83119 MCAT Summary
Epiphysis
bulbous end region of bone filled w/ spongy bone / usually capped off w/ cartilage / often contains red bone marrow
Optic nerve
bundle of axons of ganglion cells; exits the back of the eye at the optic disk (blind spot bc no photoreceptors)
Blood pressure regulation
by modulating the rate of filtration and reabsorption in the kidneys, fluid ca be increasingly retained or excreted / regulation of blood volume → regulation of blood pressure
Strong bases ex:
LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Sr(OH)2, Ca(OH)2 / "Linak Sr Baca" / hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals
Multipotent
can become a few different cell types but limited
Dual-Coding Theory
PIC
Structure of neurons
PIC
Replication in Eukaryotes vs. Prokaryotes
PICTURE
Types of trauma and stressor-related disorders
PTSD, acute stress disorder, adjustment disorder
Ideal gas law
PV=nRT / no IMF, volume of gas molecules negligent, KE conserved
Elastic recoil
after inhalation, lung naturally rebounds; elastin fibers / surface tension of fluid in lungs / elastic recoil decreased in emphysema
Group I
alkali metals / VERY reactive bc they want to lose 1e- to achieve a full octet
Group II
alkaline Earth metals / react vigorously w/ water
Global aphasia
all aspects of language use impaired
Artery
carries blood away from hear / endothelium, smooth muscle, connective tissue / very elastic (must withstand high pressure / fluctuations) / carry oxygenated blood (except for pulmonary artery)
Pheromones
chemical messengers that trigger a social response in members of the same species / species-specific chemicals that affect the behavior of the receiving organism
Insecure attachment
children w/ insensitive, inattentive, or inconsistent caregivers
Sanction
consequences in society that reinforce behavior / negative or positive
Flavoproteins
contain flavin molecules, which often serve as redox prosthetic groups / complex 2 of ETC has FAD prosthetic group that gets reduced to FADH2 during CAC cycle
Saturated fatty acids
contain no double bonds (usually solid at room temp)
Depressive disorders
involve depressed mood / anhedonia / feelings of worthlessness, guilt, and hopelessness / changes in sleeping patterns and appetite / difficulty concentrating, thinking, and remembering
Cones
detect bright light and responsible for color vision / high spatial acuity
Chemoreceptors
detect chemicals and their levels / taste buds and olfactory nerves / also sense changes inside the body such as fluid osmolarity, pH levels, CO2 levels, etc.
To determine hybridization of atom in certain molecule:
draw lewis dot diagram of molecule / count # of "electron groups"
Hydrostatic pressure
due to fact that blood is pumped at high pressure by heart; tends to force fluid out of capillaries
Dissociative disorders
involve dissociation, feelings of detachment or being outside one's body / memory loss or loss of touch w/ one's identity / disconnect btwn thoughts and reality
Amygdala
fear, anger, aggression, anxiety
Embryogenesis: stages of development
fertilization → cleavage → blastulation → implantation → gastrulation → neurulation
Shielding (chemistry)
filled shells btwn the nucleus and the valence e- "protects" or shields the valence e- from the pull of the positively charged nucleus
Nasal cavity
filters and warms incoming air / traps particulate matter
Primary relationships
found in nuclear family
Class I MHC
found on all host cells (except RBCs) / used to detect intracellular infection
Synovial joints
freely movable / contain synovial fluid that lubricates and absorbs shock
Acinar cells
fulfill digestive/exocrine functions → pancreatic juice flows through duct into small intestine
O- individual
has none of the three most common antigens and therefore is a universal donor
Formal organizations
have a fixed set of rules and operation procedures
Irreversible steps of glycolysis
have negative G values, not easily reversed; steps 1, 2, 10
Thermophile
live in extremely high temps
Left brain
logic, language, math, positive emotions, detail-oriented
Psychophysics
looks at the relationship btwn physical stimuli and the resultant sensations and perceptions
Euchromatin
loosely packed and accessible to transcriptional enzymes / transcriptionally active
Oxidation
loss of e- / species oxidized = reducing agent / oxidation state will increase / LEO GER
Forgetting
loss of info from LTM
Negative symptoms of Schizophrenia
loss of normal behaviors
Moro (startle) reflex
loud sound or sudden motion → baby will scream and cry and extend limbs out, then pull them back in
Parkinson's and dopamine
low dopamine
White muscle fibers
low endurance, fast contraction / mainly glycolysis and creatine phosphate to produce ATP / low mitochondria and myoglobin / low capillary density
PDC activated by
low energy charge (high AMP or ADP), high levels of pyruvate, PDH phosphatase (turns PDC "on")
Temperature
measure of average KE of molecules of substance
deltaH
measure of change in heat/energy in a thermodynamic system
Acetylcholine
muscle activity, learning, memory, attention
Ion-exchange chromatography cation exchanger
(-) column traps (+) molecules
Convex mirrors have
(-) radii of curvatures and focal lengths
Anion
(-), has gained e-
Exothermic
(-deltaH) / energy released
Forming bond
(-deltaH) / energy released
Attached atom
1 e- group
Breaking peptide bond
hydrolysis rxn (addition of water and strong base)
Glomerular filtration
hydrostatic pressure pushes fluids and solutes (that are small enough) into Bowman's capsule / water, ions, GLC, urea easily pass through / large proteins hardly pass through and cells never pass through / glomerular filtration rate increases as BP increases
HC, MD
hyperopic treated with Converging lenses, Myopic treated with Diverging lenses
Cultural capital
non-financial social elements that promote social mobility
Hypothyroidism
not enough thyroid hormone / low metabolic rate
Far-sighted (hyperopic)
not good at converging light rays from nearby objects → light rays converge too late (behind retina) / given converging (convex) lenses
Fertility rate =
number of births / 1000 women if all women pass through childbearing years
Palmar reflex
object touches infant's hand → infant grasps object
LH (role in ovulation)
ovulation and formation of corpus luteum (ovulation = follicle becomes corpus luteum and egg released)
Redox rxns involving aldehydes and ketones acidic conditions
oxidation of aldehyde forms a carboxylic acid
In PDC pyruvate is...
oxidized
Authoritative
parent is respectful and supportive of child but sets clear rules/limits and disciplines the child / best style
Libido
part of id... "life instinct"
Gamma rays
photons of high frequency, very difficult to stop
Epididymis
seminiferous tubules empty into epididymis / sperm stored here
Electromagnetic receptors
sense EM waves (such as light) / ex: photoreceptors in the eye
SDS-PAGE
separates denatured proteins by molecular weight
Gas chromatography
separates out liquid components of mixture / mainly analytical / higher BP spend more time in apparatus... higher retention time
Prokaryotic intrinsic termination (transcription)
specific sequence of DNA results in RNA folding back on itself into a "stem-loop" shape, which ultimately knocks RNA pol off of the RNA
Catalysts
speed up rxn by lowering EA / do NOT get used up in rxn / by lowering EA, speed up forward and reverse rxn, so catalysts do influence kinetics (enable rxn rate to increase) / increasing k / do not influence thermodynamics / no effect on Keq
Fertilization
sperm meets egg in fallopian tube / egg completes meiosis II, producing mature ovum
Vas (ductus) deferens)
sperm travels through here toward the urethra
Coccus
sphere-shaped
Spirilla
spiral-shaped / generally harmless to humans
Breakdown of ATP
spontaneous
Cultural diffusion
spread of elements of culture from one group to another
Astrocytes
star-shaped glial cell / support blood brain barrier / repair scarring of injured CNS tissue / regulate ion concentrations in extracellular fluid / provide structural support and nutrition to neurons
GnRH (hypothalamus)
triggers anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH
Double helix
two nucleic acid strands linked by H-bonds btwn nitrogenous base / twisted into right-handed helix
Middle ear
tympanic membrane (eardrum) + ossicles / tympanic membrane vibrates when sound waves arrive / ossicles are the smallest bones of the body / vibrations from the tympanic membrane are passed from the malleus → incus → stapes → inner ear
Aggression
type of behavior that is centered around harming/intimidating another person (physically or mentally) / influenced by limbic system (hypothalamus and amygdala), neurotransmitters (serotonin), and hormones (testosterone and cortisol) / frontal lobe (planning behavior, assessing consequences, and self-restraint) / influenced by culture
Transmembrane protein
type of integral protein that spans the entire length of the plasma membrane
Stem cell therapy
use of stem cells to treat a disease / ex: bone marrow transplant
Faraday's law
use to solve for # moles of e- that power electrolytic cell / can use moles e- to find how much element is deposited on electrode or how much gas is liberated
Geometric isomers cis/trans
use when there is one atoms/group that appears on both sides of the double bond
Liver glycogen
used during fasting (shared)
Muscle glycogen
used for glucose during bursts of activity (not shared)
PCR
used to amplify region of DNA / requires heat resistant DNA pol / Taq pol and complementary primers / repeated cycles of heating and cooling
Complementation test
used to assess if a mutation in two different genes can give rise to the same mutant phenotype / occurs when more than one gene product are required for the same function
Phosphoanhydride bonds
very high energy... release a lot of energy when released / highly spontaneous w/ hydrolysis / phosphoanhydride bond hydrolysis is so exergonic
Sensory memory
very limited duration (less than a few seconds) / brief snapshot of sensory information that rapidly decays unless encoded to be transferred to STM or LTM
Surface traits (Cattell)
very obvious, quickly identified
Tertiary care
very specialized form of care / entire institution dedicated to it
Deviance
violating social norms
Bacteriophage
virus that infects bacteria / punctures through cell wall
SNS
voluntary control of skeletal muscles / acetylcholine used
Front stage
where we play particular roles in front of the audience and follow all societal norms/conventions
Resting potential
~ -70 mV, largely due to Na+/K+ -ATPase pump and K+ leak channels
Lys
~ 10
Arg
~ 12
Fatty acid synthesis
produces 16 C fatty acid using acetyl CoA and NADPH as substrates, and fatty acid synthase as enzyme / NADPH serves as reducing agent / ATP provides energy / 2 NADPH and 1 ATP required per cycle; occurs to store excess fuel as fat or make other lipid molecules
Glycolysis
produces 2 pyruvates, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH per Glucose / NADH are basically electron carriers / glycolysis speeds up during anaerobic conditions to make up for other pathways stopping / occurs in cytoplasm, doesn't require O2
Thymus
produces T cells (T cell maturation) / thymus hormones = stimulate T cell development
Autotroph
produces its own nutrients / producers
Pancreas function
produces pancreatic juice, which contains majority of digestive enzymes as well as bicarbonate / also functions as an endocrine gland as it produces insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin
Actual / Experimental yield
product actually made in procedure
Liver function
production of bile, which facilitates the breakdown of fats / filters through blood that has passed through the digestive tract / detoxification and metabolism/inactivation of drugs / produces blood clotting factors and blood proteins such as albumin / blood-GLC regulation
Exergonic rxn
products have less energy than reactants (spontaneous)
Endergonic rxn
products have more energy than reactants (nonspontaneous)
Twin studies and adoption studies
"How much of the variance in phenotype can be attributed to variance in environment/genetics?" / temperament usually more similar to genetic relatives / personality more similar to environment
Epigenetics
"above the genome" / alteration of genes through changes that occur above or outside of the actual gene sequence itself
Binary fission
"asexual" reproduction / produces two identical daughter cells / no recombination
Pinocytosis
"cell drinking" = liquids taken in
Phagocytosis
"cell eating" = solid particles taken in
Non-template strand
"coding strand", "sense strand", 1st strand
Cognitive changes in elderly: don't decline
"crystallized intelligence", semantic memory. implicit memory, emotional reasoning, verbal skills
Transition metals
"d-block" elements / conduct electricity
Sympathetic NS
"fight-or-flight"
3 types of cones
"green", "red", and "blue" → named based on range of frequencies they detect
Pituitary gland
"master gland" of endocrine system → regulates endocrine glands throughout body via release of tropic hormones / composed of anterior and posterior pituitary
Acetal
"non-reducing sugar" / cannot act as reducing agent
Sinoatrial node (SA node)
"pace maker of heart" → R atrium / spontaneously and regularly depolarizes causing atria to contract and the signal to spread to the next node / self-depolarizing due to huge amount of Na+ leak channels
Reciprocal altruism
"paying it forward"
Hemiacetal
"reducing sugar" because it can act as a reducing agent when it opens to linear form / undergo mutarotation
PaNS
"rest and digest"
Parasympathetic NS
"rest and digest"
Ainsworth and attachment
"strange situation experiments": infants (1-1.5) in a room observed covertly by experimenter while infant's mother and stranger enter and leave room in certain schedule
Cortisol
"stress hormone" / response to stress... especially during chronic stress / raises BGL by triggering fat metabolism and gluconeogenesis / suppresses immune system / inhibits CRH and ACTH
Template strand
"template strand", "antisense strand", 2nd strand
Uterus
"the womb" / supports and protects developing fetus
Steric number
# of attached e- groups on central atom... help determine shape of molecule
"Bond order"
# of bonds btwn two atoms
Energy requirement for translation
#aa x 4 = # ATP needed
Percent composition by mass
% (by mass) of each element in compound
Concave mirrors have
(+) radii of curvatures and focal lengths
Cation
(+), has lost e-
Endothermic
(+deltaH) / energy absorbed
Oral psychosexual stage
(0-1); focus of libido is the mouth → infant chews, sucks, bites / resolved when weaning from breastfeeding / fixation: smoking, thumb-sucking, overeating, etc.
