carboxylic acids and removal of H2O / also formed from other carboxylic acid derivatives

Strecker synthesis of amino acids

forming a.a. from an aldehyde / create both L and D a.a. (non-stereospecific) / cyanide used in mechanism

Gabriel-Malonic Ester synthesis of amino acids

forming a.a. from primary alkyl halide and phthalimide / also non-stereospecific

Glycogenesis

forming glycogen from glucose / occurs when blood GLC level high / triggered by insulin / source of energy = UTP

Attachment theory

forming strong attachment to primary caregiver is crucial part of personal development / attachment has emotional, physical, and cognitive components

PPP oxidative phase

forms NADPH and ribulose-5-P

PPP non-oxidative phase

forms ribose-5P and other glycolytic intermediates / glycolytic intermediates that are involved (FRC-6P and Glyc-3P) may leave the PPP and enter glycolysis

(Chemical) Equilibrium

forward and reverse rxns are occurring at equal rates so there's no net change in the concentration of products or reactants / no energy entering or leaving the system

Lymph nodes

found throughout body and function to filter lymph / contain WBCs (B and T cells) → vital to immune response

Mole fraction

fraction of mixture of gases that is one specific species / mol fraction A = # mol A / total # mol = na / (na + nb + nc + ... )

Platelets

fragments of cells that originated in bone marrow / crucial to clotting response (hemostasis) / < 1% blood volume

Axodendritic

from axon terminal of presynaptic cell to dendrite of postsynaptic cell

Axosomatic

from axon terminal of presynaptic cell to soma of postsynaptic cell

Broca's area

frontal lobe of dominant hemisphere / controls production of speech

Islet of Langerhans cells

fulfill endocrine functions → hormones travel in blood to distant target organs

Barriers to problem solving

functional fixedness, mental set, irrelevant info, heuristics and biases

Cardiac muscles

functional syncytia → cells interconnected via gap junctions / enables rapid spread of action potential so that all cardiac cells of a certain region are synchronized (contract at approximately the same time) / cells of R and L atria connected but atria separate from ventricles

Nephron

functional unit of kidney; contains special tubules through which fluid travels and urine is formed, as well as surrounding blood vessels that exchange solutes and fluid w/ tubule / performs filtration of blood (separates salts and other solutes from plasma), secretion (active transport, osmosis, and passive diffusion), and reabsorption (removing fluids and other solutes from filtrate for retention)

Theories of macrosociology

functionalism, conflict theory

Pepsin (stomach)

functions optimally in low pH environment of stomach / breaks down proteins into small polypeptides

Reduction

gaining of e- / species reduced = oxidizing agent / oxidation state will decrease

Cluster of PNS neuronal cell bodies

ganglia

Nodes of ranvier

gaps btwn myelin sheath along length of axon

Effusion

gas escaping through a small hole

Deviation of Real Gases from Ideal Gases

gases are MORE ideal at HIGH temp and LOW pressure (weaker IMF) / LOW temp and HIGH pressure -> larger deviations from an ideal gas

KMT and heat capacity

gases have certain heat capacity at constant V, and a different one at constant P heat capacity = energy/temp

Gene amplification

gene duplication; the duplication of a region of DNA resulting in an increase in the number of copies of a gene

Central traits (Allport)

general building blocks of personality

Acidity of alcohols

generally weakly acidic (pKa btwn 15-20) / alcohols w/ more nearby alkyl groups are weaker acids bc alkyl groups are e- donating, so the resultant conjugate base is destabilized / phenol is more acidic bc negative charge of conjugate base is delocalized by resonance (pKa ~ 10)

Linkage

genes are close to each other on a chromosome... more likely to be inherited together / less likely to independently assort

Virus

genetic material enclosed in protein coat (capsid) / not considered living / enveloped or non-enveloped

Stress-diathesis model

genetic vulnerability towards psychological disorder plus environmental stressors results in development of disorder (must have both facets for disorder to develop)

Anchoring

giving additional weight to the first information that you were provided with

Adrenal cortex

glucocorticoids (cortisol) and mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

Glucagon stimulates

gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, lipolysis/beta ox

Triglyceride

glycerol backbone + 3 long chain fatty acids / glycerol linked to hydrocarbon chain by carboxylic acid of fatty acid (ester bond)

Initially fasted state

glycogenolysis runs in order to degrade stored glycogen and release GLC into blood

Aerobic respiration

glycolysis + PDC + CAC + oxidative phosphorylation

Reciprocal regulation

glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are reciprocally regulated -> same substrate regulates opposing enzymes oppositely / one substrate inhibits an enzyme of glycolysis while activating an enzyme of gluconeogenesis (vice versa) / overall impact is that when one of the pathways is being strongly activated, the other is inhibited

Insulin stimulates

glycolysis, glycogenesis, fatty acid synthesis, and protein synthesis (bc the substrates for these processes is present at high BGL)

Hostile aggression

goal to harm / impulsive, uncontrolled, reactive

Command economy

govt owns and operates

Shaping

gradually teach a complex behavior by breaking it down and reinforcing it progressively in steps

Narcissistic

grandiose self-image / unable to apologize / egocentric

Semi-log plot

graph of log(amount) vs time / linear / useful because slope = decay constant

HPLC output

graph w/ series of peaks that shows exact "retention time" (how long it stayed in column) for each component

Bile

greenish-brown fluid that facilitates digestion of fats in small intestine / enables absorption of fat-soluble vitamins / enables excretion of bilirubin

Column

group

"Protecting group"

group added to reactant molecule in order to prevent certain region from reacting

Group think

group decision making tends to occur in a way that minimizes dissent (conformity of group members) → results in less creativity and less analysis of all the possibilities / more common in cohesive groups

Oligarchy

group governed by a select few / the elite

Rh factor

group of 50 different blood antigens / most common = Rh positive and Rh negative

Follicle

group of associate cells in ovary / oocyte is housed and matures here / one follicle grows/matures and releases a single egg per month

Operon

group of genes controlled by a single promoter / mainly in prokaryotes

Species

group of genetically similar organisms able to interbreed, producing viable and fertile offspring

Population (biology)

group of organisms of same species that live in same general region and naturally interbreed w/ each other

Age cohort

group of people around that same age / share similar characteristics and experiences / baby boomers → Gen X → Millennials → Gen Z

Organizations

group of people that come together for a certain purpose

Mirror neurons (observational learning)

group of specialized neurons in cortex that fire when we perform a certain action and when we observe others performing that action / vital component of social functioning

Ejaculatory duct

group of structures that enable ejaculation

Riot

group revolts against society in a violent public demonstration

Out-group

group to which an individual does not identify

In-group

group w/ a shared identity/interset to which an individual identifies

Counterculture

group w/ culture that opposed to dominant culture

Subculture

group w/ diff cultural identity than dominant culture

Types of non-associative learning

habituation, dishabituation, sensitization

Common nucleophiles

halides (I-, Br-, etc.), OH-, RO-, NH3, NH2-, CN-

Group 17

halogens / 7 valence e- → very reactive bc want to gain 1 e- to achieve full octet / react w/ metals forming salts

Parasitic

harm the host -> pathogens

The heart

has 4 chambers → R atrium, R ventricle, L atrium, L ventricle / looking at heart... R/L directionality reversed

AB+ individual

has all three of the most common antigens... makes no antibodies to those

Posterior pituitary

has neural link to hypothalamus / somas in hypothalamus, axons extend into posterior pituitary where axon terminals are

Well-defined

have clear goals/expected solutions / enable more specific planning from the start

Non-enzymatic proteins

have many functions, including transport, regulation, structural, hormonal, and defense

Ketoacidosis

health threatening side effect of too much ketogenesis / can lower pH of blood

When BP is too high

heart releases ANP which counteracts aldosterone

Convection

heat transfer due to movement of warm fluids (liquid or gas)

Conduction

heat transferred from molecule to molecule (materials must be in contact)

Alpha helix

helical structure formed by H-bonds that run parallel to the axis of the helix and form btwn every 3-4 a.a. / right-handed helix w/ approximately 3.6 residues per turn of helix / forms w/in one continuous region of a polypeptide chain / R groups stick outwards from helix

Factors affecting intelligence

heritability/genetics / environment and culture

Regulation of glycolysis

hexokinase inhibited by its product (feedback inhibition) / phosphofructokinase inhibited by ATP and by citrate / phosphofructokinase activated by ADP/AMP and by fructose 2,6-bisphosphate / pyruvate kinase is activated when fructose 1,6-bisphosphate builds up

Schizophrenia and dopamine

high dopamine

Red muscle fibers

high endurance, slow contraction / mainly aerobic respiration to produce ATP / high mitochondria and myoglobin / high capillary density

Regulation of ATP synthase

high levels of ATP = inhibition of ATP synthase

PDC inhibited by

high ratio of ATP/ADP (high energy charge), high ratio of NADH/NAD+, acetyl CoA (feedback inhibition), PDH kinase (turns PDC "off")

Higher IMF

higher MP, higher BP, decreased VP, decreased volatility (evaporates less easily, higher viscosity

Valence shell

highest energy (least stable) shell of that element

Transition state / activated complex

highest energy / least stable state w/in the rxn

E isomers

highest priority groups on opposite sides of the double bond

Z isomers

highest priority groups on same side

Glycogen

highly branched polymer of glucose that is readily broken down into glucose monomers, which then enter glycolysis / stored in liver and skeletal muscle

Adaptive (specific) immunity

highly specialized elimination of pathogens / creation of immunological memory

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

highly specific uptake of molecules

Inflammatory response

histamines and cytokines released / results in recruiting phagocytic and other immune cells to the area, swelling the area, redness, etc.