Anal psychosexual stage
(1-3) / focus of libido is the anus → infant earning to develop control over bowel and bladder movements / resolved through "potty training" / fixation = "anal retentive" (overly neat/neurotic)
Formal operational stage
(11 or 12 -> ...) / can think abstractly and hypothetically / develop more mature moral reasoning
Genital psychosexual stage
(12+) / focus of libido is on reproduction; interest in the opposite sex / resolved when reaching sexual maturity and through having meaningful relationships
Preoperational stage
(2-7) / children use symbols (words and images) to think about the world -> language development / lack logical reasoning / pretend play / egocentric
Phallic psychosexual stage
(3-6) / focus of libido is the genitals → masturbation, Oedipus and Electra complex / resolution is overcoming the Oedipus complex for boys and the Electra complex for girls / fixation = problems with relationships or sexual dysfunction
Latency psychosexual stage
(6-12) / no focus of libido, sexual feelings are dormant / resolution is engaging in meaningful social interactions and asexual activities to reduce the residual tension of the phallic stage
Concrete operational stage
(7-11) / can think logically about concrete objects (learn basic addition/subtraction / can do inductive logic) / have difficulty w/ the abstract/hypothetical / loss of egocentrism / develop principle of conservation
Pop growth rate =
(BR + immigration rate) - (DR + emigration rate)
% yield
(actual)/(theoretical) x 100
Sensorimotor stage
(ages 0-2) / infants experience the world directly through their senses and actions / may express separation anxiety / object permanence which signifies movement out of sensorimotor stage
Pop change =
(birth + immigration) - (deaths + emigration)
Hfr cell
(high frequency recombination) cell / has F- factor incorporated into chromosomal DNA / can initiate conjugation and does so very efficiently
Electrolytic cell
*external current source provides flow of e-, forcing non-spontaneous redox rexn / opposite as galvanic cell
Alpha helix "breakers" (a.a. not good at being in alpha helices)
proline (cyclic R group sterically hinders helical shape) and glycine (moves very freely because R group is so small)
Prolonged starvation state regulation
prolonged starvation state → low BGL and glycogen depleted → lipolysis occurs (breaks down fats) / beta ox occurs / acetyl CoA produced by beta ox used in ketogenesis (helps brain) / protein catabolism occurs
P region of Lac operon
promoter / RNA pol binds to begin transcription
Prokaryotic initiation (transcription)
promoters have specific sequences at -10 and -35, which bind to specific regions of RNA pol
AV node
propagates an action potential to the ventricles via the Bundle of His and Purkinje fibers / signal slightly delayed so that ventricle contraction follows atria contraction
State function
property that doesn't depend on path taken to get to a certain state
Cattell theory of intelligence
proposed 2 different forms of intelligence existed: fluid and crystallized intelligence
The "Big 5" theory of personality
proposes 5 main personality descriptors, all of which lie on a spectrum / people vary in each dimension and the sum of these factors can describe their personality / "OCEAN" = openness (to experience) → conscientiousness → extraversion → agreeableness → neuroticism
Social constructionism
proposes that our perceptions of reality are actively shaped by social interactions and are comprised of meaningful social constructs → studies the social process of constructing shared assumptions/understandings about the world and social institutions
Induced-fit model
proposes that the binding of a substrate to its enzyme induces the enzyme to shift its conformation slightly, to one that is even more complementary to the substrate / the induced shape change boosts the affinity of the enzyme for the substrate
Enzymes
protein catalysts / increase rate of chemical rxns by lowering rxn's activation energy
Synaptonemal complex
protein complex that enables synapsis to occur
Hemoglobin
protein composed of four subunits / carries 4 O2 max
Antibody
protein found in blood that binds to antigens on a foreign particle/cell and leads to its destruction
Antibody structure
protein is composed of 2 light chains and 2 heavy chains associated in a "Y" shape
Transcription factor
protein that controls rate of transcription binding directly to DNA / turn on/off by activating or repressing RNA polymerase / must contain a DNA binding domain / bind to regions of DNA called enhancers or silencers / strength of association btwn RNA pol and promoter affects transcription rate
Trust vs. mistrust (Erickson)
0-1.5 / must develop sense of trust from interactions w/ loved ones and caregivers
Energy equivalence 1 GTP
1 ATP
Polycistronic mRNA
1 RNA molecule can code for more than 1 polypeptide
Bacteria genome
1 circular DNA molecule (chromosomal DNA) + any number of plasmids
Pleiotropy
1 gene that affects multiple different traits / ex: PKU = inborn error for metabolism caused by mutation of a single gene
Monocistronic mRNA
1 mRNA molecule codes for polypeptide
Protein folding
protein's primary structure and the environment it is in (polar vs nonpolar) determine what shape the protein will fold into
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
proteins found on surface of host cells that sample and display proteins (antigens) found w/in that cells / this antigen/MHC enables cells of the immune system to detect self vs. foreign cells
Native-PAGE
proteins separated by size in their native conformation
Repressors
proteins that bind to promoter region or the silencer regions of DNA and decrease rate of transcription / bind to operator regions of DNA and decreases transcription
Ion-exchange chromatography pH < PI
protonated; (+)
Economy
provides means for production/consumption, distributions of goods and services, and earning wages
Functions of religion
provides social support, creates social cohesion and sometimes dissent, serves as a form of social control, and provides an important form of socialization
Communism
public ownership of everything
Arteries
pump blood away from heart (normally carry oxygenated blood... except for pulmonary artery)
Ionization/auto-dissociation of water
pure water ionizes slightly / a fraction of H2O molecules dissociate into H+ and OH-, and the H+ immediately combines w/ another free H2O molecule forming H3O+
Energy equivalence 1 FADH2
1.5 ATP
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (Erickson)
1.5-3 / must develop a sense of autonomy over actions and independence
Net energetic results, per GLC: Glycolysis
2 ATP, 2 NADH (~ 7 ATP)
Net energetic results, per GLC: PDC
2 NADH (~ 5 ATP)
Portal system
2 capillary beds in sequence used for communication and transport / link btwn hypothalamus and pituitary gland
Centrosome
2 centrioles and other associated proteins (prepared to curate cell division)
Tetrad
2 chromosomes, each w/ 2 sister chromatids -> 4 total chromatids
Symbioses
2 organisms interacting closely / mutualism = +,+ (bird and alligator) / commensalism = +,0 / parasitism = +,- (mosquito and human)
Beta pleated sheet
2+ different segments of a polypeptide chain that align and H-bonds btwn adjacent strands form perpendicular to the length of the chain / aligned sheets are pleated at alpha C of the backbone / R groups jut out above and below the sheet / large aromatic residues and large alkyl residues favored
Energy equivalence 1 NADH
2.5 ATP
Net production from one turn / 1 pyruvate molecule of CAC
3 NADH, 1 FADH, 1 GTP, 2 CO2
Triplet code
3 base pairs code for a specific a.a. of the polypeptide
Codon
3 nucleotides of the mRNA / complementary to DNA template strand
Anticodon
3 nucleotides of the tRNA / complementary to the mRNA codon / anticodon in at the tip of the tRNA molecule and base pairs w/ mRNA
Psychoanalytic perspective of personality (Freud)
3 parts of personality = id, ego, superego
Semicircular canals
3 round, interconnected tubes that are oriented at right angles to each other / filled w/ endolymph / each canal contains a bundle of hair cells, which have their cilia embedded in a gelatinous cupula / certain body movements result in movement of the endolymph in a given direction, deflecting the cupula and bending the cilia w/in → impulse is sent to the brain / these detect rotational movement and acceleration of the head
Initiative vs. guilt (Erickson)
3-6 / must take initiative and learn to exert control over the environment / exploratory
Stability of Carbanions
3<2<1<methyl / more EWGs = more stable / more EDGs = less stable / resonance = more stable
Stability of Carbocations
3>2>1>methyl / more EDGs (alkyl groups) = more stable; more EWGs (EN atoms) = less stable / resonance = more stable
Cap and Tail
5' cap consisting of a methylated guanine is added / 3' poly-A tail consisting of multiple adenine nucleotides is added / both modifications increase the mRNA's stability and protect it from degradation in the cytoplasm
Racemic mixture
50:50 mixture of two enantiomers / optically inactive
Net production of CAC (per GLC molecule)
6 NADH, 2 FADH, 2 GTP, 4 CO2
Net energetic results, per GLC: CAC
6 NADH, 2 GTP, 2 FADH2 (~ 20 ATP)
Kohlberg: stages of moral development
6 stages of moral reasoning through which we develop / not all reach top stages, most only reach stage 4 or 5
Industry vs. inferiority (Erickson)
6-12 / develop competence in school and cope w/ new demands in academic setting
Average US lifespan
78
Weak base + weak acid =
??? → must compare dissociation constants to determine if acidic or basic / if A- is a stronger base than B+ is an acid = basic salt
Instrumental aggression
purpose to achieve/obtain some goal / planned, controlled, "cold-blooded"
Religiosity/devoutness
quality of being devoted to one's religion
Recombination frequency (Rf)
quantification of genetic linkage / likelihood of two genes being involved in a crossover event / larger Rf = further apart = more likely to crossover and independently assort / Rf = # of recombinant offspring / total # offspring
Relearning
quicker and requires less cognitive resources
Racial formation theory
racial categories seen as a social construct / each category has been defined by economic and political powers
Rxn Rate
rate of change of concentration of products or reactants
Aldosterone
reabsorb Na+, excrete K+ / stimulates kidney to reabsorb Na so that more water is retained (more concentrated urine) → raises BP
Loop of Henle (nephron)
reabsorption and secretion of water and salts occurs as tubule passes through concentration gradient of interstitial fluid / interstitial fluid at highest concentration in inner medulla (closer to bottom of loop)
Hemiacetal formed by
reacting an aldehyde or ketone w/ one equivalent alcohol plus acid
Acetal formed by
reacting an aldehyde or ketone w/ two equivalents alcohol plus acid / or by reacting a hemiacetal w/ one equivalent alcohol plus acid
Electronic effects
reactivity of acid derivative can be assessed by strength of LG / LG must take on a lone pair of e- and usually a negative charge / better LGs are those that can better take on those e- due to high EN or resonance stabilization
Frameshift
reading frame of the gene is changed so that all of downstream region of the gene will also be affected / the cat ran... tuh eca tra
Aging
recall generally declines / prospective memory declines / recognition generally stable
State-dependent learning
recall is better if individual is in the same internal state as when the memory was formed (usually referring to states of consciousness, such as caffeine versus no caffeine)
Context-dependent memory
recall is better if the individual is in the same context as they were when memory was encoded (ex. location)
Cognitive changes in elderly: decline
recall, episodic memory, working memory, processing speed and rxn time, ability to multitask (capacity for divided attention)
Wernicke's aphasia
receptive aphasia
NK cells
recognize and kill / recognize stress of cells but don't use specific markers
Hematocrit
red blood cells (erythrocytes) / 45% of blood volume
In PDC NAD+ is...
reduced
Respiratory alkalosis
reduced levels of CO2 in blood results in elevated pH / less CO2 = less H2CO3 → equilibrium shifts to left and H+ ion combine w/ HCO3- → increased pH / caused by hyperventilation
Hydride reduction of carbonyls
reduction of ketone forms secondary alcohol / reduction of aldehyde forms primary alcohol / reduction of aldehydes and ketones is most readily and commonly performed using a hydride ion
Secondary care
referrals to specialty care
Stages of motor development
reflexive movement (0-1) / rudimentary movement (0-2) / fundamental movement (2-7) / specialized movement (7-14) / application of movement (14+)
Nucleosome
region of DNA wrapped around a histone octamer (8 histone proteins) / histones have + charge to attract - charge DNA
Active site
region of enzyme that substrate binds to (forming the E-S complex) and where catalysis occurs / 3D shape at that region and chemical interactions from residues to the substrate enable the specificity to that substrate / proposes that enzymes and their substrates interact in a "lock and key" fashion → enzyme (lock) has a specific shape that only one substrate (key) will fit into
The islet of Langerhans
region of pancreas / has different cell types, each of which release a different hormone
Fovea
region of retina w/ highest visual acuity; high concentration of cones
Reticular activating system
region of the brainstem that mediates alertness and arousal / assessed by EEG
I band
region that contains thin filaments only / shrinks during contraction
Pupil
region through which light enters eye
Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) (nephron)
region where hormone controlled reabsorption occurs
Enhancers
regions of DNA that activator proteins can bind to / association increases rate of transcription usually at a position on the DNA molecule that is distant from the gene
Introns
regions of a gene that are transcribed but not translated / don't encode the protein
Exons
regions of a gene that encode the protein sequence (EXons are EXpressed)
Ribosome sites
regions of the ribosomal large subunit / tRNA moves from A -> P -> E site during protein synthesis
Tropic hormone
regulates release of other hormones
Enteric NS
regulation of digestive organs
Dalton's law
relates mole fractions and partial pressures to total pressure
Rxn quotient (Q)
relative ratio of P:R when rxn is not at equilibrium / comparing Q to K indicates what direction the rxn will proceed in order to reach equilibrium / Q > K - rxn moves in reverse direction / Q < K - rxn moves in the forward direction
Monocular cues
relative size, relative motion, motion parallax, perspective, interposition, texture gradient, light and shadows, etc.
R
relaxed state / high affinity for O2 / favored at high pO2 (in lungs)... facilitates O2 pick-up in lungs
Topoisomerase
relaxes DNA supercoils that accumulate due to unwinding
Pons
relay center for info / vital visceral motor functions
Thalamus
relay center of sensory info / attention
Medulla
relays sensory info / vital visceral motor functions
Alpha cells
release glucagon
Delta cells
release somatostatin
Leptin
released by adipose cells when excess fuel is present → decreases hunger / resistance in obesity
Ghrelin
released when hungry → increases hunger and prepares GI tract for food
ADH
released when osmolarity is high / results in increased water retention in kidneys → increased plasma volume and decreased blood osmolarity
Positron emission
relies on "weak force"
Fundamentalism
religion w/ a strict set of beliefs and practices that are well-integrated into the followers' daily lives / generally embraces a literal interpretations of the scripture
Modernization
religions can promote social changes or are forced to respond to social changes that occur alongside modernization / modernization and secularization go hand in hand
Sect
religious organization that is not part of mainstream society/culture / usually formed by breaking away from a large existing church to promote a more orthodox or distinct version of the religion / exclusive membership
Heterotroph
rely on organic nutrients made by autotrophs / consumers
NER and BER
remove bulky DNA lesions that are caused by UV radiation, chemicals, and other mutagens / prevent future error in next DNA replication / small region of DNA surrounding error is removed, DNA pol replaces the region, DNA ligase joins fragments
Negative punishment (operant conditioning)
remove desirable stimulus to decrease incorrect behavior
Negative reinforcement (operant conditioning)
remove undesired stimulus to increase correct behavior
Temporal summation
repeated inputs sent from a single neuron are summed
Classical conditioning
repeatedly pairing a stimulus that produces an innate/reflexive response w/ a neutral stimulus until the neutral stimulus also evokes that response on its own
Effective nuclear charge
represents the "charge" or amount of pull that an e- experiences due to the + nucleus
Gonads
reproductive organs that produce gametes (haploid germ cell; eggs and sperm) and sex hormones
Replication of viroid
require RNA poly / rolling circle replication mechanism
Aerobe
require oxygen to survive
F (fertility factor)
required for conjugation to occur / region of extrachromosomal DNA / pilus attachment and formation of the conjugation bridge, etc.
Monocyte
resident macrophages
Acid-base catalysis
residues of the enzyme participate in the reaction by donating or accepting hydrogens
Covalent catalysis
residues of the enzyme participate in the reaction by forming temporary covalent bonds w/ the substrate
Hallucinogens
result in hallucinations, changes in sensory perception, mood, thoughts / ex: LSD, shrooms, marijuana, PCP, ketamine
Depressants
result in reduced levels of arousal and mental/physical functioning / generally stimulate GABA (inhibitory) or inhibit glutamine (excitatory) / ex: alcohol, barbiturates, cannabis, opioids
Privilege
result of power and prestige / perks and special rights/advantages
Dipole moment
results from asymmetrical charge distribution
Punishment (operant conditioning)
results in decrease in frequency of behavior
Allosteric regulation (fast control)
results in enzyme inhibition when certain products of the pathways buildup or enzyme stimulation when reactants buildup / caused by specific substrates that act as allosteric regulators
Reinforcement (operant conditioning)
results in increase in frequency of behavior
Binocular cues
retinal disparity and convergence
Gluconeogenesis
reverse glycolysis... enzymes in reversible steps of glycolysis used in reverse in gluconeogenesis... irreversible steps of glycolysis require different enzymes / requires ATP / operates in liver and kidneys
Chirality when lowest priority group is solid...
reverse... CW = S, CCW = R
Fixed ratio (schedules of reinforcement)
reward given after a certain fixed number of instances of correct behavior / frequency of behavior increases as learner reaches end of each block of behavior
Variable ratio (schedules of reinforcement)
reward given after a randomly changing number of instances of the correct behavior / best and quickest way to reinforce new behavior
Fixed interval (schedules of reinforcement)
reward given after fixed interval of time / frequency of behavior increases as learner reaches end of each time interval
Variable interval (schedules of reinforcement)
reward given after variable interval of time
Dopamine
reward pathway, mood, control of movement
rRNA
ribosomal RNA: makes up ribosomes
RER
ribosomes associated w/ membrane (rough appearance) / translational and post-translational protein modification (ribosomes temporarily docked on membrane of RER) / ribosomes synthesize growing polypeptide into ER lumen
Bacillus
rod-shaped / generally very dangerous to humans
Oxytocin (posterior pituitary)
roles in social bonding and sexual behavior
R strain (Griffith)
rough / non-lethal
Autocracy
rule by one person
Meritocracy
rule by people based on merit
Aristocracy
rule by people born into ruling class
Oligarchy
rule by small select people
Democracy
rule by the people / representative / direct
Saponification
rxn in which triglycerides react w/ strong base to form soap / ester bond cleaved and fatty acids liberated → form a salt w/ cation → soap
Esterification
rxn of an acid and alcohol to produce an ester and water / involved in making triglycerides / carboxylic acid + alcohol → ester
Aldol condensation
rxn of enol/enolate ion w/ another C=O to form beta-hydroxy-aldehyde/ketone (aldol addition product / often product is dehydrated to form conjugated enone / enolate ion has a nucleophilic C / rxn must be acid or base catalyzed
Concentration of R increased
rxn will shift towards P (move in forward direction)
Concentration of P increased
rxn will shift towards R (move in reverse direction)
Zaitsev's rule
rxns favor the production of more substituted alkene
Alveoli
sacs where gas exchange occurs / O2 diffuses from the air into the blood (of capillaries that surround the alveoli) and CO2 diffuses from the blood into the air to be exhaled / walls are 1 cell layer thick
Homozygous
same alleles
Silent mutation
same amino acid will be translated despite a base pair error / usually in third base pair
Constitutional/structural isomers
same molecular formula, diff bond connectivity
Heinz's Dilemma
save wife and steal medicine, or don't steal medicine
Parietal cells (stomach)
secrete HCl, which activates pepsin and destroys pathogens
G cells (stomach)
secrete gastrin (peptide hormone that triggers parietal cells to secrete HCl)
Mucus / Goblet cells (stomach)
secrete mucus lining of the stomach
Chief cells (stomach)
secrete pepsinogen
Proteins made in RER will be...
secreted by cell, become part of plasma membrane, used in endomembrane system
Secretin
secreted by small intestine / stimulus = duodenum in response to acidic chyme / target organ = pancreas / response = secretion of alkaline, digestive pro-enzyme, inhibits intestinal motility
Cholecystokinin
secreted by small intestine / stimulus = intestinal cells in response to food / target organ = pancreas, gallbladder / response = secretion of proenzymes and bile
Gastrin
secreted by stomach mucosa / stimulus = stomach in response to food / targe organ = stomach, small intestine / response = release of HCl, increase of intestine movement, release of pepsinogen
Cooley's looking glass self
self identity determined largely by our interactions w/ others and how we think others perceive us
"SEVEn UP" (path of sperm during ejaculation)
seminiferous tubules → epididymis → vas deferens → ejaculatory duct → urethra → penis
Function of neurons
send and receive signals and interact w/ each other in neural networks to coordinate how body functions
Mechanoreceptors
sense a mechanical disturbance, such as stretching or compression / Pacinian corpuscles, Ruffini endings/corpuscles, and Meissner's corpuscles in skin / auditory and vestibular hair cells
Somatosensation
sense of touch, pain, and temperature at the surface of the body
Nociceptors
sense pain / found in skin and throughout most body tissues
Baroreceptors
sense pressure / found in the aortic arch and sense arterial pressure
Thermoreceptors
sense temp (cold or hot) / found in skin
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
Afferent nerves
sensory = carry sensory signals from resto of body to CNS
Polysynaptic reflex
sensory neuron → interneuron(s) → motor neuron
Monosynaptic reflex
sensory neuron → motor neuron
Liquid-liquid extraction
separate a liquid mixture by distributing its components btwn two immiscible solvents
Distillation
separate liquids based on boiling point (requires much more liquid than gas chrom) / lower BPs (weaker IMF) evaporate more quickly and collected first
TLC
separate out pigments of a mixture / mainly analytical (separated pigments can't be collected/recovered)
Size exclusion chromatography
separates molecules / larger proteins elute out first (go straight through) / smaller proteins enter all holes/tubes and take longer
Column chromatography
separates out components of a liquid mixture / mainly separation
HPLC
separates out, quantifies, and often identifies components of a liquid mixture / mainly analytical and separation
Affinity chromatography
separates specific proteins / based on attraction btwn protein and specific ligand/substrate (antigen or antibody)
Complete dominance
AA and Aa organisms both show dominant phenotype
Components of attitude
ABC / affective, behavioral, cognitive
Saltatory conduction
AP "jumps" from node to node down length of axon
Secondary active transport
ATP used to create an electrochemical gradient -> energy of releasing that gradient is harnessed to pump different solute particle against its gradient
Expected phenotypic ratios from cross btwn two heterozygotes (1 gene)
Aa x Aa -> ? / complete dominance -> 3:1 / lethal recessive allele -> 2:1 (aa is lethal) / codominance and incomplete dominance -> 1:2:1
Expected phenotypic ratios from cross btwn two double heterozygotes (2 genes)
AaBb x AaBb -> ? / complete dominance -> 9:3:3:1 / recessive epistasis -> 9:3:4 (aa for gene 1 is dominant over gene 2) / dominant epistasis -> 12:3:1 (A- for gene 1 is dominant over gene 2)
Ion-exchange chromatography
separation of ionic molecules
Primary structure
sequence of covalently linked a.a. in polypeptide chain / held together by peptide bonds / only broken by hydrolysis rxn requiring catalysis / proteases degrade peptide bonds / determined by DNA sequence of gene
Antisocial
serious behavior issues / no remorse or guilt / poor impulse control / disregard of others (limited empathy)
Self schema
set of memories and categorizations that guide our self-identity / concept
Freud: psychosexual stages of development
sexuality (driven by libido of id) and unconscious desires/thoughts largely determine our personal development / 5 stages / failing to overcome any stage results in behaviors of fixation
Erickson: psychosocial stages of development
sexuality and social interactions largely determine our development / 8 stages - each stage has a conflict that must be overcome
Behavioral component of reciprocal determinism (Albert Bandura)
shaped by observational learning, operant conditioning, classical conditioning
Popular culture
shared by the masses
Menstruation
shedding of the endometrium (bleeding) / occurs once per month
Urbanization
shift in an area from being rural to becoming more urban
Increase pressure / decrease volume
shifts to side w/ less moles of gas (trying to reestablish Keq ratio of partial pressures)
Decrease pressure / increase volume
shifts to side w/ more moles of gas
Absorption spectrum
shine light through a substance and it will absorb certain specific frequencies (or colors) of that light / visualized as dark bands on a rainbow spectrum / the dark bands show which frequencies of light were absorbed / what frequencies of light does a substance absorb
Duodenum
short frontal region that receives chyme and secretions of pancreatic juice and bile / enzymes enable digestion of nutrients and bicarbonate neutralizes the chyme
Paracrine signaling
signal affects cell nearby cell that secreted it
Autocrine signaling
signal affects same cell type as one that secreted it
Hormone
signaling molecule travels in blood to reach distant target organ, where it causes response / produced by glands / involved in a bunch of feedback loops / regulate metabolism, behavior, growth, mood, digestion, sleep, etc. / slower to act but longer-acting than neurotransmitters / have high specificity for target organ
Endocrine signaling
signals produced in glands and released into bloodstream
Exocrine signaling
signals produced in glands and released into ducts
Normal phase HPLC stationary phase
silica particles (polar)
Analogous structures
similar traits not due to common ancestry but due to adaptation to similar environment / convergent evolution
Bohr atom
simplified model of an atom in which electrons orbit nucleus in circular paths / distance of e- from nucleus is related to energy of the e- (further away = higher energy e-; because negative e- want to be close to +ly charged nucleus) / transitions btwn energy levels are accompanied by an input of energy (if e- goes to higher energy level) or release of energy (if e- goes to lower energy level)
Sigma bond
single covalent bond / end-to-end overlap of electron orbitals / stronger than pi bonds / double bond = sigma and pi bond
Spearman theory of intelligence
single general intelligence, that could be quantified
Gram positive
single lipid bilayer surrounded by cell wall / staining color = violet / produces mainly exotoxins (diffuse into surroundings)
miRNA
single stranded RNA molecules that are complementary to the mRNA molecule, bind to it, and result in its degradation
Capillaries
site of gas exchange in body
Secondary traits (Allport)
situational traits / specific circumstances
Size exclusion chromatography basis of separation
size
Weber's law
size of JND is a constant proportion of the original stimulus value
Atomic radius
size of the atom / depends on number of e- shells as well as how much the + nucleus pulls on those e- (increased pull on e- → decreased radius) / across row/period = radius decreases / down column/group = radius increases
Genome
small circular extra-genomic DNA molecule / can provide advantages such as antibiotic resistance / shared btwn bacteria via conjugation / contain genes that may benefit the organism / can replicated independently from the chromosomal DNA
Primary group
small group comprised of intimate and long-lasting relationships / constantly interact w/ each other; key part of individual's identity
snRNA
small nuclear RNA: used in RNA processing
snRNPs
small nuclear ribonucleoproteins / RNA-protein complexes (snRNP = RNA + proteins) / form the spliceosome
Pili
small protrusions from the cell / enable bacterial conjugation = two cells attach to each other and form a bridge to transfer genetic material (via plasmids)
Prokaryotic initiation (translation)
small ribosomal subunit plus IF bind to mRNA at Shine-Dalgarno sequence -> initiator tRNA joins (bonding to AUG start codon) w/ another IF -> large subunit joins / initiator tRNA has slightly modified methionine (fMet)
Prokaryotic ribosomes
small subunit = Kozak sequence / sedimentation sequences = 30S small subunit, 50S large subunit, 70S combined, complete ribosome
Eukaryotic ribosomes
small subunit = Shine-Dalgarno sequence / sedimentation sequences = 40S small subunit, 60S large subunit, 80S combined, complete ribosome
Bacteria size
smaller than eukaryotic cells... about same size as eukaryotic organelles
Arterioles
smaller version of artery / highly involved in vasoconstriction -- control blood flow into capillary beds
Venule
smaller version of vein
S strain (Griffith)
smooth / lethal
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
smooth ER of muscle cells (myocytes) that stores / stores and secretes Ca2+
Mores
social norms that are morally significant / prescribe right vs. wrong
Networks
social ties and relationships btwn people
Anomie
society in which there is little mora/ethical guidance of behavior
Labelling theory of deviance
society largely creates deviance by arbitrarily labelling certain behaviors as such and by negatively labelling and stereotyping minority groups; majority group in society contributes to stereotyping, stigmatizing, and self-fulfilling prophecies in individuals from minority groups
Socialism
society owns and operates
George Herbert Mead (symbolic interactionism)
sociologist largely credited w/ symbolic interactionism / formulated dramaturgical approach; argues that "self" is a social product
Babinski reflex
sole of foot stroked → big toe curls up and others splay outward
Column chromatography stationary phase
solid substance (often polar silica gel)
Common ion effect
solubility of a partially soluble salt will decrease if there is a "common ion" (ion that salt will dissolve into) present in the solution / does NOT suggest that Ksp changes
Solution
solute dissolved into solvent / if solvent = water, aqueous solution / favorable for solute to dissolve if IMF formed btwn solute and solvent particles are overall stronger than those being broken (btwn solute molecules)
Simple diffusion
solute particle diffuses across membrane w/o requiring helper protein / solute is small and hydrophobic
Amphoteric
solution that can act as an acid or a base / bicarbonate
Normal phase HPLC mobile phase
solvent (nonpolar)
Column chromatography mobile phase
solvent that the mixture is dissolved into / usually nonpolar, in which case nonpolar substances will come out first
Types somatic symptom and related disorders
somatic symptom disorder, illness anxiety disorder, conversion disorder, factitious disorder
Collecting duct
some reabsorption of H2O and of urea (to maintain high concentration of solutes in interstitial)
Sleep disorders
somnipathy / parasomnia (abnormal sleeping), insomnia (difficulty sleeping), sleep apnea (breathing), narcolepsy (excessive sleeping)
2 e- groups
sp hybridized
3 e- groups
sp2 hybridized
4 e- groups
sp3 hybridized
Ring strain
sp3carbon atoms are tetrahedral therefore prefer to have a bond angle of 109.5 / in a ring structure, the bond angle between attached carbons is often significantly below 109.5 -> destabilizing / smaller rings have high ring strain / forced to have a bond angle less than what is most favorable
A band
spans full of thick filaments / contains both thin and thick filaments
Node
specialized region of cardiac muscle cells that can generate electrical impulse
Neural plate
specialized region of ectoderm / invaginates, forming neural folds
Divergent evolution
species w/ common ancestor diverge away from each other over time (accumulate differences)
Mutarotation
spontaneous conversion btwn two anomeric forms of a sugar / an equilibrium exists btwn the two forms
Radioactive decay
spontaneous process by which an unstable nucleus emits particles and/or energy from the nucleus / unstable parent atom/isotope → daughter atom/isotope
Epithelial tissue
squamous cells, cuboidal cells, columnar cells / simple or stratified / lines surface of body cavities
Types of natural selection
stabilizing selection / directional selection / diversifying selection / disruptive selection / sexual selection / kin selection
Traits (trait perspective of personality)
stable dispositions that vary across individuals / ex: five factor model
Action potential pathway in heart
starts in SA node → spread throughout atria and atria contract → signal spreads to AV node after slight delay → signal spread from AV node to Bundle of His and Purkinje fibers causing ventricles to contract
Starvation state regulation
starvation state → low BGL → glycogenolysis in liver raises BGL and sending out GLC / some gluconeogenesis to produce GLC and raise BGL
Master status
status that the individual feels is most important/influential to them
Chiral carbon
stereocenter = carbon atom that is sp3 hybridized and has 4 different atoms/groups attached to it
Anomers
stereocenter that differs is the anomeric C (attached to OH group and O in ring)
Hydrophobic hormones
steroid hormone / made from cholesterol in smooth ER / regulate gene expression / slower to act but longer acting / diffuse through plasma membranes / bind in cytoplasm or nucleus / cortisol, aldosterone, testosterone, progesterone, estrogen
Capsule
sticky layer of gelatin surrounding bacterial cell / virulence factor because it prevents host eukaryotic cell from engulfing bacteria
Negative impacts of medicalization
stigma and labelling, may impact individual's identity, over-diagnosis, overlooking social contributions, etc.
Stimulants
stimulate the sympathetic NS / often increase catecholamine levels in the synapse (dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine) / ex: caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamine
Fatty acid / beta ox and synthesis
stimulated by ADP / inhibited by high levels of ATP / occurs when insulin is low and glucagon is high / high levels of ATP and NADPH → acetyl CoA molecules go into fatty acid synthesis / stimulated by insulin
Growth hormone (anterior pituitary)
stimulates cell growth and division
Insulin
stimulates cells to uptake GLC and store as fat or glycogen to decrease BGL / released after a meal when BGL spikes
Estrogen (ovaries)
stimulates development of female sexual characteristics and behavior... builds up endometrium
Testosterone (testes)
stimulates development of male sexual characteristics and behavior / stimulates spermatogenesis / will inhibit GnRH and FSH and LH
Glucagon
stimulates glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and inhibits GLC uptake by cells to increase BGL / released when BGL low / "glucose-gone"
ADH/ (posterior pituitary)
stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys to increase blood volume and therefore increase BP
Secondary (conditioned) reinforcement
stimuli must have been conditioned at some point seen as desirable to learner
Action potential process
stimuli received at dendrites of neuron and result in either excitation (EPSP) or inhibition (IPSP) / effects of multiple concurrent inputs are summed together in soma (axon hillock) and result in net depolarization or hyperpolarization that determines cell's response → cell responds by firing action potential if threshold is reached or is temporarily inhibited from firing / AP is all-or-none even / intensity of signal coded by frequency of AP firing
Retrieval cues
stimuli that facilitate retrieval of a memory / priming, encoding specificity principle, emotion and retrieval, serial position effect
Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)
stimulus = intestinal cells in response to fat / target organ = stomach, pancreas / response = insulin secretion, inhibits gastric secretion and motility
Positive (operant conditioning)
stimulus added
Negative (operant conditioning)
stimulus removed
Generalization (classical conditioning)
stimulus similar to CS can also elicit CR
Singer Schachter (theories of emotion)
stimulus → physiological changes → cognitive interpretation of physiological changes, using context and reasoning → conscious feeling of emotion
Termination (translation)
stop codon enters A site causing release factor (RF) proteins to join the complex at P site / bond btwn last tRNA and peptide chain is cleaved, releasing the protein / GTP and other proteins allow the entire complex to dissociate
Long-term fasted state
stored glycogen runs out in less than 24 hours / gluconeogenesis must run in order to create new GLC
Regulation
strength of the association btwn RNA pol and the promoter affects the transcription rate / if RNA pol has stronger affinity for the promoter -> higher transcription rate
Distress
stress perceived as negative
Eustress
stress perceived as positive
Rooting reflex
stroke/touch baby's mouth → baby will turn towards object / helps w/ breastfeeding
Neutralization rxn
strong acid and strong base react to form a neutral salt plus water
Authoritarian/totalitarian
strong central power enforces strict control over people / limited freedom
Biological basis of Schizophrenia
strong genetic basis, traditional dopamine hypothesis (too much dopamine), newer glutamate hypothesis (abnormal glutamate signaling and NMDA activation), enlarged ventricles in brain
Strong nuclear force
strongest of nature's four basic forces / overcomes repulsion
Roles of cytoskeleton
structural support, cell movement, transport
Placenta
structure that lines uterine wall and supports the fetus → delivers nutrients and oxygen, enables waste elimination and gas exchange, and more
Homologous structures
structures that appear in diff animals due to shared common ancestry / has often been adapted to a diff purpose / divergent evolution
Social epidemiology
studies impact of social, cultural, and economic factors on one's health
Behaviorist perspective of personality
study only observable behavior / personality is sum of behavioral tendencies / behaviors are learned through environment / begin as blank state
Surfactant
substance that decreases surface tension of a liquid
Exponential decay
substance undergoes decay if rate at which it decays is directly proportional to amount present at that time
Endocytosis
substances taken into cell when part of plasma membrane invaginates, forming vesicle that is then released into cell / particles enter cell
Uncouplers
substances that allow H+ ions through the mitochondrial inner-membrane... diffusing the proton gradient but not harnessing energy to make ATP
Random genetic drift
sudden change in allele frequencies due to chance alone
Spontaneous recovery (classical conditioning)
sudden reappearance of previously-conditioned response that had gone extinct / conditioning → extinction → rest period → spontaneous recovery
MRI
superior to CAT / magnetic field / structural
Bronchi (2)
supply each lung with air / branch repeatedly into smaller tubes called bronchioles / bronchioles terminate in alveoli
Intermediate filaments function
supports overall cell shape and structure / bears tension / cell-to-cell adhesion
Bowman's capsule (nephron)
surrounds glomerulus and captures filtered blood plasma
Paranoid
suspicious of people / paranoid / hypersensitive
Chirality when lowest priority is planar...