Centriole

hollow ring of 9 microtubules triplets

Microtubules structure

hollow rob of tubulin proteins (alpha and beta tubulin dimers) / largest

Hypothalamus

homeostasis / emotions, autonomic functions, basic drives / physiological responses to emotion / "control center" of endocrine system → directly controls pituitary gland via tropic hormones / controls "four F's" → fighting, feeding, fleeing, and sexual functioning

Lytic life cycle

host cell infected and viral genome injected → viral genome replicated and proteins synthesized → host cell lysed by viruses → viral progeny released / host cell always destroyed / special cases for cell w/ cell wall and for RNA virus

Lysogenic life cycle

host cell infected by virus and viral genome injected → viral genome incorporated into host genome → prophage genes silent → host carries out normal activities / reproduces itself normally → prophage replicated and passed onto daughter cells → eventually environmental signal triggers lytic phase to be entered

Lysosomes

house enzymes required to break down polymers / low pH (~4.5) is optimal for enzyme but lower than pH of cytoplasm (~7.2) / "trash and recycle receptacles of the cell" / autophagy

Difference threshold

how different two stimuli need to be for an individual to be able to recognize that they aren't the same (at least 50% of the time) / aka JND

Fluid intelligence

how does individual deal w/ new info given to them

Plasticity of a trait

how much a trait is affected by the environment

Electronegativity

how much an atom pulls e- towards itself / comparing EN of bonded atoms indicates whether the bond is covalent (lower EN diff so more of a "sharing" of e-) or ionic (larger EN difference so one atom in effect "donates" e- to the other, more EN atom) / across row = EN increases / up row = EN increases / FONClBrISCH

Oxidation #/state

how much atom is donating or receiving e- in bond (-, +, 0) / all atoms add up to net charge of molecule

Theoretical yield

how much product can theoretically be produced given starting amount of reactants

Convergence

how much your eyes must converge towards the midline of your face to focus on an image

Kinetics

how quickly rxn occurs, but how fast it reaches equilibrium will not affect the point at which equilibrium is reached

Fitness

how successful an animal is at passing down genes to next generation / measured by how many offspring

Attribution

how we understand our own behavior and the behavior of others / given a certain situation, we will attribute someone's (or our own) behavior to the situation or the person's disposition

Artificial selection

human intervention results in breeding between certain ind.s w/ desired traits / breeding

Humanistic perspective of personality (Carl Rogers)

humans are inherently good

Backcross

hybrid ind crossed w/ one of its parents (or ind w/ same genotype as parents) / can determine recombination frequency

Terpene

hydrocarbon w/ basic formula (C4H8)n / made up of multiple linked isoprenes / role = can be used in synthesis of cholesterol and steroids

Polycyclic aromatic compounds

hydrocarbons that consist of multiple aromatic rings w/o other substituents / nonpolar and not charged

Pathway of signals

hypothalamus (master organ) → pituitary (master gland) → endocrine glands throughout body

Van't hoff factor

i / how many ions one unit of a substance will dissolve into

Compare Q w/ K to determine which direction the rxn will procede

if Q < K → more salt/solute can be dissolved in solution; forward rxn dominates / if Q = K → rxn is at equilibrium (fully saturated) / if Q > K → excess solute dissolved; reverse rxn (precipitation) dominates

Photoelectric effect

if a light shines on certain metals, e- can be ejected from the metal (now called photoelectrons)

Le Chatelier's Principle

if a system is at equilibrium and some change is applied, then it will shift in order to reestablish equilibrium

Preferred conditions for Sn2

if carbocation formed is methyl or primary: Sn2 occurs / if carbocation is tertiary: Sn1 occurs / favored by polar or nonpolar, aprotic solvents (can't hydrogen bond) / favored by good LG / favored by strong and small/not bulky nucleophile (I- > Br- > Cl-)

Preferred conditions for Sn1

if carbocation formed is tertiary - Sn1 > Sn2 / if carbocation is methyl or primary - Sn2 >> / if carbocation is secondary - Sn1 or Sn2 / weaker nucleophile will favor Sn1 (H2O, ROH, NH3) / polar, protic solvents preferred bc they stabilize the carbocation

Chirality when lowest priority group is on dashed (facing back)...

if groups increase in CW = R, CCW = S

Steric effects

if large atoms/groups attached to or nearby carbonyl carbon, then they decrease the carbonyl carbon's susceptibility to nucleophilic attack (decrease reactivity)

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

if temp x = temp z, and temp y = temp z, then temp x = temp y

DNA Reannealing

if the conditions that cause denaturation are reversed, DNA strands can join up again

Conjugation (light / physics)

if there's enough conjugation, the light absorbed will be in the visible spectrum

Types of problems

ill-defined, well-defined

Mass hysteria

illusion of some threat spread throughout society and results in collective panic, fear, and stress

Microglia

immune defense in CNS / recognize foreign bodies, destroy infectious agents and other debris, control inflammation

Cyanohydrin

importance = precursor to some amino acids / formed through nucleophilic rxn in which cyanide ion added to aldehyde/ketone / often catalyzed w/ acid

Chargaff's rule

in a DNA double helix, [A] = [T] and [G] = [C] / so, [A] + [G] = [C] + [T] = 50% / [purines] = [pyrimidines]

Acid-base balance

in blood, bicarbonate buffer system facilitates acid/base balance / disruption of the buffer occurs when there is too much or too little bicarbonate is present in the blood

Deindividuation

in groups, individuals often experience a loss of self awareness and often exhibit a loss of restrain / "mob mentality" / Zimbardo prison experiment

Freudian defence mechanisms

in order to deal w/ discomfort due to subconscious desires, thoughts, or memories, the ego employs a variety of different defense mechanisms

Anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

Inclusive fitness

includes fitness gaines from helping to protect/raise/support organisms that have some relatedness to the organism

Elongation (translation)

incoming aa-tRNA enters A site (requires GTP and elongation factors) / large ribosomal subunit catalyzes formation of peptide bond btwn a.a. In P site (linked to growing peptide chain) and the new a.a. of A site / growing peptide chain has been transferred to the tRNA of the A site / tRNA at P site moves to E site, exits, as the tRNA at A site (w/ peptide chain) moves into P site / mRNA dragged along when tRNA moves A->P / elongation factor and GTP required

"Self concept" (humanistic perspective)

incongruence occurs if self concept (actual behavior and experience) contradicts ideal self... results in psychological distress

Sensitization

increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus / stimuli usually involve physical pain or emotional response

Allosteric enzyme

increase or decrease activity when some compound (allosteric regulator) binds to their allosteric site (a site other than active site)

Exothermic rxn (enthalpy < 0)

increase temp will decrease K value (more reactants at equilibrium) / "adding heat" like adding product, causes shift reverse, more reactants

Endothermic rxn (enthalpy > 0)

increase temp will increase K (more products at equilibrium) / "adding heat" like adding reactant, causes shift forward, more products

Positive impacts of medicalization

increased awareness, treatment, prevention, development of medications, etc.

Genetic predisposition

increased likelihood of developing certain trait or disease based on one's genotype

Lower EA

increased rate (more of the molecules are able to reach the energy state required to react)

Increased rate

increased temp, increased [reactants], lower activation energy (catalyst present)

More conjugation

increased wavelength of light absorbed = light absorbed closer to red

Nucleophilicity increases w/ ...

increasing negative charge of atom that acts as nucleophile (NH2- > NH3) / increasing size/polarizability of atom (I- > Cl- ; SH- > OH-) / decreasing EN because better at sharing its pair of e- / generally, strong bases are good nucleophiles (Bronsted-Lowry base is a nucleophile that attacks and forms a bond w/ a hydrogen) / decreasing steric hindrance

Enzyme activity and temperature

increasing temp will generally increase enzyme activity until it reaches the temp at which the protein denatures, at which point the enzyme cannot perform its proper function

External locus

ind believes that he/she doesn't have control over what happens / external forces are at work / more stressed/prone to depression / feels helpless

Internal locus

ind believes that he/she has control over what happens / believes that events arise largely from one's disposition/actions (as opposed to external forces) / praise themselves for success, blame themselves for failure / tend to be happier/less stressed

Indicators (chemistry)

indicate when equivalence point has been reached

Solubility product constant

indicates how soluble a certain substance is: higher Ksp = more soluble / tells us how far the rxn will proceed / rate of forward rxn = rate of reverse rxn / depends on temp and pressure = solubility of solids in liquids increases w/ higher temp, solubility of gases in liquids increases w/ lower temp and higher pressure

Degrees of Unsaturation

indicates number of pi bonds and/or rings / 1 ring = 1 DoU, 1 pi bond = 1 DoU, benzene = 4 DoU / if N is present, add an additional C and H

Positive Tollens test

indicates reducing sugar bc aldehyde present / no hemiacetals = negative

Keq

indicates relative ratio of products to reactants present once rxn has reached equilibrium / depends on relative stabilities of R and P / Keq also ratio of forward rate constant over reverse rate constant / K < 1 → more R than P at equilibrium / K = 1 → equivalent ratio of R:P at equilibrium / K > 1 → more P than R at equilibrium

Norm of reciprocity

individual is more likely to comply w/ request from someone who has accepted their request in the past

Tolerance

individual needs higher dose of the drug to produce the same effect / occurs with prolonged use

Personality

individual's characteristic patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion / influenced by temperament and other environmental elements / more malleable than temperament