switch group of dashed wedge w/ lowest priority group... CW = S, CCW = R
Theories of microsociology
symbolic interactionism, rational choice / exchange theory
Key diagnostic criteria for psychological disorders
symptom type, severity, frequency, and interference w/ daily function
Bipolar and related disorders
symptoms of mania and of depression to differing extents
Eukaryotic initiation (translation)
tRNA, small ribosomal subunit and other initiator proteins (eIF) associate a 5' end of mRNA (Kozak sequence recognized) -> scan for start codon (AUG) -> large ribosomal subunit joins
Non-associative learning
takes place in CNS / not same as sensory adaptation
Psychoanalytic therapy
talk therapy, dream analysis / make unconscious desires and repressed memories known / free association
Base peak
tallest peak on spectrum which represents the most abundant fragment/species
Taste (Gustation)
taste receptors are chemoreceptors that bind to chemicals from food / receptors detect a specific taste: sour, sweet, salty, bitter, or umami / bitter, sweet, and umami receptors use a GPCR signal transduction mechanism / salty and sour receptors have ion channels
Globalization: Contributing factors
tech advancement, expanded global trade, rapid global transport, development of multinational companies, mobility of labor and outsourcing, increasing economic interdependence, expanded role of NGOs (ex: UN)
NMR spectroscopy
technique that assesses the magnetic properties of the nuclei of specific elements
Resolution
technique used to separate a racemic mixture into its two constituent enantiomers / turn two enantiomers into diastereomers, separate them, turn them back into enantiomers / racemic mixture + resolving agent -> mixture of diastereomers -> separate diastereomers by physical properties -> remove resolving agent and turn each diastereomer back into original enantiomer
Wernicke's area
temporal lobe of dominant hemisphere / controls comprehension of speech and written language
Group polarization
tendency of groups to make decisions that are more extreme than they would have been if each individual answered alone
Mcdonaldization
tendency of society to shift towards and adopt the operating principles of a fast-food restaurant → embracing efficiency, calculability, standardized and predictable services, replacement of human labor with technology
Actor/observer bias
tendency to attribute our own behavior to the situation (external causes), and other people's behavior to their disposition/personality (internal causes)
Just-world fallacy
tendency to believe that the world is fair and people will get what they deserve
Fundamental attribution error
tendency to explain other people's behavior as caused by their personality (internal causes) as opposed to the environment / often place undue emphasis on internal factors as the cause of a situation
Halo effect
tendency to let a certain dominant impression of an individual influence our perception of their character and behavior
Hindsight bias
tendency to retrospectively overestimate their ability to have predicted a situation ("I knew it all along")
T
tense state; low affinity for O2 / favored at low pO2 (in tissues)... facilitates O2 drop-off in tissues / favored by high CO2, low pH, high temp, high 2,3-BPG
Terpenoid
terpene w/ additional functional groups
Texture gradient
texture more clear on closer objects
Forebrain
thalamus, hypothalamus, cortex, and parts of the limbic system
Educational stratification/segregation
the academic achievement of students depends extensively on their social background
RNA processing
the addition of a 5' cap and 3' tail is a modification that increases the stability of the RNA, making it last longer in the cytosol and therefore enabling it to be translated an increased number of times / in eukaryotes, transcription produces hnRNA (pre-mRNA), which must be further processed to form mRNA / occurs in nucleus / mature mRNA exits nucleus to be translated
Methylation/demethylation
the addition of a methyl group to histone proteins can result in the repression OR activation of transcription, depending on the location of methylation
Acetylation/deacetylation
the addition of an acetyl group to histone proteins causes the DNA to be more transcriptionally active
Henry's law
the amount of gas that can dissolve into a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and the solubility of the gas / high partial pressure O2 in the alveoli = more O2 that dissolves into capillaries
Gas chromatography basis of separation
BP
Hybridization (chemistry)
the hybridization of each atom in a given molecule / which bonds are formed from which orbitals (hybridized or unhybridized) / the resultant (molecular) geometry of a molecule / name of the geometry and bond angles
Zymogen
the inactive form of an enzyme which must be modified in some way (usually be cleavage of some region of the zymogen) in order to perform its bio function / prevents enzymes from doing damage by performing their function at the wrong time/place
Peer pressure
the influence of peers on an individual → coerces the individual to behave like his/her peers in order to fit in
Sound intensity
the larger the intensity, the larger the amplitude of the wave
Framing
the manner in which a situation is presented affects the decision
Perception
the process of becoming aware of, organizing, and interpreting sensory info
Law of mass action
the rate of a rxn is only dependent on the concentration of the pertinent species (usually just the reactants) / also says that for a rxn in equilibrium, the ratio of products: reactants is constant
Degenerate
the triplet code is degenerate (redundant) bc multiple codons often code for the same amino acid
Gardner theory of intelligence
theory of multiple intelligences / 8 different ones / "you can't judge a person by a single number, everyone's a winner and has different strengths"
Broadbent's Filter Model
theory proposes that the inputs are filtered at a very early stage of processing → only the attended ear passes the selective filter, others blocked / only the attended input makes it to higher level processing (interpreting the meaning) / can't explain the Cocktail Party Effect or priming / PIC
Treisman's Attenuation Model
theory proposes that, the unattended input(s) are not fully eliminated from higher level processing but are attenuated ("turned down") / it is assigned less attentional/cognitive resources but still processed at some level / can explain the cocktail party effect → some key words or phrases only need a small amount of processing to be picked up as important and consciously noticed / PIC
Persuasion: elaboration likelihood model
theory to describe how attitudes are formed, how attitude change occurs, and how persuasion can be effectively used to influence how others think and/or behave
Reciprocal determinism (Albert Bandura)
there are reciprocal interactions btwn environmental/social factors, personal factors, and behavior / behavior is determined by personal, and environmental factors, but also shapes them
Natural selection
there is variation and traits are heritable in a pop / phenotypes that = more offspring = higher fitness = more passed down
Stage 1
theta waves / very light sleep
Dermis
thick layer of connective tissue below dermis that cushions the body / connective tissue full of collagen and elastic fibers which provide structural support and elasticity
Ventricle
thicker and more muscular than the heart -- must send blood through pulmonary or systemic circulation at high pressure / ventricular pressure higher than arterial; L ventricle thicker/more muscular than R
Redox rxns
those in which there's a transfer of e-
Weber (conflict theory)
thought there was more than one source of ongoing conflict and assessed the diversity of rxns to inequality / did not think capitalism was doomed to collapse
Beck's cognitive triad
three key belief systems involved in depression = negative views about self, world, future / CBT aims to target and change these maladaptive beliefs and the associated behaviors
Systemic circulation
through entire body and brain / blood passes through pulmonary circulation then through one capillary bed of systemic circulation / exception: portal systems - 2 consecutive capillary beds / hypothalamus-pituitary and hepatic portal systems
Pulmonary circulation
through lungs
M line
through middle of sarcomere, only ever contains thick filaments
Osmoregulation
through reabsorption and excretion, the kidneys modulate ion concentrations in the blood
Thyroid
thyroid hormone = important for growth... increase metabolism and raise body temp... will inhibit TRH and TSH / calcitonin = lowers Ca in blood by stimulating osteoblasts to use Ca in production of new bone and kidneys to secrete excess Ca in urine
Half-life (T ½)
time it takes for ½ of sample of radioactive material to undergo decay
Equivalence point
titrant has converted ALL unknown compound into its conjugate
DNA Hybridization/Annealing
to complementary single strands of DNA (or RNA) come together and bind via H-bonds between the complementary bases / spontaneous
Le Chatelier's principle
too much bicarbonate leads to an increase in pH; to little bicarbonate leads to drop in pH
Hyperthyroidism
too much thyroid hormone / excessively rapid metabolic rate
Hess's law
total enthalpy change for multi-step rxn is sum of all enthalpy changes of each individual rxn/step
Ideal gases
total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to sum of all partial pressures
Antigen
toxin or any foreign substance
Bundles of CNS axons
tracts
Folkway
traditional behavior for casual day-to-day interactions / not following them is considered rude
Traditional economy
traditional economic system based on customs/traditions
How well someone can multitask depends on
training/practice, complexity, task similarity
Polygenic trait
trait controlled by 2+ diff genes / ex: height
Specialization
traits become more specialized as organisms occupy a particular environment/niche
tRNA
transfer RNA: facilitates the conversion from mRNA → polypeptide chain by carrying and linking a.a.
Culture transmission
transfer of elements of culture from one generation to next
Radiation
transfer of energy in electromagnetic waves that radiate away from the object
Griffith
transformation / conclusion = S strain somehow conferred virulence to R strain... R strain transformed
Exceptions to valence shells being filled
transition metals lose e- from s-subshell before d-subshell / some transition metals can achieve higher stability by promoting an e- in order to achieve a half filled (5e-) or fully filled (10e-) d-subshell
Channel protein
transmembrane protein w/ tunnel through middle that selectively allows solute particles to pass through based on size/charge
Primary active transport
transport of particle directly coupled to ATP hydrolysis
Sternberg theory of intelligence
triarchic theory of intelligence / intelligence is more broad than a single factor, but Gardner included a little too much (some of which Sternberg viewed more as hobbies and activities)
FSH and LH (role in ovulation)
trigger ovary to secrete steroid hormones (estrogen and progesterone) / E and P maintain the endometrium and are important in feedback on LH and FSH
ACTH (anterior pituitary)
triggers adrenal cortex to release cortisol
CRF (hypothalamus)
triggers anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH
TRH (hypothalamus)
triggers anterior pituitary to secrete TSH
TSH (anterior pituitary)
triggers release of TH from thyroid glands
Proteases
trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen
Collecting duct (nephron)
tube that DCTs drain into / more hormone-controlled reabsorption / fluid from here eventually drains into ureter
Diaphysis
tubular middle portion / mainly compact bone / cavity in middle filled w/ yellow bone marrow
Fallopian tubes
tunnel through which ovum is transferred from ovaries to uterus / fertilization occurs here
Hybridization (biology)
two individuals from distinct populations breed... may or may not produce viable offspring
Law of effect
underlies principles of operant conditioning / behaviors that result in desirable outcome will increase in frequency and behaviors that result in an undesirable outcome will decrease in frequency
Cultural relativism
understanding that people must be understood w/ respect to and regard for that person's culture / no culture is right/superior, all are worthy in their own right
Social norms
understandings that guide appropriate behavior in a society / guide behavior for specific instances
Discrimination
unfair and unjust treatment of an individual on basis of social characteristics such as race/ethnicity, gender, religion, SES, disability, etc. / acting on prejudiced beliefs; power, prestige, and class
Sn1
unimolecular / two steps / forms R and S enantiomers / stability of carbocation intermediate determines rate of rxn
Latent functions
unintended and less recognizable functions of a structure
Freudian slip
unintentional error in speech... reveals unconscious thoughts/desires
Irregular bones
unique and irregular shapes → vertebra
Mole
unit used to discuss quantity of a substance that's made up of many individual repeating particles
Instinct
unlearned and innate behaviors due to our bio programming
LTM
unlimited capacity / explicit/declarative / implicit/nondeclarative
Drive reduction theory of motivation
unmet need(s) → state of tension/discomfort and drive to reduce the feeling → actions are performed that meet the need(s)
More fluid bilayer
unsaturated and shorter fatty acids
Borderline
unstable mood / extreme vacillations in emotion / self destructive, impulsive, and reactive / often self-harm
DNA Helicase
unwinds parent DNA strands
Anaerobe
use fermentation or anaerobic respiration
Gene cloning
use machinery of bacteria to clone the gene / put gene into bacterial plasmid using restriction enzymes followed by DNA ligase / when it replicates that plasmid, bacteria will inadvertently replicate the inserted gene
Coefficient of thermal expansion
used to describe how size of object changes w/ changes in temp
Southern blot
used to detect certain fragment of DNA from sample
Northern blot
used to detect certain fragment of RNA from sample
Western blot
used to detect certain fragment of protein from sample
Testcross
used to determine if individual w/ dominant phenotype is homozygous (AA) or heterozygous (Aa) / cross individual w/ homozygous recessive ind (aa) -> assess offspring / if any recessive inds in offspring (aa), then ind in question must be heterozygous (Aa)
UV-visible spectroscopy
used to determine wavelength of light absorbed by a compound; similar to IR / measuring absorbance of light w/in UV and visible spectrums / compounds w/ extensive conjugation usually absorb w/in visible spectrum / compound is colored if there is a smaller energy gap btwn its ground and its excited state
IR spectroscopy
used to determine which functional groups are present in a molecule / certain bonds vibrate at certain frequencies and absorb those specific frequencies of light
Mercury barometer
used to measure atmospheric pressure / height of column = air pressure
HPLC area under peaks
used to quantify amount of each component present in mixture
Simple distillation
used to separate components that have > 15 degree difference in BPS or to separate a liquid out from other impurities
Factional distillation
used to separate components w/ smaller differences in BPs / long "fractioning column" above mixture enables better separation of components bc more condensation-evaporation cycles
Gel electrophoresis
used to separate macromolecules (DNA, RNA, proteins) by size and charge / macromolecules migrate through gel
Isoelectric focusing
used to separate proteins based on pI
PPP
uses GLC-6P as a substrate to make NADPH, ribose-5P, and other pentoses / occurs in cytosol / doesn't use ATP / flexible / oxidative and non-oxidative phase
X-ray diffraction
uses radiation from X-ray portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to create 2D interference patterns / this info can be used to determine the chemical composition of the compounds through which the X-ray radiation was passed
PET scan
uses radioactive tracer / info about activity and functioning of brain
Availability heuristic
using examples that are most readily recalled to you in order to evaluate a situation or solve a problem
Game theory
using models to study choice, cooperation, and conflict in rational decision-makers / choices involve a cost-benefit analysis / rational choice theory proposes that inds make choices to maximize gains and minimize losses / "Zero-sum game" → loss for one person results in gain for other individual
Bottom-up processing
using the sensory info to compile a cohesive understanding of the whole / "data-driven"
Intrapleural pressure
usually less than atmospheric pressure → negative pressure keeps the two pleura stuck to each other and keeps the lungs from collapsing inward
TLC mobile phase
usually nonpolar / nonpolar compounds move further up plate (higher Rf) / may have to add different mobile phases in a sequence of increasing/decreasing polarity
RNA structure
usually single stranded; may be wound up, twisted, and uniquely folded due to IMF / has 2' OH unlike DNA... makes it less stable due to intramolecular nucleophilic attack... more likely to be cleaved by itself
Genomic library function
usually used to determine or analyze the sequence an organism's entire genome
Extraction
usually uses solvents differing in polarity to create one aqueous phase (polar) and one organic phase (nonpolar)
Steps of coagulation
vasoconstriction of smooth muscle surrounding vessel - reduces blood flow through damaged vessel / platelets aggregate and form plug / coagulation cascade = clotting factors become activated in a cascade, ultimately resulting in fibrinogen becoming fibrin and forming a fibrin mesh
Thermoregulation by circulatory system
vasoconstriction of vessels near skin when cold to avoid heat loss / vasodilation of vessels near skin when hot to get rid of excess heat
Isotopes
versions of an element / same number of protons, different numbers of neutrons / mass number noted below each element on periodic table is weighted average of all naturally occurring isotopes of that element / generally have similar chemical properties but differing stabilities
Symbolic interactionism
views society as accumulation of everyday interactions and individual perceptions / analyzes the subjective meaning that people assign to objects, interactions, and behaviors → these subjective meanings influence how people think, behave, and interact w/ others in society / society and culture constructed through these symbolic interpretations, which are negotiated, modified, and transmitted / language and communication used to generate and transmit these interpretations
Transduction
virus (bacteriophage) latches onto bacteria and injects genetic material into cell
Pyrimidines
C, U, and T
Viral life cycle (general)
virus attaches to cell (absorption) and penetrates cell wall if present → enters cell by endocytosis or injects viral genome into cell, leaving capsid outside → uses host cell's machinery, building blocks, and energy to replicate viral genome and synthesize viral proteins → proteins and viral genetic material associate, forming many viral progeny
Virus size
viruses are hundreds of times smaller than prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Iconic memory
visual info
Occipital lobe
visual processing
Membrane potential
voltage across cell membrane / on average btwn -40 and -80 mV / resting = -70 mV
Somatic NS
voluntary control of skeletal muscles of body / acetylcholine = neurotransmitter
Skeletal muscle
voluntary movements / controlled by somatic NS / striated / long, cylindrical, a true syncytium (multinucleated cell); use troponin + tropomyosin / found throughout body, often attached to bones
Hershey and Chase
wanted to verify that DNA is transforming agent conferring virulence / conclusion = DNA is the genetic material of the phage
Plasma
water + solutes + proteins / 55% of blood volume
Gas chromatography stationary phase
wax-like liquid absorbent packed into column (not necessary)
Strain theory of deviance
way society is set up results in strain btwn culturally define norms and the acceptable methods to achieve certain goals
Incentive theory of motivation
we are motivated by the presence of extrinsic motivators
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
we are motivated to behave in certain ways in order to take care of our needs (which are hierarchically organized) / fulfillment of self-actualization needs = personal development
Arousal (motivation)
we are motivated to perform certain actions in order to reach an optimum state of arousal
Drive
we are motivated to reduce internal tension/discomfort that results from unmet physiological needs such as hunger, fatigue, etc.
Attentional spotlight
we focus our visual attention on a specific area, like shining a spotlight on it / visual stimuli in areas directly surrounding the spotlight are slightly attended to, but are a lower resolution
Observational learning underlies our identity
we learn right vs wrong from others / we mimic behavior of those we spend extensive time with / environment we are raised in shapes our values, attitudes, and personality
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (Whorfianism)
we understand and interpret the world through language / linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity
Buffer
weak acid and base conjugates together in solution / best buffer system has a 1:1 ratio of HA:A-
Hydrophobic interactions
weak individually but present in such high quantity that they contribute immensely to overall structure and stability of a folded protein / main force driving folding of a protein / maximizes the entropy of the folded protein / enables water molecules to engage in a maximum amount of highly dynamic and disordered H-bonds
Well-fed state regulation
well-fed state → high BGL → cells uptake GLC / glycolysis, CAC, oxidative phosphorylation stimulated to make ATP / glycogenesis occurs / high ATP and NADPH enables fatty acid synthesis
Corpus luteum
what the follicle becomes after ovulation / secretes E and P
Cognitive dissonance theory
when an ind. holds concurrent contradictory beliefs/attitudes, when their beliefs and behaviors are contradictory, or when they are confronted w/ new info that contradicts their existing beliefs / results in discomfort... ind. strives to re-achieve consistency by changing his/her belief, behavior, attitude, or perception of the behavior / often results in attitude changing to match behavior or vice versa
Stereotype threat
when an individual is in a situation in which they think they are at risk of conforming to a particular stereotype that has been assigned to them
Wobble pairing
when base pairing doesn't follow the Watson-Crick rules (A w/ U/T, C w/ G) / 3rd nucleotide of mRNA codon / allows more than 1 mRNA codon to pair w/ the same tRNA and code for the same a.a.
Fertilization (oogenesis)
when contact w/ sperm made, secondary oocyte completes meiosis II forming a mature ovum (and a polar body) / then sperm and egg nuclei fuse, forming the zygote
Diastole
when heart refills w/ blood after ventricles have contracted / die = resting period
Nondisjunction
when homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids do not separate correctly during meiosis or mitosis / meiosis I = homologous chromosomes fail to separate (n+1, n +1, n-1, n-1) / meiosis II and mitosis = sister chromatids fail to separate (n+1, n-1, n, n) / results in too many or too few chromosomes in daughter cells
Role-playing effects
when ind. takes on a role that requires specific behaviors/actions, there is usually a shift in their attitude as a result (attitude shifts to align w/ newly acquired role) / Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment
Vygotsky: zone of proximal development (ZPD)
when learning something, the ZPD is the region in btwn what we can and cannot do alone / having experiences in ZPD encourages development
Representativeness heuristic
when looking a specific situation/problem we tend to compare new situations/problems to a prototype that exists in our mind and assess their similarity / then we extrapolate about causality and probability of a specific outcome based on this comparison
Discrimination (classical conditioning)
when only a particular CS can elicit CR / similar stimuli won't be able to elicit same response
DNA Denaturing
when the H-bonds between bases in DNA are disrupted and the two strands begin to unwind and separate ("melt") / usually due to high temps
Systole
when ventricles contract to push blood into lungs and into aorta to go to rest of body / blood from vena cava and pulmonary veins enters atria at this time / atria contract in late systole; pumping of heart
Self serving bias
when we succeed we attribute situation to ourselves (internal causes such as personal qualities), but when we fail we attribute the situation/outcome to the environment or to other people
Capillary
where solute and gas exchange occurs / smallest diameter vessels and thinnest / no smooth muscle
Back stage
where we can let our guard down
Thermodynamics
whether rxn will occur at all (spontaneous or not?) / science of energy transfers
Sclera
white and protective outer layer of eye
Leukocytes
white blood cells / found in circulatory and lymphatic system / < 1% blood volume
Spinal cord
white matter on outside and grey matter on inside / sensory (afferent) neurons enter at dorsal root / motor (efferent) neurons exit at ventral root / DAVE
Stereotype
widely-held generalization of a particular group of people
Increasings temp
will always cause rxn rate to increase (kinetic effect), so that rxn reaches equilibrium sooner
Molecule w/ n different chiral centers...
will have 2nstereoisomers
Polyandry
woman married to multiple men
CAT/CT scan
x-rays / quicker and cheaper than MRI / structural
Bone marrow
yellow and red bone marrow / both have high number of blood vessels / both make some RBCs and WBCs, red marrow (hematopoietic stem cell) makes more / yellow bone marrow has many fat cells / where all blood cells produced
UV light nm
~ 200-400 nm
Net energetic results, per GLC: Total Eukaryotes
~ 30 ATP / GLC
Net energetic results, per GLC: Total Prokaryotes
~ 32 ATP / GLC
Asp
~ 4
Glu
~ 4
Pregnancy
~ 40 weeks / 3 trimesters / high levels of hCG → produced by placenta following implantation... maintains corpus luteum in early pregnancy / high estrogen and progesterone / low GnRH, LH, FSH... endometrium maintained and blastocyst is implanted into it
Visible light nm
~ 400-750 nm
His
~ 6.5
COO- main chain pKa
~2
NH2 main chain pKa
~9.5
Nucleophilic addition to C=Os
C=O carbon slightly positive and therefore electrophilic / nucleophilic addition results in breaking of pi bond and addition of nucleophile (new sigma bond)
Efferent neuron
CNS to rest of body
Exchange of oxygen in lungs
CO2 moves out of capillaries and into alveoli / O2 moves from alveoli into capillaries → CO2 exhaled from lungs and O2 delivered to tissues
Extinction (classical conditioning)
CR decreases over time as CS presented alone
Parathyroid hormone
Ca+2 reabsorption / increases [Ca+2] by stimulating osteoclasts to break down bone
Nativist perspective (theories of language development)
Chomsky / innate ability / due to LAD / vocab acquired through experience
The Cell Theory
Clumsy (all made up of Cells) Little (basic units of Life) Panthers (all come from Preexisting cells)
Chromatin
DNA + histone proteins / bundles up and condenses into long rods
Genomic library procedure
DNA extracted from cells and digested w/ a restriction enzyme / DNA fragments inserted into cloning vectors / bacterial cells transformed w/ vectors
Recombinant DNA (rDNA)
DNA molecule made from combining DNA from 2 or more different sources
Transcription
DNA->RNA / mRNA is synthesized by RNA poly using DNA as a template / occurs in nucleus of eukaryotes and cytoplasm of prokaryotes
Functionalism
Emile Durkheim (father of sociology) / views society as a system of many interdependent components that work together to achieve dynamic equilibrium and social stability / all parts interact w/ and rely on each other; the elements shape society as a whole / social dysfunctions must be corrected or society must readjust in order to re-achieve equilibrium
Donor cell
F+ cell → possesses F-factor
Recipient cell
F- cell → receives plasmid in addition to F-factor genes
Nonpolar a.a.s
GAVLIM TTP / R group is alkyl or aromatic
Fed state
GLC consumed in food goes into glycolysis to make ATP (excess GLC stored as glycogen)... glycogenesis
Common electrophiles
H+, H3O+, BF3, partial+C
Strong acids ex:
HClO4, HI, HBr, HCl, H2SO4, HNO3
Halogenation of carboxylic acid at alpha-C
Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky Rxn / substitution in which halogen replaces alpha H
Overall Sn1 mechanism
LG leaves molecule, forming carbocation → carbocation attacked by nucleophile
Antiparallel sheet
N-terminus of one aligns w/ C-terminus of the other (strands run in opposite directions)
Parallel sheet
N-terminus of one sheet aligns w/ N-terminus of the other
Cofactors of PDC
NAD+
Hb picks up
O2 in capillaries surrounding alveoli, where [O2] is high and [CO2] is low
Hb drops off
O2 in tissues, where [O2] is low and [CO2] is high
Amides
OH group replaced by amine / formed by reacting carboxylic acid w/ amine
5 psychosexual stages
Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital
Steps of Replication Acronym
Orin Hates To See Pretty Dames Outside / O(origin of replication found).H(helicase unwinds).T(topo relaxes supercoils).S(ssbps stabilize separated parent strands).P(primase lays down rna bases as primers).D(dna poly builds new strand).O(on lagging strand, okazaki fragments are formed and joined together by ligase)
Touch
Pacinian corpuscles, Meissner's corpuscles, Merkel's disks, Ruffini's corpuscles / touch receptors differ in their speed of adaptation, size of the receptive field, and location (depth) in the skin
D sugars
R configuration at penultimate carbon / OH on right / more common
RNA interference
RNA molecules reduce translation by resulting in the degradation of specific mRNA molecules
Ribozymes
RNA molecules w/ catalytic activity (like "RNA enzymes") / found in ribosomes (which catalyze translation) / also required for splicing
Elongation (transcription)
RNA pol adds free-floating nucleotide triphosphates to synthesize the RNA strand / they are complementary to the DNA template strand / RNA moves downstream along the DNA, elongating the RNA in a 5' -> 3' direction
Initiation (transcription)
RNA pol enzyme plus factor sigma (helper molecule) form holoenzyme (complete and ready enzyme) and bind to promoter region of DNA, just upstream from the start site -> closed complex formed / RNA unwinds this region of DNA -> open complex formed
Retroviruses
RNA virus that uses DNA intermediate in lysogenic life cycle / genome encodes for reverse transcriptases / DNA incorporated into host cell genome
Translation
RNA->protein / polypeptides are made by ribosomes and tRNA using the instructions encoded by mRNA / occurs in cytoplasm
Prokaryotic Rho-dependent termination (transcription)
Rho protein recognizes a specific RNA sequence and latches onto the RNA molecule, knocking off RNA pol
L sugars
S configuration at penultimate carbon / OH on left
Encoding
STM to LTM / hippocampus involved / semantic encoding > acoustic encoding > visual encoding
Behaviorist/Learning perspective (theories of language development)
Skinner / trial and error, mimicry, classical conditioning / reinforcement principles
Prosthetic groups in PDC
TPP (vitamin B1), FAD, lipoic acid
Social interactionist theory (theories of language development)
Vygotsky / social communication and interactions / environment (social and cultural)
Importance of introns
a "gene" is composed of both introns and exons, but only exons make it into mRNA and are translated / may become functional non-coding RNA molecules after being spliced out / enable alternative splicing to occur, which allows more than one different proteins to be made from the same mRNA transcript / break the gene up into distinct exons and contain sequences ("splice sites") that are recognized by the spliceosome
Covalently-modified enzyme
a group of atoms may be covalently added to a protein to change its activity
Negative
a product (or later intermediate of a metabolic pathway inhibits an earlier step in the pathway / when there's already a lot of the product being made and accumulating, the pathway needs to slow down in order to conserve energy and resources
Positive
a product (or later intermediate) of a metabolic pathway increases the activity of an earlier enzyme, resulting in even more product being made
Feedback regulation
a product or later-made compound of a rxn pathway allosterically regulates an earlier enzyme of the pathways / feedback bc regulator goes back to an earlier step of the pathway and increases or decreases the rate of that step (in order to increase or decrease the amount of product that is made)
Shielding (spectrometry)
a proton is shielded from the magnetic field that is applied during NMR spectroscopy if the nucleus has high e- density / nucleus is shielded if that atom is nearby atoms w/ low EN, like C / nucleus is deshielded if it is nearby highly EN atoms or pi bonds bc the e- of that H are being pulled away so are unable to shield the proton from the externally applied magnetic field
Empirical formula
a ratio of elements in a compound to each other... find by reducing subscripts of molecular formula by common denominator
The sick role
a role that individuals take on when sick / include certain rights and obligations
Role strain
a single role that requires conflicting responsibilities/expectations
Splitting
a single signal on spectrum (representing one group of equivalent hydrogens) may be split into multiple different peaks clustered in the same region
Brain and vicarious emotion (observational learning)
a vicarious emotional response (empathy) often occurs when a brain region is activated both by our own emotions and by observing others experience those same same emotions
Parallel processing
ability of the brain to simultaneously process different streams of sensory info
Power
ability to control situation and other people
Regenerative capacity
ability to restore and renew damaged tissue / relies on presence of stem cells / differs extensively across different species and tissues w/in an organism
Biological basis of depressive disorders
abnormal neurotransmitter levels (catecholamines and serotonin), decreased hippocampal size and neurogenesis, big role of genetics
Visible light
absorption and complementary colors / the color that a substance appears to be is the complementary color to the one that it absorbs
Height of mass spec peak
abundance of fragment
Resonance structures
account for true distribution of e-
Ketone bodies
acetoacetate, acetone, beta-hydroxybutyrate
Parasympathetic in heart
acetylcholine inhibits/delays SA node to slow down its firing → always occuring (vagal tone) to keep the heart rate down from its max to a normal rate of 60-70 BPM
Lewis
acid = e- acceptor / base = e- donor / donates electron pair / forms covalent bond
Bronsted-Lowry
acid = proton (H+) donor / base = proton (H+) acceptor
Arrhenius
acid = releases H+ / base = releases OH- / both in aqueous solution
Polyprotic acid
acid that can denote more than one H+ / H2CO3, H3PO4
Polar a.a.s
acidic R groups, basic R groups, other R groups that contain 1+ very polar bond(s) in R group
Strong acid + weak base =
acidic salt
Phototroph
acquire energy from light
Chemotroph
acquire energy from oxidation of chemicals
Conformity
act of complying w/ group standards, rules, and expectations
All-or-none AP
action potential is all or none / if threshold is reached then an AP fires / if not, it doesn't / once initiated, it will continue to completion / all APs are of the same magnitude
T cells
activate macrophages and other immune cells / destroy virus-infected and cancerous body cells / central to cell-mediated immunity
HCl (stomach)
activates pepsinogen to pepsin
Acute stress
activation of SNS / heightened epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol
Sodium-potassium pump
actively transports 3 Na+ ions out of cell and 2 K+ ions in / maintains excess of sodium outside of the cell and an excess of potassium inside of the cell
Positive reinforcement (operant conditioning)
add desirable stimulus to increase correct behavior
Positive punishment (operant conditioning)
add undesired stimulus to decrease incorrect behavior
Identity vs. role confusion (Erickson)
adolescence / develop a sense of identity in social settings
Assimilation (culture)
adopting culture of another group / usually occurs when small group assimilates into dominant culture
Generativity vs. stagnation (Erickson)
adult / care for others and contribute positively to things or people that will outlive them
Autosomal recessive
affected individual may have 2 unaffected parents (if both are carriers) / 2 affected parents produce all affected offspring
Blood osmolarity
affects erythrocyte volume / increased volume of blood due to increased water retention or overhydration = decreased solute concentration = decreased osmolarity → water moves into RBCs by osmosis
Affinity chromatography basis of separation
affinity for other specific molecules/ligands bound to column (stationary phase)
Dishabituation
after a repeated stimulus is removed for a period of time then reintroduced, there is an enhanced responsiveness to it
Clonal selection
after initial exposure to a pathogen, many clones are produced of the B and T cells specific to that pathogen
Creation of immunological memory
after initial exposure to pathogen, immune system more efficient at recognizing and eliminating pathogen at subsequent exposures
Post-translational protein modification
after translation, some proteins immediately fold into their native conformation, while others may require a chaperone protein
Selye's general adaptive syndrome
alarm stage = initial recognition of stressor / resistance stage = body uses up all resources trying to manage stressor / exhaustion stage = body can no longer resist stressor or negative impacts
Redox rxns involving aldehydes and ketones
alcohols can be oxidized to form aldehydes and ketones / aldehydes are much easier to oxidize than ketones
Primary alcohol + weak oxidizing agent
aldehyde (redox rxn)
Imine formation
aldehyde/ketone reacted w/ primary amine at low pH
Enamine formation
aldehyde/ketone reacted w/ secondary amine (plus acid catalyst)
Addition of alcohol to carbonyls (ketone or aldehyde)
aldehyde/ketone w/ 1 equivalent of alcohol to produce hemiacetals, then another equivalent of alcohol to form acetal / reverse rxn requires water
Approaches to problem solving
algorithms, heuristics, trial and error, insight
Network covalent solid
all atoms are connected by covalent bonds in a continuous network/lattice structure / stronger than normal covalent bond
Diamagnetic
all e- are spin paired (each orbital has 2e-) / diamagnetic elements have no internal magnetic field but are repelled by presence of an external magnetic field
Iron law of oligarchy
all organizations, even ones that start out democratic, eventually turn into oligarchies
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
allele frequencies in gene pool will stay constant if... no mutation, migration, or natural selection, random matin, and large pop / null hypothesis = if allele frequencies are changing then one of the above rules must have been violated
Law of independent assortment
alleles of one gene separate into daughter cells independently of the alleles for another gene -> traits are inherited randomly and independently
Fructose 2,6-Bisphosphate
allosteric regulator of phosphofructokinase (glycolysis) and FRC 1,6-bisphosphate (gluconeogenesis) → reciprocal regulation / stimulates PFK to increase flux through glycolysis / inhibits FRC 1,6-bisphosphatase to decrease flux through gluconeogenesis / abundance of FRC 2,6-bisphosphate is under hormonal control
Patterns of immigration
almost all individuals in US are immigrants or descended from immigrants / immigration in US increasing over past few decades / majority of immigrants from Mexico, Central America, India, China / immigration from European countries to US dropped significantly
Sexual orientation
along a spectrum
Microtubule tracks
along the axon facilitate the transports of materials (proteins, neurotransmitters, etc.) from the soma to the axon terminals (anterograde transport) and vice versa (retrograde transport)
Alpha decay
alpha particle = low energy / ejected at low velocity / dangerous if inside body / easily blocked by material because large and slow
Three main types of radioactive decay
alpha, beta [beta-, beta+ (positron), e- capture], gamma
Acidity of alpha-H
alpha-H is slightly acidic / can be removed by strong base
Kinetic enolate
alpha-H removed from less substituted alpha-C (H isomer sterically accessible -> easier access for base) / enolate ion that forms is less stable bc less substituted alkene / favored under condition of: lower temp / sterically hindered base used
Thermodynamic enolate
alpha-H removed from more sterically hindered alpha-C / enolate ion that forms is more stable bc more substituted alkene / favored under conditions of: higher temp / non-bulky base
Amide hydrolysis
amide hydrolyzed into carboxylic acid and amine / acid or base catalyzed / N protonated so that NH2R is the leaving group
Peptide bond
amide linkage btwn amino acids in a polypeptide (protein) / has resonance (increased stability) / difficult to break / partial double bond character makes region of peptide planar and rigid / formation = condensation rxn; breaking = hydrolysis rxn
A site
aminoacyl-tRNA site / where tRNA molecule enters the ribosome and delivers the a.a.