Temperament

individual's underlying general nature

Role of culture in expressing and detecting emotion

individualistic cultures (Western) promote feelings of autonomy, pride, and independence; collectivistic cultures (Eastern) promote interconnectedness of individuals

Rational choice/exchange theory

individuals make decisions based on earning the greatest reward at the lowest cost / proposes that opportunities for profit, both tangible and intangible, motivate us to behave and interact w/ others in certain ways / crucial aspect of decision making is cost-benefit analysis / profit = (reward of behavior) - (cost of behavior) / looking at behavior from an economic perspective / costs and benefits are often subjective

Source monitoring error

individuals often make an error in identifying where a memory originated

Market economy

individuals own and operate means of production

Gas chromatography mobile phase

inert gas which carries liquid mixture through heated column

Secure attachment

infant happily explores surroundings when mother present / cries when she leaves, but can be quickly consoled when she returns / wary of stranger, but friendly when mother present / children w/ attentive, loving, and sensitive caregivers

Stepping reflex

infant held upright and feet touch ground → moves as if walking

Tonic neck reflex

infant's head turned to one side → arm on same side extends out, other arm curls inward

Disorganized attachment

infant's response unpredictable, extreme, and erratic / shows both ambivalent and avoidant / may appear passive, angry, and/or confused

Ambivalent attachment

infants cry when mother leaves and remain upset after she returns / inconsistent response to mother

Avoidant attachment

infants not very exploratory and are emotionally distant / show indifference to mother leaving and returning; mainly friendly to stranger

Viroid

infectious pathogen composed solely of a piece of circular ssRNA / no proteins involved / cause disease in plants

Prion

infectious protein molecule / induce other, correctly folded proteins to misfold / have very long incubation periods

Gentrification

influx of more affluent residents, increase the price of housing and goods, and displacement of the original residents who can no longer afford to live there

Working

info held temporarily for processing/manipulation / important for problem solving, decision making, and reasoning

Sensory pathways

info sent from PNS, where it is detected, to CNS, where it is interpreted

Population (sociology)

inhabitants of particular area

Cytoplasmic inheritance

inheritance of any gene found outside nuclear DNA / mitochondria in eukaryotes and chloroplasts in prokaryotes

Non-competitive inhibition

inhibitor binds at a site other than the active site (an allosteric site) and decreases the activity of the enzyme / changes the conformation of the active site, making it less catalytically effective / doesn't impact the binding of the substrate to the enzyme / no change in Km / decrease in Vmax

Uncompetitive inhibition

inhibitor binds to ES complex and reduces the enzyme's catalytic activity / doesn't bind to active site, so substrate can still bind there / better inhibition when substrate is higher (substrate must be present for it to inhibit) / decrease in Km / decrease in Vmax / doesn't compete w/ substrate for binding at active site

Competitive inhibition

inhibitor competes w/ substrate to bind (reversibly) at enzyme's active site / can be overcome by increasing [S] (enabling substrate to "outcompete" the inhibitor and make its effect negligible) / no change in Vmax / increase in Km (bc it interferes w/ binding of enzyme to substrate)

GABA

inhibitory neurotransmitter

Steps of transcription

initiation, elongation, termination

Biological perspective of personality

innate bio differences in personality

Endometrium

inner lining of uterus / where blastocyst is implanted

Medulla (kidney)

inner portion of kidney that contains the lower portion of the nephrons (loop of Henle)

Amnion

inner protective membrane; arises from inner cell mass / surrounds embryo and amniotic fluid / chorion + amnion = amniotic sac

Endoderm

innermost layer / lung inner layers, GI tract organs, liver, thymus, thyroid and parathyroid glands, lining of urethra and bladder

Spatial summation

inputs sent from multiple different neurons (arriving at different areas) are summed

Insertions and deletions

insertions occur when one or more additional base paris are inserted and deletions occur when one or more base pairs are deleted

Depolarization

inside of neuron becomes less negative (more positive) / mediated by influx of cations or efflux of anions / generally caused by influx of Na+ ions / depolarization = excitation → if cell depolarizes enough (reaches a threshold) then action potential will fire

Hyperpolarization

inside of neuron becomes more negative (below resting potential) / mediated by influx of anions or efflux of cations / generally caused by efflux of K+ ions / occurs in response to inhibitory stimuli and makes it more difficult for that neuron to fire a new action potential bc a larger negative voltage must be overcome to reach the threshold

Sertoli cells (testes)

inside seminiferous tubules / protect and nourish developing sperm / produce inhibin - hormone crucial for negative feedback on anterior pituitary

Factors that influence motivation

instinct, drive, needs, arousal

Hormonal regulation (slow control)

insulin and glucagon are released into bloodstream and control blood sugar levels through the regulation of specific enzymes of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis / most commonly these enzymes trigger an intracellular signal that results in the phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of enzymes

Diabetes

insulin not secreted or cells are resistant to insulin

Symbolic culture

intangible elements / shared ideas, values, and beliefs... language, norms, religious beliefs, values

Cell surface receptors

integral membrane proteins that bind to molecules in extracellular environment and relay signal to cell / communication enables cells to alter their structure and function

Main functions of the vertebrate nervous system

integrate and coordinate organ systems of body / interpret and adapt to changing conditions in external environment and to cues from w/in the body / consciousness, learning, memory, sensory capabilities, control of bodily functions, motivations, etc.

Crystallized intelligence

intelligence already committed to memory

Tautomerization

interconversion btwn tautomers / chemical equilibrium exists btwn interconversion (more keto favored)

Infrared region

intramolecular bonds stretch and compress w/ characteristic frequencies / these bond vibration frequencies are usually in the IR region of light / these frequencies can be measured and are indicative of the type of bond (btwn which atoms and w/in which functional group) that are present

Splicing

introns removed and exons joined together / performed by spliceosome complex

Autonomic NS

involuntary control of visceral motor functions / effectors = smooth and cardiac muscles/glands / regulation of internal environment (homeostasis)

ANS

involuntary control of visceral motor functions / homeostasis/ sends info to effectors (muscles, glands) / SyNS and PaNS

Smooth muscle

involuntary movements / controlled by autonomic NS / non-striated / tapered cell, sometimes syncytium / use calmodulin / in digestive tract and blood vessels

Cardiac muscle

involuntary movements / controlled by autonomic NS / striated / branched network of cells connected by intercalated disks / functional syncytium (not multinucleated, but acts like a syncytium bc cytoplasms of cells are directly connected due to intercalated disks) / AP longer than other muscle cells / use troponin + tropomyosin / found in heart

Peristalsis

involuntary wavelike movements of smooth muscle / enable bolus to even be swallowed while person is upside-down

Trauma and stressor-related disorders

involve extreme and prolonged mental disturbance following exposure to a traumatic event / individuals w/ more environmental stressors and from lower SES are more susceptible

Van der Waals forces

involve only partial charges (dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole, London dispersion)

Basophil and eosinophil

involved in allergic response

Cognitive component of attitude

involves one's beliefs, thoughts, and knowledge about the object

Behavioral therapy (behaviorist perspective of personality)

involves use of conditioning to shape client's behavior from maladaptive towards more adaptive patterns

Verbal communication

involves words

IMF strengths

ion-dipole > H-bonds > dipole-dipole > dipole-induced dipole > London dispersion forces

Largest diff EN

ionic bond (diff > 2)

Electrolytes

ions dissolved in solution

Pancreas

islet of Langerhans cells: alpha cells = glucagon production, beta cells = insulin production, gamma cells = somatostatin

cDNA library procedure

isolate and collect mRNA / use reverse transcriptase to change into DNA / insert DNA into bacterial plasmids / insert plasmids into bacteria / grow bacteria / isolate plasmid and purify DNA / sequence DNA

Epimers

isomers that differ at only one stereocenter

Tautomers

isomers that differ in position of H atoms and/or e-

Reproductive isolation

keeps distinct species separate / prevents hybridization / prezygotic barriers (prevents mating/fertilization) / postzygotic barriers (hybrid offspring inviable or sterile)

Secondary alcohol + oxidizing agent

ketone (redox rxn)

Regulation of CAC

key point = control over how much acetyl CoA is present / CAC slows when energy charge is high (lots of ATP), when the NADH:NAD+ ratio is high, and due to feedback inhibition / succinyl-CoA inhibits alpha-ketoglutarate DH and citrate synthase / citrate inhibits citrate synthase

When BP too low

kidney cells secrete renin → triggers angiotensin II to form → aldosterone released from adrenal cortex → increased Na+ uptake in kidneys → excess water reabsorbed → less fluid excreted / blood volume increases → BP increases

Erythropoietin

kidney hormone that stimulates RBC production in bone marrow

Cytotoxic (Killer) T Cells

kill abnormal host cells / detection = T receptor protein interacts w/ specific antigen (bound to MHC class I proteins) displayed on surface of abnormal host cell / each T is specific to a particular antigen/MHC

Parietal lobe

kinesthetic sense, spatial perception, spelling and arithmetic, general perception, object recognition, sensory discrimination / somatosensory cortex

Monarchy

kings and queens

Structural genes of Lac operon

lacZ, lacY, lacA

Hypoxia

lack of oxygen in a tissue

Criticism of psychoanalytic perspective of personality

lack of scientific basis

Bacterial pop growth

lag phase (bacteria prep cellular parts required for initial rounds of duplication) / exponential growth phase / stationary phase (nutrients limited, pop reaches carrying capacity)

Linguistic determinism

language entirely determines thought

Linguistic relativity (more ascribed to Whorfianism)

language shapes thought / more flexible than linguistic determinism

Cholesterol

large component of cell membranes / maintains fluidity and firmness

Ecclesia

large dominant religious organization that includes majority of members from the society / generally recognized as a national religion and allied w/ government / the state

Large intestine structure

large muscular tube w/ three main segments = ascending, transverse, and descending colon / thicker but shorter than small intestine, with no villi

Repetitive DNA

large proportion of eukaryotic and prokaryotic DNA is comprised of highly repetitive sequences (~⅔ in humans) / noncoding / not translated / highly variable btwn individuals

Larger diff EN

larger dipole moment

Secondary group

larger group comprised of less personal and more temporary relationships / often formed in a more formal setting

Retina

layer of eye onto which light is projected and detected by photosensitive cells (rods and cones)

Primase

lays down RNA primer (type of RNA polymerase)

Modeling (observational learning)

learning by observing and imitating others

Escape learning

learning occurs to get rid of an ongoing and unwanted stimulus / stop ongoing stimulus

Avoidance learning

learning to avoid unwanted stimulus that would arrive after correct behavior is not performed / avoid impending stimulus

Alkalosis

less bicarbonate reabsorbed

Concentration cell

less important / half cells have equivalent species but differ in concentration (occasionally temp) / same metal at anode and cathode / same solution but differing concentration

Source traits (Cattell)

less obvious, take a while to uncover

Absolute threshold

level of stimulus at which it will be detected 50% of the time

cDNA library

library of genetic material made from full transcribed and spliced eukaryotic mRNA

Dramaturgical approach

life is a stage analogy

Signal transduction

ligand binds to membrane receptor and signal is transmitted to inside via cascade of changes, often involving protein phosphorylation

Primary messenger

ligand that triggers cascade

Low amount of conjugation

light absorbed is in the UV spectrum

Stage 2

light sleep / theta waves w/ sleep spindles and K complexes

Spongy bone

lighter and less tough / made up of thin threads of bone called trabeculae

Info processing model

likens our cognitive processing to the functioning of a computer → both have an input device, a processing device, and storage / information can be moved into and out of storage / PIC

STM

limited duration memory (a few seconds) / information must be rehearsed and processed in order to be transferred to LTM / proposed capacity of STM is 7± 2 chunks of information

Anaerobic conditions

limited/no O2 available / only use glycolysis to make energy... needs NAD+ / pyruvate forms lactate or ethanol

Endothelial cells (endothelium)

line entire circulatory system (heart and all vessels / simple squamous cells

Nucleic Acid

linear strand of nucleotides joined by phosphodiester bonds / DNA and RNA

Anterior pituitary

linked to hypothalamus via portal system / receives hormones from hypothalamus, which are secreted into blood of portal system

Ligase

links Okazaki fragments of DNA daughter strand

Symbiotic

live in harmony w/ the host -> mutually beneficial

Mesophile

live in moderate temps

Psychrophile

live in very low temps

Secondary structure

local regions of folding of polypeptide chain due to interactions btwn backbone atoms (all atoms besides R groups) / H-bonds, alpha helix, Beta pleated sheet

Peripheral protein

located on outer surface of plasma membrane / rooted by polar and ionic interactions btwn protein residues and polar phospholipid head group

ATP synthase

location - inner-mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes / harnesses stored energy in proton gradient to make ATP through oxidative phosphorylation / H+ gradient causes rotation of protein and joins together ADP + Pi

Long bones

long and rod-shaped / often acted on by muscles like a lever → ex: humerus

LTP

long-term potentiation / strengthening of synapses btwn neurons that have fired together from recent experience

Intersectionality

looking at various social aspects and how they interact to shape the unique experiences of individuals / especially oppression and discrimination

Initiation complex

mRNA + tRNA + ribosome large & small subunits + IF proteins

Properties of translation

mRNA read 5'->3' / energy input required at every step... anabolic process

Oxytocin and ADH (hypothalamus)

made in soma of neuroendocrine cells whose axons terminals are located in posterior pituitary / released by posterior pituitary

Ribosomes structure

made of rRNA and other proteins / contain a small and a large subunit / large subunit = catalyzes peptidyl transfer / small subunit = recognizes and binds to the correct region of the mRNA

Starch

main carb in humans' diet

Lungs

main organ of gas exchange / surrounded by pleura (two thin membranes)

Church

mainstream and well-integrated religion / may be affiliated w/ the state or not

Steady-state

maintaining relatively constant conditions of a certain parameter or rxn / maintenance of steady-state in an organism is, as a whole, homeostasis / aka "dynamic equilibrium"

Le Chatelier's Principle (fast control)

maintains chem equilibrium in rxn / higher concentration of reactants than products induces the rxn to flow in the forward direction

Progesterone (ovaries)

maintains secretory endometrium

Homeostasis

maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment (temp, blood GLC level, etc.)

Types of depressive disorders

major depressive disorder, persistent depressive disorder, premenstrual dysphoric disorder, postpartum depression, seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

PCT

major site of reabsorption and secretion / nutrients and salts reabsorbed, wastes secreted

CO2 transport in blood

majority of CO2 transported in blood as carbonic acid and bicarbonate / requires carbonic anhydrase

O2 transport in blood

majority of O2 carried by hemoglobin / small amount travels freely in plasma

Agents of socialization

majority of socialization occurs during the formative years of our childhood

Beta cells

make and release insulin

Government

makes and enforces rules of society, maintains social order, dictates operation of economy, maintains relationships w/ other nations

RNA polymerase II

makes hnRNA/mRNA

SER

makes lipids used by cell or secreted / metabolizes carbs, steroids, and some toxins

RNA polymerase I

makes rRNA

RNA polymerase III

makes tRNA

rRNA in translation

makes up ribosomes (along w/ associated proteins), which catalyze the synthesis of polypeptides

Amylopectin

makes up starch / branched (glycosidic bonds at branch points)

Amylose

makes up starch / unbranched (glycosidic bonds btwn GLC monomers)

Confabulation

making up info to fill memory gaps / part of Korsakoff's syndrome

Biological sex

male, female, intersex = based on genital structures, not fluid

Metals

malleable / shiny / solid @ room temp (except Hg) / good conductors of heat and electricity / easily lose valence e- / good reducing agents / lower EN

The 3 Ossicles

malleus, incus, stapes

Polygyny

man married to multiple women

Types of bipolar and related disorders

manic episode (hypomanic), depressive episode (mild = dysthymia / severe = major depressive episode), Bipolar I disorder, Bipolar II disorder

Dreaming (Freud)

manifest content (actual events/plot of the dream) and latent content (dream's symbolic meaning)

Gender segregation

many activities, institutions, and traditions are segregated

Cilia and flagella

many cilia per cell, only a few flagella / attached at basal body / 9+2 arrangement of microtubules

Vitamins

many water soluble vitamins act as cofactors / may be a precursor to a cofactor or act as a cofactor itself / ex: FAD and FMN (electron carriers) made from vitamin B2

Social network theory

map of social network contains nodes (individuals) linked by social ties / ties differ in strength

Mass defect

mass of an intact nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of the nucleons that make it up / this amount of mass was converted to energy and released when the nucleus formed (nuclear binding energy) and these quantities are related by E=mc^2

Glomerulus (nephron)

mass of capillaries through which blood filtration occurs

Structure of erythrocytes

mature RBCs contain no nuclei or cellular organelles / biconcave disk shape / cytoplasm has extensive amount of hemoglobin

Osteocyte

mature bone cell embedded inside spaces in bone

Social construct

meaning, significance, and concepts associated w/ a particular object/event → created and modified by individuals in society / assess how individuals and groups contribute to this dynamic and ongoing process of social construction

Social control

means of controlling the behavior of an individual/group

Entropy (S)

measure of "disorder" of system / Sgas > Sliquid > Ssolid / systems naturally evolve towards states of increasing entropy / entropy of the universe is constantly increasing

Reduction potential

measured in volts / how much does it want to require electrons (is it able to be reduced)? / high EA = larger rdx potential / measures tendency of molecule to be reduced

Cell potential

measured in volts / voltaic cells are spontaneous and create a net current, so cell potential > 0 / reduction potential of cathode species should be larger / redox rxns... spontaneity related to cell potential

Enthalpy (H)

measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system

fMRI

measures changes in blood flow / info about activity and functioning of brain

Calorimetry

measuring amount of heat absorbed or released during a rxn

Mass media

media that reaches large amount of people → powerful influence on culture

Limbic system

mediates emotional responses, basic drives, memory, and the maintenance of homeostasis / thalamus, hypothalamus*, amygdala*, olfactory bulb, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus

Antipsychotics

medications often used to treat schizophrenia / first-generation "typical" antipsychotics / second-generation "atypical" antipsychotics

Treatment of depressive disorders

medications, counseling, CBT, TMS, ECT (TMS and ECT only for severely depressed patients)

Hindbrain

medulla, pons, and cerebellum

Pineal gland

melatonin = makes one feel tired

Normative organization

members organized together voluntarily due to shared goals and sense of purpose / ex: religious organizations, charities, sorority/fraternity

Utilitarian organization

members rewarded and/or compensated for their contributions and membership / shared purpose of productivity / ex: businesses, university

Coercive organization

membership is not voluntary / members must conform to strict rules and obey authority; extremely structured and strict / use force to ensure conformity / loss of individuality / ex: prison, military

Exocytosis

membrane-bound vesicle (endosome) fuses w/ plasma membrane, releasing its contents to extracellular environment / particles exit cell