Weak bases ex:
ammonia, tertiary amine, pyridine, carbonate ion / often N w/ lone pair
Cardiac output (CO)
amount of blood flowing through your vessels per unit of time
Electron affinity
amount of energy released w/ addition of an e- (to neutral atom) / (-)EA value implies a favorable (exothermic) process bc energy is released / willingness of a neutral atom to gain an e- / across row = EA increases / up column = EA increases
Specific heat capacity (C)
amount of heat/energy required to raise a certain amount of mass of a substance by 1 degree
Heat capacity
amount of heat/energy required to raise temp of a substance by 1 degree
Expressivity
amount that genotype affects individual's phenotype
Molecular weight
amu.. weight of one molecule/atom of substance, given that 1 neutron and 1 proton each weigh approximately 1 amu
Altruism
an action that increases fitness of another organism while decreasing the fitness of acting organism / seen in kin relationships and tight knit social groups
Incomplete dominance
an intermediate phenotype is expressed / ex: R = red, r = white, Rr = pink
Trp operon
anabolic role / transcription repressed by presence; repressible / under high levels of trp, repression of operon itself will occur
Mass spec
analytical technique that enables one to determine the molecular weight of a molecule and/or identify a molecule based on its fragmentation pattern
Alpha substitution
another atom (from an electrophile) replaces the H atom at alpha C / enol or enolate intermediate is part of rxn mechanism
Cluster C
anxious, fearful, or obsessive behaviors / avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive
Ribozyme
any RNA that is capable of catalysis
Mutagen
any agent that causes damage to and changes in DNA
Quinones
any number of -CH= groups into -C(=O)- groups / aromatic molecules / lipid soluble and mobile e- carriers / specifically ubiquinone/Coenzyme Q is in the ETC
Diastereomers
any stereoisomer that isn't an enantiomer / may be optically active or not / optically active diastereomers have diff orientations at some chiral centers / have diff physical and chemical properties
Pi bond
any subsequent covalent bond (2nd, 3rd, 4th) / side-to-side (parallel) overlap
Largest artery
aorta
Top-down processing
applying one's knowledge, experiences, and expectations in interpreting and understanding the sensory info / applying higher level info to lower level (more basic) info
Ion-exchange chromatography mobile phase
aq solvent
Obligate anaerobe
are poisoned by oxygen
Industrialization
area transitions from agrarian society to industrial society
Integration
area under the peak -> proportional to the # of hydrogens represented by that signal (# of H atoms w/in that group of equivalent hydrogens)
Blood flow
arteries → arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins → heart
Motion parallax
as you move, if image moves a lot in visual field then it is farther
Racialization
ascribing a racial identity to someone who doesn't identify w/ that label
cDNA library function
assess the genetic material being actively expressed in that cell/tissue at that time the sample was collected
Milgram's experiment
assessed whether individuals obey commands of an authority figure or follow their conscience when the commands are unethical / performing shocks as ordered
H-NMR
assesses things about H atoms and is used to decipher structure/identity or purity / spectrum has peaks at various ppm values, w/ each peak representing specific "type" of H atom in the molecule / height of the peak is its "relative intensity"
Appraisal
assessment/evaluation of event / processes results in diff emotions depending on one's conclusion of their ability to handle the stressor
Phosphorylation
associated with increased transcriptional activity
Recognition
association / ex: multiple choice tests
Optimism bias
assumption that we have a lesser chance of experiencing something bad than other people or that we have a greater chance of experiencing something good than other people do
Cocktail Party Effect
at a loud party, one can filter through all the surrounding conversations, choose one of interest, and focus on it, while filtering out the others / but, while focusing on one input, the listener can still catch words or phrases of particular importance/significance from unattended inputs / therefore the unattended inputs must be processed at some level (not completely blocked)
Coordinate covalent bond
atom w/ a lone pair donates them to an e- deficient species (both e- are from the Lewis base)
Electron Withdrawing Groups
atoms/group of atoms w/ high EN (O, N, F, Br, Cl, etc.) / minimize the effect of a (-)
Electron donating groups
atoms/group of atoms w/ low EN (alkyl groups) / minimize the effect of a (+)
Heart
atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) = stimulates kidney to secrete more dilute urine to decrease blood pressure
Electron group
attached atoms and/or lone pairs
Signal detection theory
attempts to assess/quantify when an individual will detect the presence of a stimuli against all other background "noise"
Feature detection
attempts to understand how various and diverse features of an image are extracted and compiled to form a cohesive and useful understanding
Attention
attending to an input of info / allocating processing and cognitive resources towards the info/stimuli
Divided attention
attending to multiple tasks or inputs simultaneously / "multitasking"
Personal component of reciprocal determinism (Albert Bandura)
attitudes, beliefs, self-efficacy, goal, attributions, etc.
Electromagnetic force
attraction between + and - or repulsion between like charges / acts w/in nucleus as repulsion btwn positively charged protons
Dipole-dipole
attraction btwn two polar molecules (both w/ permanent dipoles)
Situational attribution
attribute behavior to external causes (factors of environment)
Dispositional attribution
attribute behavior to internal causes (factors related to individual/oneself)
Midbrain
auditory and visual input / reward circuit and movement
Echoic memory
auditory info / lasts longer than iconic
Temporal lobe
auditory input, receptive speech and understanding language, memory, expressive behavior
Outer ear
auricle/pinna + auditory canal / captures sound waves and directs them into the ear
KMT and Temp
average KE of all gas particles is proportional to temp of gas / average KE is same for ALL gases at a given temp
Kinesthetic sense
awareness of and ability to control our bodies' movements / relies on info from the vestibular sense and proprioception
Existential self
awareness of having a constant self that is separate from others
Categorical self
awareness of our existence in the world along w/ all others / can assess our characteristics and compare ourselves to others
Proprioception
awareness of the position of one's body in space
Conjugation (bacteria)
bacteria exchange genetic material through direct cell-to-cell contact / increases in genetic diversity
Transformation
bacteria take up foreign DNA from surroundings / must be competent bacteria - able to directly uptake exogenous DNA
Domain
bacteria, archaea, eukarya
Lysogen
bacterium w/ viral genome integrated into its own chromosome but lying dormant
Arcuate fasciculus
band of axons connecting the Broca's and Wernicke's areas
Glass ceiling
barrier that prevents women from advancing in the corporate world
Nonsense mutation
base pair change causes the DNA and transcribed mRNA to encode a stop signal so that transcription and translation terminate prematurely
Missense mutation
base pair change results in a change in the amino acid that is translated / conservative is when new amino acid has similar biochemical properties to the original one
Social identity
based on affiliation w/ certain groups and socially define attributes of our identity
Geometric isomers E/Z
based on arrangement of highest priority groups on either side of a double bond
Ethnicity
based on cultural characteristics/affiliations
Race
based on physical characteristics such as skin color
Needs
basic physiological needs that must be met, as well as higher-level needs such as love and belonging
Strong base + weak acid =
basic salt
Proto-oncogenes
basically a pre-oncogene... is converted into an oncogene and becomes cancerous
Oncogenes
basically any gene that can cause cancer
Rectum
begins at end of large intestine
Spermatogenesis
begins occurring at puberty and continues rest of life; occurs in seminiferous tubules / spermatogonia divide by mitosis → primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis I → secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis II → spermatids mature → spermatozoa (sperm) / spermatogonia are "going" to become sperm / spermatozoa
Follicular phase
begins on first day of menstruation (day 1 of cycle) / FSH triggers selection and maturation of one follicle / follicle secretes estrogen → E levels begin to increase / menstruation followed by proliferative phase in which endometrium begins to thicken / endometrium will continue to thicken for rest of the cycle, preparing for the implantation of a zygote
Behavioral component of attitude
behavior and attitude influence each other
Taboos
behaviors that are strongly prohibited and even seen as wrong to discuss
Elements of culture
beliefs and values, language, rituals/traditions/customs, norms, media, religion, arts/literature, political and economic system, etc. / elements passed down via socialization
Cultural universals
beliefs, traits, or behaviors common to all cultures
Awake
beta (alert) and alpha (relaxed) waves / high frequency and low voltage
Insulin inhibits
beta ox, gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, and protein catabolism
Leaving group
better LG = more stable existing on its own (apart from the molecule that it leaves) and better at holding the e- (and the negative charge) that it receives / weak bases (conjugates of strong acids) = good LG / in ochem, an alcohol will almost always be protonated before it acts as a leaving group
Acidosis
bicarbonate reabsorbed by kidneys
Sn2
bimolecular; one step / forms 1 enantiomer (opposite of original) / rate depends on how sterically hindered the carbon atom is / methyl > 1 > 2 >> 3
Single Strand Binding (SSB) Proteins
bind to a single parent DNA strand, stabilize strands once unwound
Activators
bind to enhancer regions of DNA and increase transcription / usually at position distant from gene
Positive cooperativity
binding of a substrate to the protein increases the protein's affinity for that substrate, making it easier for more substrates to bind to it / ex: 4 O2 molecules can bind to 1 hemoglobin
Mixed inhibition
binds at an allosteric site of the E or ES complex / decreases max rxn rate / if it acts more like a competitive (binds more effectively to E) then it will result in an apparent increase in Km / if it acts more like an uncompetitive (binds more effectively to ES) then it will result in an apparent decrease in Km / decrease in Vmax / increase or decrease in Km
Primary reinforcement
biologically (innately) desirable stimuli
Implantation
blastocyst implants itself into thick, vascularized endometrium around day 9 / trophoblast cells of blastocyst penetrate and grow into endometrium → grow into long finger-like projections that make contact w/ maternal blood supply → structure eventually becomes the placenta
Hemostasis
blood clotting / stops extensive blood loss from damaged vessels
Osmotic pressure (blood)
blood is hypertonic to surrounding fluids due to high concentration of solutes/proteins → surrounding fluid tends to want to move into capillaries by osmosis
Main symptoms of ketoacidosis
blood pH drops, heavy breathing, fruity breath smell
Complement system
blood proteins become activated in a chemical cascade, resulting in stimulation of inflammatory response and the activation of phagocytic cells
Coagulation
blood turning from liquid to solid form (scabbing)
Ketogenesis fasted state
blood-GLC levels low / beta oxidation occurs in order to make acetyl CoA as energy source / excess acetyl-CoA molecules in liver combine to form ketone bodies / ketone bodies then sent to other tissues as source of fuel during GLC-deprived state
Dependance
body adapts to constant administration of the drug so that once an individual stops taking it, many dangerous physiological changes occur (withdrawal)
Afferent neuron
body to brain/spinal cord/CNS
Ionic bond
bond btwn a metal and nonmetal / one atom donates e- (becomes +, cation) on atom receives e- (becomes -, anion)
Metallic bond
bond btwn metals / delocalized valence e- of metals shared amongst the molecules
Connective tissue
bone, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, adipose tissue, blood / cells have extensive ECM / gives them support/strength / loose and dense forms / fibers
Codominance
both alleles of gene are expressed / ex: AB blood type -> both A and B
CNS
brain + spinal cord / bundle of axons = tract / control centers and integration
Retinal disparity
brain compares images from the right and left retinas -> the more different they are, the closer an object is to you
Neural plasticity
brain is extremely malleable and dynamic
REM
brain more active / HR and BP increase slightly / dreaming / waves similar to beta / low voltage and high frequency
Coronary arteries
branch from aorta to supply cardiac muscle w/ blood
Feminist theory
branch of conflict theory that focuses on different experiences of men and women as a result of gender-based inequality and power differences / assesses sources and outcomes of gender inequality
Nucleases
break down nucleic acids
Peroxisome
breakdown of long chain fatty acids into shorter chain fatty acids (beta oxidation) / metabolize drugs and other toxins / carry out redox rxns w/ variety of substrates, often producing H2O2 as byproduct... uses catalase to break down H2O2
Catabolism
breaking larger molecules into smaller ones / releases energy
Electrolysis
breaking molecule into constituent atoms
Proteolysis
breaking protein down into smaller chains and/or into its constituent a.a / peptide bonds hydrolyzed by proteases and by low pH / may occur during metabolism of proteins, zymogen activation, or apoptosis
Amylase
breaks down starch into simple sugars, which can then be broken down into GLC monomers / enzyme in saliva
Pancreatic lipase
breaks down triglycerides into glycerol + fatty acids
Thermoregulation by respiratory system
breathing enables us to lose excess heat
Veins
bring blood back to heart (normally carry deoxygenated blood... except for pulmonary veins)
Coronary veins
bring blood into R atrium
Retrieval
bringing info out of storage / recognition, recall, relearning, retrieval cues
Trachea
brings air from nose into lungs / reinforced by rings of cartilage / branches into two bronchi
Aorta
brings blood from L ventricle to rest of body
Pulmonary artery
brings blood from R ventricle to lungs
Pulmonary veins
brings blood from lungs to L atrium
Superior/inferior vena cava
brings blood returning from upper and lower body (respectively)
Recall
brining it out / free-response tests / free recall or cued recall
Lipids
broad and diverse category of nonpolar molecules / main functions = energy storage, signaling, forming cell membranes
Telegraphic speech
broken speech
Respiratory bronchiole
bronchioles that have some alveoli along their walls and can therefore directly participate in gas exchange
Bicuspid/mitral valve
btwn L atrium and L ventricle
Tricuspid valve
btwn R atrium and R ventricle
Metaphysis
btwn diaphysis and epiphysis / contains epiphyseal plate (growth plate)
Interspecific communication
btwn individuals of different species
Intraspecific communication
btwn individuals of the same species
Anabolism
building larger molecules from smaller ones / requires energy
DNA Polymerase
builds daughter strand of DNA / proofreads and corrects errors / replaces the RNA primer
Phototransduction pathway w/o light
cGMP levels are high → Na+ channels kept open → rod/cone cells are depolarized → glutamate released to bipolar cells → glutamate inhibits (hyperpolarizes) bipolar cells
Glucogenic amino acids
can be metabolized into molecules (CAC intermediates) that can enter gluconeogenesis after being converted to oxaloacetate; can become GLC
Ketogenic a.a.