Implicit / Nondeclarative

memories w/o conscious recall / procedural (skills and muscle memory) / priming / conditioning

Flashbulb memories

memory of an extremely salient and emotionally-charged event

3 key elements of persuasion

message characteristics, source characteristics, target characteristics

mRNA

messenger RNA: encode the polypeptide's a.a. sequence, as encoded by the DNA (starts as hnRNA in eukaryotes, then processed to mRNA)

Cellular respiration

metabolic pathways that convert energy from food nutrients into energy stored in ATP

Glycogenolysis

metabolizing glycogen into glucose monomers / occurs when blood GLC level low / triggered by glucagon and epinephrine

Complex ion

metal ion surrounded by many ligands (lewis bases - e- donors) / net charge of complex ion adds up to net charge of molecule

Brain stem

midbrain + hindbrain

Mesoderm

middle germ layer / connective tissue, cardiovascular system and lymph vessels, muscles, urinary and genital organs, adrenal cortex

Activation energy

min energy that must be provided to reactants for rxn to occur / EA required so that reactants can get over initial energy "hump", which is the highly unstable and high energy transition state / activated complex

Mitochondria self-replicating

mitochondrial DNA = circular / derived from prokaryotic cells / have their own transcription and translation machinery / has its own 70s ribosomes / shows maternal inheritance

Beta ox location

mitochondrial matrix

Location of CAC

mitochondrial matrix in eukaryotes and cytoplasm in prokaryotes

Location of PDC

mitochondrial matrix in eukaryotes and cytoplasm in prokaryotes

Ketogenesis location

mitochondrial matrix of cells in liver

Kinetic molecular theory (KMT) of Gases

model that is used to describe how (ideal) gases behave / rests on assumptions of ideal gas law

Inosine

modified A base / often at the wobble position of the anticodon / can base pair w/ A, U, and C

Golgi body

modifies, sorts, packages, and sends out proteins and lipids / structure = stack of multiple flattened disks called cisternae / cis region = receives proteins from RER / trans region = where proteins and other molecules sent out to proper destination

Facilitated diffusion

molecule requires a helper protein to cross the membrane (moving down its gradient) / selective permeability bc proteins only allow certain solutes to diffuse through

Zwitterion

molecule that has both (-) and (+) and is net neutral

Carbocation

molecule w/ carbon atom that has a +1 charge (only has 3 bonds to it) / doesn't have full octet / unstable

Carbanion

molecule w/ carbon atom that has a -1 charge (has 3 bonds to it plus a lone pair) / has full octet / unstable bc -1 FC on atom w/ low EN

Basicity

molecule w/ more stable conjugate acid = more basic / opposite trends as acidity (i.e. decreasing EN of atom that gains H / smaller atom that gains the H atom) / less resonance of base (CH3CH2NH2>C6H5NH2) / atomic groups that are poor LGs are in general stronger bases

Acidity

molecule w/ more stable conjugate base = more acidic / increasing EN of the atom that loses the H (and gets a - charge as a conjugate base) / increasing resonance of conjugate base (delocalizing the - charge) / increasing size/polarity of the atom that has a - charge (HCl > HF) / if you have a smaller atoms, packing the (-) charge on that atom is more difficult to do because it is smaller

Hydrogen bond

molecule w/ partial + H atom (bonded to highly EN atom), which interacts w/ the lone pair on a highly EN atom (N, O, or F)

Size exclusion chromatography mobile phase

molecules dissolved in solvent

Diffusion of oxygen in lungs

molecules naturally move into an area of lower concentration

Heterocyclic aromatic compounds

molecules w/ multiple aromatic rings and one or more elements other than carbon (often S, O, or N) / know furan and pyrrole

Secondary messengers

molecules w/in cell involved in transducing and amplifying signal

Eukaryotes and Central Dogma

monocistronic mRNA / transcription occurs in nucleus / translation occurs in cytoplasm / 3 main RNA polys

Serotonin

mood, hunger, sleep, digestion / depression = low / tryptophan

High BP for hydrocarbons

more Cs, higher molecular weight, less branching, less kinks

Effect of multiple bonds on rigidity

more bonds = more rigid / atoms in single bond are free to rotate about the bond / partial double bond restricts movement / atoms involved in double-triple bond fixed

Compact bone

more compact and tough / made up of osteons (Haversian systems)

Normal phase HPLC longer time spent in column

more polar

DCT

more reabsorption and secretion / fine tuning based on hormonal cues / salts and H2O reabsorbed / urea, H+, and K+ secreted

Better LG

more reactive acid derivative / less basic LG = better LG / halides (Cl-) are great LGs (very poor bases) → acid halides are the most reactive / RCOO- = good LG / RO- and NHR-/NR2- are poor LGs (basic groups)

Blastulation

morula continues to divide and cells arrange themselves into a blastula

Albumin

most abundant blood protein

Neutrophil

most abundant type / defend against fungi and bacteria

"Wild-type"

most common form of trait (may be recessive)

Mesylates (OMs) and tosylates (OTs)

most commonly used to protect alcohols / good LGs, so easily removed once done protecting

Voltaic/Galvanic cells

most important / spontaneous redox rxn occurs and generates flow of e- (current) / chem rxn (redox) used to create electrical energy

Single Copy DNA

most translated genes / highly conserved (low mutation rate)

Efferent nerves

motor = carry signals from CNS to effector tissues

Path of food

mouth → pharynx → esophagus → x sphincter → stomach → pyloric sphincter → duodenum (small intestine) → jejunum → ileum → ileocecal valve → large intestine → rectum → anus

Isomerase

move atoms around on one molecule so that it changes into a new isomer / ex: phosphohexose isomerase

Cerebellum

movement and balance / coordination

Gene flow

movement of genes/alleles btwn pops / migration

Osmosis

movement of water across semi-permeable membrane from area of low solute concentration (hypotonic) to area of higher solute concentration (hypertonic) / [low] to [high]

Secularization

movement towards embracing attitudes and beliefs that do not have a religious basis → religion losing its significance in society

Effect of multiple bonds on length and BDE

multiple bond = shorter bond length, larger BDE (bc stronger bond)

Allelic series

multiple diff alleles for a gene w/ varying degrees of dominance / one allele may be dominant when paired w/ a certain allele and recessive when paired w/ another

Quaternary structure

multiple subunits (folded polypeptide chains) interacting

Sliding filament theory

muscle contraction occurs when thin and thick filaments slide past each other due to the interaction btwn myosin head groups and actin / myosin head groups shift in one direction pulling all the thin filaments in that direction and shortening the sarcomere

Diaphragm

muscle that facilitates inhalation and exhalation by changing the volume of the thoracic cavity

Vagina

muscular tube connecting to uterus at cervix

Dependent

must be taken care of / submissive and clinging behavior

Blood-GLC levels

must stay w/in very constant range (homeostasis)

Auxotroph

mutant organism that cannot synthesize particular substance required for growth or cannot metabolize a particular nutrient

White matter in CNS

myelinated axons

"Heart attack"

myocardial infarction (MI) - blockage of one of these 3 coronary arteries → ischemia of cardiac muscle → cardiac muscle begins to die

Principle quantum number

n / tells you the energy shell of the electron and ranges from 1 onwards / higher n values = further from the nucleus = higher in energy / the value of n also tells you how many different subshells are in that energy level

Cervix

narrow bottom portion of uterus / where blastocyst is implanted

Piaget's theory of development

nature and nurture, assimilation, accomodation

Myopia

nearsightedness / lens too curved so too much refraction of light / correct w/ concave lens

Baby boomer cohort is aging

need to prepare the funds, programs, med resources, and working force to support them and eventually replace them in the economy

Reflex arc

nerve pathway controlling reflex

Bundles of PNS axons

nerves

PNS

nerves / bundle of axons = nerves / afferent nerves (sensory) / efferent nerves (motor) / SNS and ANS / neurons carry signals btwn CNS and rest of the body

Grey matter in CNS

neuronal cell bodies

Electrical synapse

neurons connected by gap junctions / direct transmission

Ion-exchange chromatography pH = PI

neutral

Strong acid + strong base =

neutral salt / neutral salt contains the very weak conjugate base of a strong acid and very weak conjugate acid of a strong base

Bicarbonate

neutralizes highly acidic bolus coming from low pH stomach, enabling enzymes to function

Rules for resonance structures

never move atoms from one resonance to another (don't move H atom) / net charge of molecule must be same across all contributors / some, more stable resonance contributors will contribute more to the true structure of the molecule

Assimilation

new info is fit into existing schema (schema informs the new experience) --- same schema

Accommodation

new info results in changing an existing schema or creating a new one (new info informs the schema) --- change schema / create schema

Retroactive interference

new learned gets in the way

Nucleotide

nitrogenous base + sugar + 1-3 phosphates

Effects of adding an uncoupler protein?

no ATP made / result in production of heat

Chemical synapse

no direct connection btwn neurons / neurotransmitters used

Passive transport

no energy input required / solute particle moves down its gradient into an area of lower concentration (spontaneous movement)

Saturated solution

no more solute can be dissolved in solvent

Pauli exclusion principle

no more than 2e- per orbital, one w/ up spin and one w/ down spin

Adding inert gas to a container w/ constant volume

no shift (bc no change in ratio of species' partial pressures)

Group 18

noble gases - full octet → unreactive (inert) therefore rarely participate in chemical reactions

Transposon / Transposable Element (TE)

non-coding regions of DNA that can move around in the genome and can cause structural changes and mutations in DNA / makeup over 40% of human DNA