can be metabolized into molecules that enter ketogenesis (acetyl CoA) / can become acetyl CoA, used in ketogenesis
Pluripotent
can become any cell of body of developing organism / can become any cell of three germ layers
Totipotent
can become any cell of developing organism or of the supportive structures / not yet determined
Decay
can counteract w/ active rehearsal / Ebbinghaus forgetting curve / decay most pronounced at beginning... levels off
Facultative anaerobe
can grow w/ or w/o O2
Retrograde amnesia
cannot retrieve previously-encoded memories
Hepatic portal system
capillary beds of GI tract → hepatic portal vein → capillary beds of liver → hepatic vein → heart
Fatty acids
carboxylic acid w/ long hydrocarbon tail / important source of fuel / broken down via beta ox / synthesized by fatty acid synthesis
Glycolipids
carbs attached to a lipid / found on exterior surface of eukaryotic cell membranes / enable cell-cell communication, recognition, binding, interaction
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) and emotion
carries out physiological responses to emotion-provoking stimuli / sympathetic = responses to shocking, fear-provoking, stress-inducing stimuli / parasympathetic = content, rest-and-digest
Vein
carry blood back to heart / carry deoxygenated blood (except for pulmonary vein) / endothelium, smooth muscle, connective tissue / valves prevent backflow / carry blood at low pressure -- smooth and surrounding skeletal muscle contraction aid in return of blood to heart
Lac operon
catabolic role / transcription induced by presence of lactose / inducible / required for breakdown of lactose in bacteria... when GLC is low
Hydrolase
catalyze hydrolysis rxns (break a molecule w/ addition of water or form a molecule w/ removal of water) / ex: lipase
Ribosomes function
catalyze protein synthesis in cytosol
Oxidoreductase
catalyze redox rxns (transfers of electrons) / ex: dehydrogenase
Lyase
catalyze rxns in which functional group is added, breaking a double bond (or the reverse)
Transferase
catalyze rxns in which group of atoms is transferred from one substrate to another / ex: kinase
Ligase / synthetase
catalyze rxns in which two substrates are joined (new C-C, C-O, etc.) and rxn coupled to ATP hydrolysis / ex: DNA ligase
Amnesia
caused by disease or brain damage
Increased peripheral resistance
caused by global vasoconstriction of arteries or increased blood viscosity
Transition metal complexes
causes d-orbitals to become different in energy and the electrons jumping around btwn the orbitals is caused by the absorption or release of light w/in the visible spectrum
Determination
cell committed to become a specific cell type (fate is determined)
Differentiation
cell is in the process of becoming that specific cell type / follows determination
Osteoclasts
cells that dissolve/breakdown bone releasing minerals and releasing Ca+2 to blood / found on surface of bone
Helper T Cells
central mediator of adaptive immune system / don't kill, but organize other immune cells to manage their destruction / signal to and activated cytotoxic T and B cells, and other immune cells using specific signals / recognize antigens presented on APCs (class II MHC) / attacked by HIV
Locus
certain position on chromosome, usually representing location of a gene
Role of gender in expressing and detecting emotion
certain societal/cultural expectations surrounding masculinity vs. femininity in the expression of emotion / women expected to be more emotional / men expected to withhold their emotions but express aggression
Transcriptional regulation (slow control)
certain substances may upregulate or downregulate transcription of enzymes involved in metabolic pathways / often times, hormones trigger a signal cascade that results in transcriptional activation/inhibition
Hexose conformations
chair, boat, skew, half-chair, envelope / chair is most stable... all groups staggered / steric hindrance for all other conformations decreases their stability
Evolution
change in heritable traits of a pop/species across multiple generations
Sensory adaptation
change in responsiveness of one's sensory system to a constant stimulus
Huntington's and dopamine
changes in dopamine
Iris
changes size of pupil to control how much light gets into eye
Chromatin remodeling
changing btwn the two states turns the gene on and off / occurs due to covalent modifications of histone proteins
T-tubules
channels that surround skeletal and cardiac muscle fibers, enabling an action potential to be rapidly transmitted throughout the cell
Anxiety disorders
characterized by frequent and excessive fear, worrying, or dread / occur more often in females than in males / most common disorders
Point mutations
characterized by their effect on the transcribed mRNA/translated polypeptide / silent, missense, and nonsense
Ion-exchange chromatography basis of separation
charge and attraction/repulsion to charged column
Formal charge
charge of each atom in a molecule (sum should add to net charge of molecule)
Ion-exchange chromatography stationary phase
charged beads
Electrochemical gradient
chemical gradient is the difference in ion concentrations across a membrane / electrical gradient is the difference in charge across a membrane
Olfactory receptor neurons
chemoreceptors embedded in nasal epithelium... detect chemicals that bind to receptors
Caspases
class of protease enzymes / initiator caspases trigger effector caspases, which carry out apoptosis
Types of associative learning
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning
Cornea
clear tissue in front of the eye that acts like a lens to begin to focus & refract light
Variety of different modifications
cleavage of a region of the polypeptide (zymogens) / glycosylation (addition of sugars) / lipidation (addition of lipids) / acetylation and methylation / formation of disulfide bonds
Relative motion
closer objects move faster
crp gene of Lac operon
codes for CAP which activates transcription / binds upstream of promoter when GLC absent / induces transcription by activating RNA pol
Lac I gene of Lac operon
codes for lac repressor which inhibits transcription / repressor binds to operator when lactose absent / not bound when present
Components of emotion
cognitive (experience of emotion) / physiological (changes in our bodies... some form of arousal) / behavioral (expression of emotions)
Functions of lymphatic system
collect and filter plasma fluid lost by capillary filtration to return it to blood / proteins from blood that leak out of capillaries returned to blood / fats reabsorbed from food in intestines get transported in lacteals (lymphatic capillaries) / immune response = lymphoid cells (B and T) found in organs of lymphatic system (spleen and lymph nodes)
Genomic library
collection of all DNA of organism... represents entire genome
Self concept = self-identity
collection of beliefs/ideas that you have about who you are
The endomembrane system
collection of vesicles, membranes, organelles that collectively modify, sort, transport, and export macromolecules
R atrium
collects deoxygenated blood returning from the body
Size exclusion chromatography stationary phase
column filled w/ porous substance
Strong bases
completely dissociate in water / conjugate acid formed is very stable and hardly reacts w/ water
The PDC
complex of three enzymes that facilitates decarboxylation rxns / turns pyruvate into acetyl CoA / bridge btwn glycolysis and CAC
Obedience
complying w/ law and order / following requirements of authority
Phospholipids
comprise phospholipid bilayer / flexible and dynamic / allow small nonpolar molecules through / water, ions, other large and polar molecules pass through special protein channels / polar/hydrophilic head / two nonpolar/hydrophobic tails / amphiphilic (allows them to form bilayer/membranes)
Otolithic organs
comprised of 2 chambers, the utricle and saccule / each has hair cells w/ their cilia embedded in a gelatinous membrane; sense linear acceleration
Steroids
comprised of 4 connected hydrocarbon rings (6, 6, 6, 5) / main functions = signaling (steroid hormones) and structural (cholesterol)
Loops of Henle
concentration gradient of interstitial fluid drives flow of alts and water into or out of the tubule / loop has selective permeability
Medicalization
conceptualization of human conditions as physiological issues and diagnosable diseases / condition viewed from a scientific/medical standpoint in attempts to understand causes, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment
Avery, McCarthy, and MacLeod
conclusion = Wanted to assess what macromolecule of the heat killed S strain enables virulence to be conferred / DNA most likely to be transforming agent
Material culture
concrete, tangible, and visible elements
Role conflict
conflict btwn multiple statuses held by one person
Ligament
connect bone to bone, stabilizing joints
Tendon
connect muscle to bone, enabling muscle to move the bone
Immovable
connection btwn bones w/ fibrous tissue btwn them providing strength / ex: multiple skull bones fused at sutures
Umbilical cord
connection btwn fetus and placenta
Interneuron
connections btwn neurons / reflex arc
Desmosome
connects cells at certain spots by linking cytoskeletons / more permanent connection / provide mechanical strength to tissue
Cortex
conscious thought processes and cognitive functions, memory and emotion, processing and integration of sensory input, skeletal muscle / four lobes
Frontal lobe
conscious thought, planning, behavioral control, decision making, reasonsing, personality, expressive language, movement / motor cortex and prefrontal cortex (executive functions)
Beta- decay
consequence of "weak force" / beta particles are harder to stop and more energy than an alpha particle
ATP
considered coenzyme / often associated w/ Mg2+ (stabilizes ATP) / often an allosteric regulator of enzymes involved in pathways
Unsaturated fatty acids
contain 1+ double bonds / results in hydrocarbon chain being kinked → less London dispersion forces → usually liquid at room temp
Appendix and tonsils
contain lymph tissue and have immune roles / not required
Jejunum and ileum
contain villi which maximizes surface area for the absorption of nutrients / crypts (btwn villi) contain many different cell types, including: goblet cells (make and secrete mucus), entero-endocrine cells (secrete hormones), and stem cells
tRNA in translation
contains anticodon complementary to mRNA codon / brings the correct amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain due to this codon-anticodon interaction
H zone
contains only thick filaments / shrinks during contraction
Large intestine function
convert chyme into feces by reabsorption of excess water as well as the actions of a divers bacterial population / water absorption enables chyme to solidify / bacteria digest substances that the human digestive system can't, and release many different types of vitamins / waste stored until ready for secretion
Low ball technique
convincing / ex: first ask someone to donate small sum to charity, once they agree, ask if they can make monthly donations
Glycosidic linkage
covalent bond btwn carbohydrate and some other molecule, which may or may not be another sugar / forms btwn hemiacetal of a sugar and alcohol of some other molecule / classified as alpha or beta by conformation of anomeric carbon and labelled by which carbons it joins
B Cells
create antibody (immunoglobulin) proteins that travel in blood, bind to specific antigens of foreign substances/pathogens, and result in attack of that foreign substance via a variety of mechanisms / each B cell has unique antibody bound to their membrane that recognizes and binds to a specific antigen
Microtubules function
create tracks in cells for transport by motor proteins a.k.a. cell highway, cell division, microtubules organization center, makeup cilia and flagella
Countercurrent multiplier mechanism
creates concentration gradient by actively transporting solutes across a membrane / gradient surrounds a region in which a fluid flows in opposite directions through a tube (loops of Henle)
Speciation
creation of new species (by branching off from preexisting species)
Right brain
creativity, art, music, intuition, negative emotions, holistic
Third law of thermodynamics
crystal solid at 0 degrees K has 0 entropy
Cognitive development affected by
culture (Vygotsky), genetics, environment, bio factors
Flat bones
curved and flat / protect organs like a shield → ex: ribs, skull
Cytochrome c
cytochrome specific to ETC / water soluble / mobile e- carrier that shuttles e- btwn proteins of the ETC / also immobile cytochromes in complexes 3 and 4
Microfilaments function
cytokinesis, amoeboid movement, muscle contractions, exo and endocytosis
Fatty acid synthesis location
cytoplasm of cells, when excess fuel is present
MMR
daughter strand is recognized and the mismatched base of that strand is removed then replaced
Semi-Conservative model
daughter strands are half old and half new
Conservative model
daughter strands are one old and one new
Dispersive model
daughter strands are parts old and parts new
Habituation
decrease in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus
Calcitonin
decreased Ca+2 reabsorption / reduced [Ca+2] by inhibiting osteoclasts / "calci-tone-it-down"
Chronic stress results in
decreased immune system functioning, poor sleep, decreased cognitive capabilities, fatigue, trouble concentrating, mood disorders, excessive muscle tension, high BP, increased risk of diabetes, weight gain, digestive problems, breathing problems, increased risk of stroke and heart disease, decreased sex drive, etc.
Somatostatin
decreases secretion of growth hormone, insulin, and glucagon / decreases digestion
Functions of circulatory system
deliver oxygen to tissues / nutrients, hormones, solutes, and fluids travel in blood and can be picked up by tissues / CO2 removed from tissues and carried in blood as carbonic acid/bicarbonate / other metabolic wastes travel in the blood to reach the kidneys where waste is excreted in urine / thermoregulation
Stage ¾
delta waves / low frequency and high voltage / deep sleep
Exergonic
deltaG<0→ rxn is spontaneous (proceeds in forward direction)
Equilibrium
deltaG=0→ rxn is at equilibrium (rate fwd rxn = rate reverse rxn)
Endergonic
deltaG>0→ rxn is nonspontaneous (proceeds in reverse direction
SDS
denatures proteins and gives them a uniform mass to charge ratio... all a (-)
Heterochromatin
densely packed and not accessible to enzymes of transcription / transcriptionally silent
Colligative properties of the plasma membrane
depend only on ratio of solute particles to solvent particles, not on identity of the solute / ex: osmotic pressure, boiling point elevation (increase BP), vapor pressure lowering (decrease VP), freezing point depression (decrease FP)
Blood type
depends on antigen expressed on surface of RBCs and on antibodies present in one's blood
pH
depends on identity of solution and its concentration
Ion-exchange chromatography pH > PI
deprotonated; (-)
Hydroxyquinone
derivative of benzoquinone formed by replacing one or more hydrogens w/ hydroxyl groups
Power and authority
derived from laws, rules, and regulations, designated customs/traditions and norms of society, and authority figure
Hydration / solvation
describe interaction btwn ions and water molecules / ions in solution interact w/ water molecules via ion-dipole force / favorable interaction and decreases the potential energy of the involved molecules, resulting in a release of energy
Molecular formula
describes atomic constituents of a molecule w/ a subscript denoting how many of each atom
The endosymbiotic theory
describes how, long ago in evolutionary history, an ancestral eukaryotic species engulfed another prokaryotic cell -> engulfed prokaryote and host cell lived in symbiosis -> engulfed species became an organelle in newly formed eukaryotic cell
Central Dogma
describes process by which proteins are synthesized from the genetic code / DNA->RNA->protein
Subshells
describes shape of the region of space in which an electron may exist / possible subshells are s, p, d, and f
Cis / trans unsaturated fatty acids
designates conformation of double bond / H atoms of unsaturated carbons on same side of double bond = cis
Motivation
desire/willingness for one to do something
Schizoid
detached, reclusive and indifferent / little interest in relationships
Rods
detect light at low levels and motion / vision in the dark; only black and white / low spatial acuity
DNA sequencing
determining nucleotide sequence of a DNA sample / sanger sequencing is popular
Allport (trait perspective of personality)
developed list of thousands of trait words / grouped these words into three main categories
Differential association theory of deviance
deviant and criminal behavior is learned through interactions w/ others (learning the motives, techniques, attitudes, etc.) / criticism = fails to account for genetics and bio factors
Inspiration/inhalation
diaphragm contracts (pulls down), intercostal muscles contract pulling ribs outward → thoracic cavity expands → pressure inside cavity decreases → air rushes into lungs / P and V inversely related (PV = nRT)
Expiration/Exhalation
diaphragm relaxes (moves upward), intercostal muscles relax, and ribs pull in slightly → volume of thoracic cavity decreases → pressure inside cavity increases → air forced out of lungs
Division of labor
diff facets of manufacturing process split up and assigned to diff people/systems / improves efficiency and accountability of production
"Differential pressure"
diff in pressure btwn two regions
Differential reproduction
diff traits, diff abilities to survive and reproduce / not all will survive and reproduce
Heterozygous
different alleles
Conformational isomers
different momentary rotation about a sigma bond (no chiral center) / differ in position of atoms due to rotation about a single bond / Anti (most stable), Eclipsed (least stable / highest energy), Gauche
Geometric isomers
different orientation of groups across double bond or ring (no chiral center)
Gestalt principles
different rules that describe how people tend to organize, group, and perceive sensory stimuli (usually visual) / "Whole exceeds the sum of its parts"
Convergent evolution
different species w/o a common ancestor evolve similar traits / due to adaptation to similar environment
Small intestine function
digestion of chyme and absorption of nutrients and minerals from food, as well as some water absorption
Gap junction
directly connects intracellular environments / regulated / specific to animal cells
Notochord
directs cell movement of neurulation / eventually forms part of the vertebrae
Stigma
disapproval of a person or group based on their social characteristics
Ageism
discrimination based on age
Schizophrenia
disorder involving seeming loss of touch w/ reality / abnormal thoughts, behavioral patterns, emotions, sensory perceptions / presence of positive and negative symptoms
Strong acids
dissociate almost completely in water / bc strong acids have weak conjugate bases, the conjugate base that forms following the dissociation (A-) will hardly react with H2O molecules... bc it is very stable / high Ka values bc the molecule readily donates a proton
Types of dissociative disorders
dissociative identity disorder (DID) and dissociative amnesia
If ionic solids are so strong, why can we easily dissolve them in water?