Telomeres

non-coding repeats added to ends of DNA to prevent degradation / length of telomere tells the age of the cell

Nonmetals

non-malleable / dull / s, l, or / poor conductors of heat and electricity / good oxidizing agents / higher EN

Glial cells (neuroglia)

non-neuronal "helper cells" of nervous system / provide structural support, nutrition, insulation, waste cleanup, and protection

Cofactors

non-protein molecule or ion that helps the enzyme perform its bio function / include metal ions, coenzymes, vitamins, prosthetic groups

Coenzymes

non-protein organic (nonmetal ions) helper molecules loosely associated w/ the enzyme

Prosthetic groups

non-protein organic helper molecules that are "permanently"/covalently bound to the enzyme; ex: iron of the heme prosthetic group in the center of hemoglobin / required for its function

Cult

non-traditional and socially deviant beliefs and practices (strays far from societal norms)

Reverse phase HPLC higher retention time

nonpolar

Reverse phase HPLC mobile phase

nonpolar

Reverse phase HPLC stationary phase

nonpolar

No diff EN

nonpolar covalent

Formation of ATP

nonspontaneous

Sympathetic in heart

norepinephrine and epinephrine increase rate and force contraction

Culture lag

norms and rules w/in culture take time to catch up w/ tech innovations and rapid societal advances → conflict / material culture evolves more quickly than non-material/symbolic culture

Informal

norms and values of a society dictate what is right and wrong

Carrier protein

not a tunnel / bind to molecule that needs to be transported -> conformational change -> molecule released to other side; uniporter, symporter, antiporter

Paramagnetic

not all e- are spin paired / attracted to an external magnetic field

Ischemia

not enough blood flow through a tissue → tissue starved of oxygen and nutrients, dangerous wastes and metabolites build up

Overall Sn2 mechanism

nucleophile attacks R-LG as LG leaves molecule → Nucleophile bound to carbon

Electron capture

nucleus captures e- from its own e- cloud and uses it to convert a proton into a neutron / daughter nucleus has one less proton but one more neutron, so same total mass

Gamma radiation

nucleus in excited state releases gamma rays and falls back to ground state / no change in mass or charge of parent nucleus... just in energy state

Behavior influencing attitude

numerous techniques of persuasion/acquiring compliance capitalize on the fact that previous behavior shapes one's attitude towards the request, often altering their subsequent behavior (know techniques in context of attitude/behavior and in that of persuasion)

Types of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders

obsessive-compulsive disorder, body dysmorphic disorder, hoarding disorder, trichotillomania (hair-picking)

Manifest functions

obvious and intended functions of a structure

Shock waves

occur when an object creates disturbances (or waves) in a medium that travel faster than the speed of sound in that medium (causes waves to pile onto each other, leads to high amplitude... sonic booms)

Luteal phase

occurs after ovulation and continues until next menstruation / corpus luteum secretes E and P / E and P cause endometrium to thicken and prevent GnRH, FSH, and LH (via negative feedback) → prevent another follicle from developing as body prepares to accept zygote in endometrium / corpus luteum begins to degenerate if fertilization doesn't occur / as corpus luteum degenerates at the end of luteal phase, E and P are no longer secreted and levels drop / drop in E and P → endometrium no longer maintained and sloughs off (menstruation) → cycle restarts

Oxidative phosphorylation

occurs in mitochondrial intermembrane space, directly requires O2

CAC

occurs in mitochondrial matrix (cytosol for prokaryotes), indirectly requires O2

PDC

occurs in mitochondrial matrix (cytosol for prokaryotes), indirectly requires O2

Role exit

occurs when an individual disengages from a particular role

Extinction

occurs when conditioned behavior stops once reinforcement or punishment has been removed

Operant conditioning

occurs when frequency of behavior is increased or decreased due to presentation of a consequence that follows it (reinforcement / punishment)

Associative learning

occurs when stimulus becomes associated w/ a certain response or w/ another stimulus

Oxidative stress

occurs when there are many reactive oxygen species (ROS) and not enough antioxidant species to defend against them / ROS = O2-, OH, H2O2 / cause damage to proteins, lipids, and bases of DNA/RNA / can trigger apoptosis

Rxn coupling

occurs when two rxns, 1 spontaneous and 1 nonspontaneous, are added together to yield a net rxn that is spontaneous

Schizotypal

odd and bizarre thoughts and behavior / limited affect / magical thinking

Cluster A

odd or eccentric behaviors / paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal

Short bones

often cuboidal or round → ex: ankle bone

TLC stationary phase

often silica gel (polar)

Integrity vs. despair (Erickson)

old age / look back on life and feel fulfilled... have a strong sense of identity and wisdom

Smell (olfaction)

olfactory bulb / mitral cells (receive info from olfactory receptor neurons), nasal epithelium (lines roof of nasal cavity), olfactory glomerulus (cluster of nerve endings), and olfactory receptor neurons

Negative cooperativity

once one substrate molecule is bound to the protein, the other binding sites have decreased affinity for subsequent ligands to bind

Unidirectional transfer

one cell donates, one cell receives

Induction (biology)

one cell signal to another, influencing developmental fate / may occur due to cells being in physical contact or a chem messenger

Two half rxns

one describes the species (electrode) that is oxidized and the other describes the species reduced

Dipole-induced dipole

one molecule w/ a permanent dipole attracted to another (NP) molecule

Interposition

one object that blocks another is closer

Phosphoryl group transfers

one of the phosphate groups of ATP can be transferred to another substrate to make an unfavorable rxn favorable

Conjugate acid base pair

one species before (conjugate acid) and after (conjugate base) having donated a proton / strong acid's conjugate has no basic properties / strong base's conjugate has no acidic properties

Meso compound

one stereoisomer in of a set of them for a molecule w/ at least 2 chiral centers and an internal plane of symmetry / optically inactive

Ascribed status

one that you are born w/ or is beyond your control

Bone remodeling

ongoing process of altering composition of bone due to hormonal cues or stress/strain on bone

Osteogenic cell

only dividing bone cells / differentiate into osteoblasts

Class II MHC

only found on antigen presenting cells (APCs), like B cells and macrophages, which phagocytize a foreign cell and display its antigens

Artery vs. Vein

only veins have valves / arteries are more muscular and thicker / vasoconstriction largely carried out by arterioles / pressure differences (artery > vein)

Before birth (oogenesis)

oogonia (in primordial follicles) divide by mitosis forming primary oocytes

Gated channels

open in response to change in voltage (voltage-gated channels) or to binding of a specific ligand, such as a neurotransmitter (ligand-gated channels)

ORF

open reading frame / continuous stretch of nucleotides w/ possibility of being translated / starts w/ start codon and ends w/ stop codon

Anus

opening at end of GI that enables feces to exit

O region of Lac operon

operator / repressor binds to decrease transcription

Enantiomers

opposite configuration at every chiral center / pair of enantiomers are optically active / will rotate light in opposite directions

Brain, vision pathway

optic chiasm → axons of optic nerve → LGN of thalamus → primary visual cortex of occipital lobe → higher visual processing in other regions of optical cortex

Hydrocarbons

organic compound containing C and H atoms only

Carboxylic acids

organic compound w/ carboxyl functional group / polar and protic / high boiling pt / weakly acidic (stronger than alcohols)... pKa ~ 4

Aneuploidy

organism has abnormal number of chromosomes

Polysomy

organism has one or more additional copies of a chromosome / down syndrome, triple X, kleinfelter's, turner

Haploid (1n)

organism has one set of chromosomes / each gene encoded by one allele

Chemotaxis

organism moves in response to gradient of chemical stimulus (to/away from increasing concentrations of substance)

Diploid (2n)

organism w/ two sets of chromosomes (one from each parent), called homologous chromosomes

Bureaucracy

organization w/ a hierarchical structure that is governed by extensive amount of rules/policies, and has detailed procedures for operation / purpose to max efficiency and order of organization / typically associated w/ governmental organizations, but can be non-governmental

Cattell (trait perspective of personality)

organized 16 personality factors (surface traits) into 5 global factors (source traits)

Eukaryotic initiation (transcription)

other helper proteins (transcription factors) find the promoter and recruit RNA pol / promoter has a "TATA Box" w/ many T and A bases

Attitude influencing behavior

our attitude towards a particular person, object, or situation often underlies how we behave

Self-efficacy

our evaluations of how well we can do something; may be low or high depending on task

Cortex (kidney)

outer portion of kidney that contains uppermost region of nephrons (glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, convoluted tubes)

Chorion

outer protective membrane / arises from trophoblast / contributes to placenta

Ectoderm

outermost germ layer / nervous system, pituitary gland and adrenal medulla, "attractive" stuff

Epidermis

outermost layer of skin / provides barrier to external environment and pathogens, and regulates water loss

Leydig cells (testes)

outside of tubules / release androgens

Inner ear

oval window, cochlea filled w/ fluid (endolymph), organ of Corti, hair cells, tectorial membrane, and basilar membrane (plus the vestibular system) / stapes transmits the vibrations to the oval window, which transmits them through the endolymph / pressure waves in the endolymph transmitted to hair cells (auditory sensory receptors)

Tertiary structure

overall 3D shape that polypeptide chain folds into due to interactions btwn side chains / involves mainly non-covalent bonds, disulfide bonds, hydrophobic interactions

Illness experience

overall subjective experience of being in a state of poor health / how people perceive and adjust to changes in their health

Bias

overconfidence, confirmation bias, anchoring, belief perseverance

Redox rxns involving aldehydes and ketones basic conditions

oxidation of aldehyde forms salt of carboxylic acid

pKa

pH at which half of the molecules of the compound are protonated and half are deprotonated

Isoelectric point

pH at which molecule is net neutral

pH regulation by respiratory system

pH of blood regulated via blood bicarbonate buffer system / blood pH must be btwn: 7.35-7.45

Synapsis

pairing of homologous chromosomes

Indicators (physics)

pairs of conjugates / either both different or one colored, one colorless (H-Ind and Ind-) / at a pH below that of the pKa of the indicator color of H-Ind dominates

Parathyroid

parathyroid hormone = increases Ca in blood by stimulating osteoclasts to breakdown bone and release Ca / reabsorption of Ca in kidneys and GI tract

Law of segregation

parent has 2 alleles per gene but only passes on one allele onto next generation / those two alleles of the parent cell segregate into daughter cells randomly, resulting in gametes that have one allele for a given gene

Authoritarian

parent is extremely strict, controlling, and shows little warmth/support

Permissive

parent is inconsistent, often gives in to child, and lacks the ability to discipline the child

Uninvolved/Neglectful

parent is uninvolved, emotionally detached, indifferent to child, and doesn't set rules

Lymphatic system

part of circulatory system composed of a network of vessels into which lymph drains from tissues and eventually returns to blood

Vestibular sense

part of the inner ear that sense motion, balance, and spatial orientation / orientation of our body w/ respect to gravity / contributes to our kinesthetic sense

Asch's experiment

participant conforms to other people's answers... even though it was wrong

High culture

participated in by the elite

Transverse wave

particles move in the axis perpendicular to the propagation of the wave / light propagates via transverse waves

Protection by respiratory system

particulate matter filtered out via organs/tissues of respiratory system

Emission spectrum

pass light through a substance and certain frequencies of light are emitted / it is visualized as bright bands (colors of bands represent which frequencies of light emitted) on a dark surface / light is emitted from the substance when an atom transitions from a high energy state (due to an excited electron) to a low energy/ground state / "fingerprint" of an atom

Socialization

passing down norms and values to next generation / facilitates overall functioning and homeostasis of society

B.F. Skinner (behaviorist perspective of personality)

patterns of behavior acquired through observational learning and operant conditioning; involves reinforcement / good behavior is rewarded = perform more of that behavior in future / bad behavior is punished = perform less of that behavior in future

Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders

patterns of obsessive thoughts/urges and maladaptive compulsions / thought → behavior

Central route info processing

people are largely persuaded by the content of the argument / attitude change results in highly predictable and enduring behavior

Bystander effect

people are less likely to help a victim when they are on of many bystanders

Normative social influence

people conform bc they want to be liked/accepted by others / peer pressure

Informational social influence (social proof)

people conform bc they want to be right and assume that others are correct

Peripheral route info processing

people largely persuaded by superficial aspects of the message or speaker / attitude change that results is temporary and not highly predictive of future behavior

Social facilitation

people tend to perform some tasks better when in the presence of others

Social loafing

people tend to put in less effort when they are in a group than they would if they were doing the project/task alone

Presbyopia

peoples lenses become less flexible as they age / become far-sighted

Hydrophilic hormones

peptides and amino acid derivatives / majority of hormones / made and modified by rough ER + Golgi / result in secondary messenger-involved signal cascades that alter enzyme activity / peptide hormones cannot diffuse through plasma membrane, bind to receptor on membrane / all others that aren't hydrophobic

P site

peptidyl-tRNA site / where the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain is held most of the time

Obsessive-compulsive

perfectionistic and rigid behavior / stubborn

Yerkes-Dodson law

performance is optimum at medium level of arousal / too much or too little will impair performance

Row

period

Descending limb of Henle

permeable to H2O / as fluid travels down, more H2O is reabsorbed from tubule into interstitial fluid / concentration gradient ensures constant H2O reabsorption even as filtrate becomes more concentrated deeper into the medulla → forms more concentrated urine

Ascending limb of Henle

permeable to NaCl and K+ / NaCl reabsorbed via passive transport at bottom of ascending limb, then reabsorbed by active transport at top of limb

Personality disorders

persistent, maladaptive thoughts, emotions, behaviors / characterized by a specific disordered 'personality type' / Clusters A → C

Dichotic listening test

person has headphones on with a different auditory input in each ear → asked to attend to one or both → how much information gets through from the unattended ear? Can person listen to both at the same time?

Obligations of the sick role

person must try to get better / person should seek out and comply w/ medical care

Rights of the sick role

person not held responsible for his/her illness / excused from carrying out normal social duties

Self-actualization (humanistic perspective)

personal development and fulfillment of potential / ideal self vs. real self

Self-esteem

personal evaluation of our worth

Trait perspective of personality

personality determined through accumulation of personality traits

Social cognitive perspective of personality

personality formed through environment, social experiences, cognitions / involves mimicking and observational based on those we interact with

Eysenck (biological perspective of personality)

personality is largely genetic, along w/ some learning / two dimensions = introversion vs. extroversion and emotional stability vs. neuroticism / activity in limbic system

Macrophages

phagocytic WBCs / move out of circulatory system by squeezing through capillary walls into tissue / most efficient phagocyte

Phagocytes (macrophages and neutrophils)

phagocytize foreign particles, pathogens, and dead cells / scavenge and engulf / may be attracted to an area by chemical signals like cytokines (chemotaxis)

Types of phenols to know

phenol, quinone, hydroxyquinone / phenols are oxidized to quinones / quinones are oxidized to hydroxyquinones

Types of anxiety disorders

phobia (ex: agoraphobia), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder (panic attacks), separation anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder

Baddeley's Model of Working Memory

phonological loop (deals with auditory information and rehearsal), visuospatial sketchpad (deals with visual and spatial information), central executive (coordinates and regulates all processes of working memory), episodic buffer (links different sensory inputs / deals with chronology and semantics)

Plasma membrane general structure

phospholipid bilayer = hydrophobic tails facing each other on interior and hydrophilic head groups facing outsides

Phototransduction pathway w/ light

photon converts I I-cis retinal into all-trans retinal → conformational change of opsin GPCR → PDE activated and breaks down cGMP → Na+ channels close → rods and cones hyperpolarize and stop releasing glutamate → bipolar cells depolarize → ganglion cells depolarize → action potential sent along optic nerve to the brain

Chiasma

physical link btwn chromatids of homologous chromosomes during recombination

Somatic symptom and related disorders

physical symptoms that cause extreme distress but can't be explained by some medical condition

Function of erythrocytes

pick up O2 in lungs then carry and deliver it to tissues

Cytochromes

pigment molecules / contain iron / commonly e- carriers

Neural crest cells

pinch off and migrate to diff regions of developing fetus → form many parts of PNS, bones and cartilage of face, adrenal medulla, nerves of gut and cranial nerves, melanocytes, glial cells, and more

Transmission of viroid

plant to plant contact or indirect transmission through insect

Half-equivalence point

point at which half amount of titrant required to reach equivalence point has been added

Properties of carboxylic acid derivatives

polar carbonyl bond and nucleophilic carbon of carbonyl / all have dipole-dipole interactions / only H bonding for amides → amides have stronger IMF than other derivatives

Some diff EN

polar covalent (partial ionic character) / results in partial charges

Ion-dipole

polar molecule (permanent partial charges) attracted to ion (permanent full charges)

Column chromatography basis of separation

polarity

TLC basis of separation

polarity / solvents move based on being more attracted to or repelled by the solvent and/or paper

HPLC basis of separation

polarity and/or charge

Prokaryotes and Central Dogma

polycistronic mRNA / no RNA processing / transcription and translation take place in cytosol and can occur simultaneously / 1 main RNA poly

Microfilaments structure

polymers of actin protein / dynamic / smallest

Intermediate filaments structure

polymers of many diff associated proteins

Bottleneck effect

pop size dramatically reduced / subsequent pop doesn't resemble pop before it (genetic drift occurs) / usually caused by random disaster/event

Distance to left of mirror (front)

positive

Reward circuit in brain (VTA and nucleus accumbens)

positive and pleasurable emotional responses

Gram negative

possess two lipid bilayers w/ a cell wall btwn them / staining color = pink / more resistant to antibiotics / produce mainly endotoxins (only released when cell lyses)

Soap

potassium or sodium salts of fatty acids

Tumor suppressor genes

potentially cancer preventing genes

Prejudice

preconceived judgements or opinions of a person or group that aren't based on actual evidence/experience but on social characteristics

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

preconventional morality, conventional morality, postconventional morality

A/B/O blood type

presence of A, B, or neither antigen

Positive symptoms of Schizophrenia

presence of abnormal behaviors

"Self-presentation"

presenting ourselves in a certain way to control how others perceive us

Systolic

pressure exerted by heart on vessels of body as blood is pumped through body

Partial pressure

pressure exerted by one gas species in a mixture of gases

Diastolic

pressure in vessels when heart is momentarily resting

"Negative-pressure breathing"

pressure inside lungs is (-) relative to outside environment (atmospheric pressure) / air moves into areas of lower pressure

Priming

previous exposure to a stimulus results in easier/quicker subsequent retrieval of the same or a closely related concept

Proactive interference

previously learned gets in the way

The serial position effect

primacy effect (beginning better recalled), recency effect (more fresh in memory)

Lazarus' theory of cognitive appraisal

primary appraisal = initial interpretation of nature of stressor and potential threat/danger it poses / secondary appraisal = assessment of one's ability to cope w/ the stressor... presence of available resources... conclusions determine emotional response

Thurstone theory of intelligence

primary mental abilities / 7 primary mental abilities / similar to Gardner

Denaturation

process by which a protein is unfolded from it native state / secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures are lost (primary isn't) / via changes in temp, pH, chemical environment

Impression management

process of managing our self image by attempting to influence others' perceptions

Acquisition (classical conditioning)

process of pairing US and NS/CS together / subject learns that presence of CS signals arrival of US

Oligodendrocytes

produce myelin sheath that surround and insulates axons of neurons in CNS / one can myelinate multiple axons

Schwann cells

produce myelin sheath that surround and insulates axons of neurons in PNS / wrap around a region of a single axon

Seminal vesicles

produce nearly 70% of semen / containing proteins and nourishment

Ovaries

produce ovum/eggs, as well as estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone

Bulbourethral gland

produce small amount of semen / mucus-like fluid lubricates and neutralizes

Testes

produce sperm and androgens (testosterone) / protected and kept warm by the scrotum / seminiferous tubules = site of spermatogenesis in testes

Pepsin (protein digestion)

produced in gastric glands / released in stomach / acidic pH

Lipase (fat digestion)

produced in pancreas / released in small intestine / basic pH

Nuclease (nucleic acid digestion)

produced in pancreas / released in small intestine / basic pH

Nucleotidases (nucleic acid digestion)

produced in pancreas / released in small intestine / basic pH

Pancreatic amylase (carb digestion)

produced in pancreas / released in small intestine / basic pH

Trypsin (protein digestion)

produced in pancreas / released in small intestine / basic pH

Salivary amylase (carb digestion)

produced in salivary glands / released in mouth / neutral pH

Maltase (carb digestion)

produced in small intestine / released in small intestine / basic pH

Peptidases (protein digestion)

produced in small intestine / released in small intestine / basic pH

Interference

a phenomenon that occurs when multiple waves interact w/ each other

Positive checks (Malthusian Theory)

anything that shortens human life therefore increasing the death rate

Class consciousness

awareness an individual has regarding his/her social economic status, and the social class that they are in

Aberrations

cause images to look blurry (spherical aberration) or have unnecessary rainbows around them (chromatic aberration)

Intergenerational mobility

change in social class from generation to generation

Intragenerational mobility

change in social class w/in single generation

Ultrasound

comprises frequencies of sound too high for ears to detect / used in medicine / sound transmitted and reflected differently off of different tissues

Concave mirror

converging, form real images and virtual images

Convex lenses

converging, have (+) radii of curvatures and focal lengths / if object placed beyond focal point, get an inverted, real image... if placed btwn focal point and mirror, get an upright, virtual image... object placed at focal point yield no image

Preventative checks (Malthusian Theory)

decreasing birth rate by exercising 'moral restraint' / birth control measures

Young's double-slit experiment

demonstrates light's wavelike properties / light that is passed through two miniscule slits will show a pattern that is the result of alternating constructive and destructive interferences of the waves / would look like alternating dark and light spots on the screen / known as an interference pattern

Institutional discrimination

discrimination of a group by institutions of society / intentional or unintentional

Radius of curvature (r)

distance from mirror to center of curvature

Focal length (f)

distance from mirror to its focus

Convex mirror

diverging, always form virtual images

Concave lenses

diverging, have (-) radii of curvatures and focal lengths, can only form virtual images

Linearly polarized light

electric field oscillates vertically

Migration pull factors (people want to enter)

employment, opportunity, safety, stability, political security, fertile land, etc. / expected pop shifts and growth rates projected using models

Globalization: Civil changes

globalization can result in increasing inequality or colonialism

Urban growth

growth of urban areas

Near-sighted (myopic)

have lenses that are too good at converging light → light rays from objects that are far away converge/focus in front of retina / given diverging (concave) lenses

Demographic Transition Theory: 5 stages

high BR and DR... high BR, dropping DR → pop increases rapidly... dropping BR and DR → slower pop increase... low BR and DR → pop stabilizes... very low BR, low DR → pop drops slightly

High pitch sounds

high frequencies

Pitch

how we perceive the frequency of a sound / pitch of a sound wave never changes

Malthus (Malthusian Theory)

human pop grows exponentially but resources grow at an arithmetic (linear) rate → pop will exceed its capacity → result is Malthusian catastrophe

Real images

if object is placed beyond focal point / result of light rays that converge in front of the mirror / always inverted

Virtual images

if object is placed btwn mirror and focal point / formed behind mirror and do not result from actual convergence of light rays / always upright

Doppler effect

if observer is moving toward source of sound, use (+) in numerator and if it is moving away from the source, use (-) / if source is moving toward the observer, use (-) in the denominator and if it is moving away from the observer, use (+)

If magnitude of magnification > 1

image is enlarged

If magnitude of magnification is a fraction

image will be smaller than original

Absolute poverty

inability to meet basic needs and obtain necessities due to lack of money

Relative poverty

inability to meet certain living standard as defined by society

False consciousness

inability to perceive/understand one's true status in society

Nuclear family

includes a couple and their children

Extended family

includes grandparents, cousins, nieces, nephews, etc.

Secondary relationships

includes those who are directly related to anyone in your nuclear family

Globalization

increasing global connections and interdependence of societies / growth of a global consciousness and a global economy

Individual discrimination

ind makes a conscious choice to discriminate against another person

Relative deprivation

individuals compare what they have to what others have, and feel discontent when they feel deprived of certain things

(-) magnification means image is

inverted... real images always inverted

Low pitch sounds

low frequencies

Food desert

low-income urban area w/ lack of healthy, fresh food options → residents surrounded by fast food, dried and processed foods, and other unhealthy options → increased risk of diabetes, obesity, etc.

Vertical mobility

movement to a higher or lower class

Horizontal mobility

movement w/in same class

Distance to right of mirror (back)

negative

Social capital

non-financial resources in forms of relationships, social support, and connections to social networks that promote upward mobility

Social exclusion

occurs when specific people/groups are systematically prevented from accessing certain resources, opportunities, and rights that the majority has access to

Longitudinal wave

particles move in the same axis as the wave / like the compressions and stretches of a slinky / sound propagates via longitudinal waves

Antinodes

peaks and troughs; oscillate up and down

Suburbanization

people begin moving out of urban areas and into suburban areas surrounding the city

Environmental justice

poorer neighborhoods suffer more detrimental environmental impacts → negatively impacts health of its residents

Urban renewal

process of renovating and improving an urban area that has fallen into disrepair as a result of previous urban decline

Sound

produced through the vibration or oscillation of particles that propagate via longitudinal waves / needs a medium to travel in / travels fastest in low density solids / travels slowest in high density gases / the only way to change the velocity of a sound wave is to change the medium through which it is traveling

Education

provides a way to pass down values, norms, ideas, and other aspects of the dominant culture / promotes critical thinking and formation of new ideas, as well as helps maintain discipline/obedience in young individuals

Hidden curriculum

refers to any unintended results of education / education can reinforce and perpetuate existing inequalities by teaching students according to their class/social status / resources, expectations, rigor, and quality of education correlated w/ class or SES of the students

Nodes

regions that don't move

Kinship

relationships due to marriage, adoption, or blood ties / helps define relationships btwn people in society

Important functions

reproduction and child rearing, socialization, formation of identity, religious and cultural transmission, affection, love/belonging, and defining social status

Prestige

respect/reverence others have for an individual based on that person's achievements, social class, and reputation

Residential segregation

segregation of groups into different neighborhoods ("groups" mainly categorized by race/ethnicity, income, and SES) / majority of low income families are racial minorities / produces negative socioeconomic outcomes for minorities / effects of Jim Crow laws and other discrimination persist

Demographic Transition Theory

shift from high BR and high DR → low BR and low DR / occurs as society industrializes / pop increases throughout transition then eventually stabilizes and decreases slightly in the last stage

Pop pyramids

show % of people w/in each age range and gender category / shape shows whether pop is increasing, stable, or decreasing

Resonance

source inducing oscillation of medium has same frequency as natural frequency of medium itself / maximization of the amplitude of the wave

Social reproduction

structures, activities, and customs in society that result in inequality being reinforced and transmitted from one generation to the next

Teacher expectancy

teacher expects certain behavior from certain students based on their social class, race, SES, gender, etc. → affects how teachers treat those children → alters how those students perform / students begin to conform to the expectations

Crude birth rate =

total births / 1000 people

Crude death rate =

total deaths / 1000 people

Migration push factors (people want to leave)

unemployment, poverty, fear, feeling unsafe, political unrest, war, disasters, drought, etc.

Urban decline/decay

urban area deteriorates and falls into disrepair

If image distance calculation yields (-) result, means that it is a

virtual image (formed behind mirror)

Standing wave

wave appears to no longer moving forward or backward due to resonance being achieved

Randomly / unpolarized light

waves of light that have different polarizations (light from sun)

Social stratification

way in which individuals are categorized into different strata of a social hierarchy based on social characteristics such as race, income, education, political power, etc. / lower class → working class → middle class → upper class

Destructive interference

when the waves are out of phase, provided that the waves are otherwise identical, they will completely cancel each other out and there will be no resulting wave

Constructive interference

when the waves are perfectly in phase, their amplitudes add up and the resulting wave is much larger

Breaking bond

(+deltaH) / energy required

Penetrance

% of individuals w/ given phenotype that show expected phenotype

Ion-exchange chromatography anion exchanger

(+) column traps (-) molecules

SyNS

"fight-or-flight"

Purines

A and G

Ion channels

allow ions through

B cells

release antibodies

Fad

temporary trend