dissolving ions in solution is favorable / spontaneous / enough energy provided by water
Bond length
distance btwn nuclei of two atoms in a bond
Rf
distance travelled by pigment/solvent front / if = 1, pigment moved as far as solvent front / lower = pigment travelled less far
Molecular geometry
distinguish btwn attached atoms and lone pairs / theoretically describes the shape you would actually see if looking at a 3D rep of the molecule
Non-verbal communication
doesn't involve words
Pop culture
dominant and well-recognized images, ideas, beliefs, and practices in a culture
Cardinal traits (Allport)
dominate people's personality / rare / develop later on
Weak bases
don't fully dissociate in water / less capable of accepting protons than strong base / conjugate acid is less stable than that of a strong base
Weak acids
don't fully dissociate in water / less capable of releasing protons than strong acid bc conjugate base is less stable than that of a strong acid (stable = favorable to form and unlikely to react)
Ill-defined
don't have clear goals/expected solutions
Aero-tolerant anaerobe
don't use O2, but can survive in its presence
Nucleophile
donates a pair of electrons to an electrophile, forming a bond (Lewis base) / pi bond or atom w/ a lone pair / likes and attacks positively charged species / nucleo (nucleus, + charged) Phile (loving)
Catecholamines
dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine / Cats are tired so they sleep in the DEN / derivatives of tyrosine
siRNA
double stranded RNA that forms a complex with a protein, then binds to a specific mRNA molecule, cleaving it
Cluster B
dramatic, emotional, impulsive behaviors / antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic
Histrionic
dramatic, impulsive, and needs to be the center of attention
Drug addiction and reward circuit
drugs of abuse target the reward circuit in the brain (dopaminergic) → activation by flooding it with dopamine → trains the brain to seek out this highly rewarding activity / activation of the reward circuit by drugs is at far greater levels than produced by normal stimuli (food, sex, etc.) / individual seeks out the drug despite the detrimental consequences
Opioids
drugs that act on opioid receptors, resulting in pain relief, feelings of euphoria, sedation, and respiratory depression / ex: codeine, morphine, heroin, fentanyl
London dispersion forces (induced-induced)
due to nearby e- clouds inducing temporary dipoles in each other / exist in all molecules / very weak and transient (momentary and constantly changing) / as size of molecules and # e- increases, this force increases
Lewis acid
e- acceptor (such as H+, which can accept an e- pair)
Lewis base
e- donor (usually have lone pairs on central atom which get shared w/ Lewis acid)
Nonpolar covalent
e- equally shared
Covalent bond
e- shared btwn atoms in bond (two non-metals)
Polar covalent
e- unequally shared (hogger is more EN)
Humanistic/person-centered therapy
each client unique and special
Intimacy vs. isolation (Erickson)
early adult / develop intimate and meaningful relationships
Achieved status
earned by the person
Induction (chemistry)
effect that a nearby electron group has on a certain atom
Bohr shift
efficiency of O2 delivery can be improved by right-ward shift of the curve (overall lessened O2 affinity) → slightly less O2 picked up in lungs but much more dropped off in tissues
Parts of voltaic/galvanic cells
electrodes (metal rods)... anode = oxidized, cathode = reduced, An-ox red-cat / half-cells... separated, one has anode, one has cathode
Parts of an electrolytic cell
electrodes = anode and cathode / electrolyte = solution in which ions are dissolved and ions of electrolyte are attracted to electrode w/ an opposite charge to their own / end result = either metal electrode is plated OR gas is liberated
Electrophile
electron deficient species that accepts an electron pair by forming a bond w/ a nucleophile / Lewis acid / has + or partial + charge and/or an incomplete octet
Excited state vs. ground state of an e-
electrons are usually at their "ground state" energy level but can absorb energy and be promoted to an "excited state" of higher energy
Hund's rule
electrons in the same subshell occupy available orbitals singly first before pairing up
Social facts
elements of society that serve some function in enforcing social control
Excretion of waste
elimination of soluble waste products of metabolism (nitrogenous wastes via the urea cycle) / urine = water + urea + salts + sugar
Lipid-soluble carriers
embedded in mitochondrial inner-membrane
Integral protein
embedded to some degree into plasma membrane; inner region is full of nonpolar a.a. / exterior region full of polar a.a.
Cannon-Bard (theories of emotion)
emotional stimulus → physiological changes / emotional stimulus → cognitive awareness / independent and simultaneous
James-Lange (theories of emotion)
emotional stimulus → physiological changes interpreted → cognitive awareness
Three main types of social support
emotional, instrumental (tangible support), and informational (advice and suggestions) / extremely important for health and well-being / promotes resistance to and recovery from psychological disorders; helps reduce stress levels
Darwin and emotion
emotions are adaptive (ex: fear leads to taking action to escape stimulus that triggered fear) / facilitate social bonding and convey one's needs (ex: baby crying elicits response from mother and father)
Opsin proteins
enable photon to be converted into chemical signal
Alternative splicing
enables more than 1 different mRNA molecules to be made from the same hnRNA / some exons skipped/spliced out so that differing combos of exons can be used to make mRNA / allows for different proteins to be produced
Flagella
enables propulsion/motility of the cell
Operator
enables regulation of genes of operon / region of DNA to which repressor protein binds, decreasing transcriptional activity (silencer) / regulated by activator proteins, increasing rate of transcription (enhancer)
Clitoris
enables stimulation/arousal during copulation
Arrhenius equation
enables you to calculate rate constant for a given rxn and set of conditions
Memory
encoding → storage → retrieval
Restriction enzyme
endonucleases that recognize and cleave at a specific DNA sequence / cleavage often produces "sticky ends" → matching sticky ends from 2 different DNA sources can be annealed together, producing rDNA
Gibbs free energy (G)
energy a system has available to do work / indicates whether rxn is spontaneous (proceeds in forward direction), or nonspontaneous (reverse direction is spontaneous)
First law of thermodynamics
energy cannot be created or destroyed, just transformed
Active transport
energy input required bc particles transported against their gradient (from region of low concentration to region of higher concentration -> non-spontaneous movement)
Second IE
energy needed to remove a second e- / second IE > first IE = once e- removed, there is a higher proton: e- ratio, therefore increased pull on that second e- from the nucleus and it's harder to remove
First IE
energy needed to remove first valence e-
Ionization energy
energy needed to remove/ionize an e- (+ nucleus attracts e- therefore energy is needed to remove them) / across row/period = IE increases / up column = IE increases
BDE
energy required to break a bond (homolytic cleavage - each atom receives same # e- from the bond) / also a measure of the strength of that bond / + # bc energy required to break a bond (bonded atoms are more stable) / large BDE = more stable bond
BDE (bond dissociation energy)
energy required to break bonds
Binding energy
energy required to break the nucleus down into its constituent parts / this amount of energy was released when the nucleus formed from individual nucleons
Informal sanction
enforced informally by others in society
Keto-enol tautomerization
enol and keto forms of a molecule are structural isomers and tautomers / keto form more stable than enol form
Cortical rxn
ensures that only a single sperm will fertilize egg
Second law of thermodynamics
entropy of an isolated system will never decrease over time
Bandura (social cognitive perspective of personality)
environment cognitions, observational learning determine behavior / reciprocal determinism / Bobo doll
Social cognitive theory of behavior (Albert Bandura)
environment, social interactions, and how we process our interactions w/ others and w/ the world shape our personality and attitude
Holoenzyme
enzyme complete w/ its prosthetic groups/cofactors
Proximity and orientation
enzyme positions the substrates near each other (proximity) and in the correct orientation for them to react
Telomerase
enzyme that catalyzes lengthening of telomeres / uses reverse transcriptase
Metal ion catalysis
enzyme uses metal ions to assist in catalysis
Lipases
enzymes / cleave triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol
Enzyme activity and pH
enzymes have a specific optimal pH range in which they function best, which depends on their role / digestive enzymes, for ex, function most optimally at low pH / changes in pH will change the protonation state of the protein's residues and disrupt its biological function / severe pH changes may denature a protein
Acrosome rxn
enzymes in tip of sperm released and degrade through outer layers of egg → sperm penetrates egg → sperm and egg plasma membrane fuse and sperm donates its haploid genetic material → form zygote
Adrenal medulla
epinephrine/norepinephrine = role in activating SymNS
Rate law
equation that relates rate of a rxn to the concentration of the reactants
Retro-aldol rxn
essential reverse of aldol rxn / bond btwn alpha and beta carbons broken
Transesterification
ester added to alcohol and original OR group of ester exchanged for incoming OR group of alcohol / acid catalysis required / these two esters exist in equilibrium / nucleophilic attack by O of alcohol on partial positive C of carbonyl
Ester hydrolysis
ester → carboxylic acid + alcohol / addition-elimination rxn / biological application: triglyceride → fatty acid + glycerol / requires an acid or base catalyst and water / forward direction = acid-catalyzed hydrolysis / reverse direction = Fischer esterification
Ovulation
estrogen produced by follicle trigger a spike in LH (and FSH) levels by positive feedback → egg is released from follicle into fallopian tube → egg can now be fertilized by sperm for a brief window of time / released egg paused in metaphase II of meiosis / completes meiosis II if fertilized / follicle becomes corpus luteum after ovulation / occurs around day 14 of cycle
Ethnocentrism
evaluation of people from other cultures based on the values and beliefs of your own culture; assume that your way of doing things is the "right way" and is superior to other cultures
Autosomal dominant
every affected individual must have an affected parent / often appears in almost every generation
Puberty through menopause (oogenesis)
every menstrual cycle, a few primary oocytes complete meiosis I, forming one polar body (not used) and one secondary oocyte per primary oocyte / in maturing follicles during ovulation, secondary oocytes proceed w/ meiosis II up until metaphase; pause at metaphase
Arousal theory of motivation
every person has their own optimum level of arousal / at this level they perform optimally → behavior occurs in order to achieve this level of arousal
Respiratory acidosis
excess CO2 causes drop in blood pH bc carbonic acid produces H+ ions / caused by hypoventilation
Renal compensation
excess carbonic acid excreted and bicarbonate reabsorbed
Glutamate
excitatory neurotransmitter
Multiculturalism (ethnic pluralism)
existence of many different cultures w/in one society / various cultures all respected and individuals do not have to give up their cultural identity to live in the society
E site
exit site / tRNA has transferred the growing peptide to tRNA in the P site, and exits the ribosome
Harlow and attachment
experiments using monkeys to study attachment and distress / demonstrated that infant monkeys had an innate need for tactile bonding with mother / attachment not solely for food/nourishment purposes
Cooperativity
explains how changes in the concentration of the substrate may affect the enzyme's activity / refers to proteins that can bind to more than one of the substrate molecules
Encoding specificity principle
explains how the conditions present at encoding influence memory retrieval / state-dependent and context-dependent
Misinformation effect
exposure to misleading information after an event can alter the memory and lead to errors in recall
Epistasis
expression of alleles for 1 gene dependent on alleles for another ("modifier") gene / presence of 1 gene completely masks presence of another gene
Broca's aphasia
expressive aphasia
Penis
external muscular structure required for copulation
Osmotic pressure (membranes)
external pressure that would need to be applied in order to prevent water movement by osmosis / greater diff in concentration across membrane -> more water movement occurs -> higher osmotic pressure
Formal
external sanctions are put in place to prevent chaos/anarchy
Arousal (sexual)
facilitated by parasympathetic NS, enabling erection, lubrication, etc.
Orgasm (and ejaculation)
facilitated by sympathetic NS
Formation of peptide bond
facilitated by tRNA during translation / addition-elimination rxn btwn carboxylic acid and primary amine (amine attacks carbonyl) / rxn is non-spontaneous... requires catalysis and ATP
FSH (anterior pituitary)
facilitates production of eggs/sperm / facilitates puberty and reproductive processes
Prolactin (anterior pituitary)
facilitates production of milk in mammary glands
Explicit / Declarative
facts, events, experiences / episodic (personal experiences, autobiographical events) / semantic (facts, concepts, general knowledge)
Self-fulfilling prophecy
fals perception of a situation (often a stereotype) become internalized and affects the behavior of that person, ultimately resulting in manifestation of that perception
"Recovered memories"
false/implanted memories
Main structures of functionalism
family, education, religion, crime, economy; element of society may be functional, dysfunctional, or both
Four main agents that facilitate socialization
family, school, peers, mass media
Hyperopia
farsightedness / lens not curved enough so too little refraction of light / correct w/ convex lens
Cardiac myocytes have 2 types of voltage-gated channels
fast sodium and slow calcium
Beta ox activation
fatty acid must first be activated before it can enter beta oxidation / occurs in endoplasmic reticulum, cytosol, or outer mitochondrial membrane / product of activation is fatty acyl CoA molecule / requires 2 ATP and 1 CoA
Glucagon inhibits
fatty acid synthesis, glycolysis, glycogenesis
Beta ox
fatty acids undergo a repeated series of 4 rxns (one cycle), to liberate 1 acetyl CoA, 1 FADH2, and 1 NADH per turn of the cycle / each turn cleaves two Cs
Hypodermis
fatty layer that stores fat and provides skin w/ insulation and cushioning
Universal emotions
fear, anger, contempt, disgust, sadness, happiness/joy, surprise
Mixed economy
features of market and command economy (US)
Avoidant
feeling inadequate, inferior, and ashamed of oneself / extremely sensitive to rejection
Endorphins
feelings of euphoria and well-being / released after exercise
Affective component of attitude
feelings/emotions about an object/person/situation that influence our attitudes towards it
LH (anterior pituitary)
females = triggers formation of corpus luteum and ovulation / males = triggers production of testosterone in Leydig cells of testes
Theories that are both micro and macro
feminist theory, social constructionism
Anaerobic respiration
fermentation
Epinephrine/Norepinephrine
fight-or-flight hormones / released under stress / epinephrine more of a hormone / norepinephrine more of a neurotransmitter
Spleen
filters damaged cells from blood and other debris / filters bloods, destroys/recycles old RBCs, provides a place for platelets and WBCs to mature and reside
Gastrulation
first cell movements and formation of three germ layers
Innate (non-specific) immunity
first line of defense / general protection, not specific / skin, hair, mucus membrane, cilia in trachea, saliva and tears
Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) (nephron)
first region of tubule where reabsorption and secretion occurs
Primary care
first-line of care / preventative medicine and ongoing care
HEJ
fix double strand breaks and removals of DNA regions / must be done after DNA replication because requires a sister chromatid
NHEJ
fix double strand breaks and removals of regions of DNA when homologous DNA is not available / cleaved ends of DNA are ligated together / mutagenic
Mental set
fixate on using a problem solving method that has worked in the past
Functional fixedness
fixate on viewing the functions of a certain object as fixed and failing to explore other options
Cartilage
flexible connective tissue involved in supportive framework / structural component of many body parts / found at end of long bones as cap
Aortic valve
flow from L ventricle to aorta
Pulmonary valve
flow from R ventricle into pulmonary artery
Perfusion
flow of blood through a tissue
Gender
fluid, like sexuality / social construct
FISH
fluorescent in situ hybridization / use to determine gene expression in a specific tissue/region of an organism
Marx (conflict theory)
focus on class struggle btwn those who control production (bourgeoisie) and the working class / thought that this was the predominant and most influential ongoing conflict in society / believed capitalism was doomed to collapse
Lens
focuses light onto the retina; biconvex shape refracts light / curvature of lens is constantly changing (accommodation) due to ciliary muscles → enables one to focus on objects at different distances / ciliary muscles under parasympathetic control
Conflict theory
focuses on conflict over resources, values, and interests, as well as differences in power / society as a constant struggle for social, political, economic, and material resources; these struggles and power differentials are inherent and maintain order in society / social structures and institutions have inherent inequality
"Social exchange theory"
focuses on decisions regarding interaction and costs/benefits that can be tangible, or intangible
Macrosociology
focuses on large-scale structures/institutions and social processes / looking at society as a whole
"Rational choice theory"
focuses on measurable resources/profits/costs
Microsociology
focuses on small-scale interactions and considerations of the individual
Selective attention
focusing on a single input while filtering out all other inputs
Cleavage
following fertilization, zygote undergoes rapid round of cell division w/minimal growth btwn divisions → cells form a compacted mass called the morula
Beta ox products
for a fatty acid w/ n Cs... # acetyl CoA produced = n/2 / # cycles of beta oxidation = # NADH = # FADH2 = n/2 - 1... "-1" bc the last round produced 1 acetyl CoAs
Osteoblasts
form new bone through Ca+2 and mineral deposition and creating collagen
Tight junction
form tight seal btwn cells / prevent substances from passing btwn cells / form impermeable barrier
Characteristics of ideal bureaucracy
formal structure comprised of hierarchy, governed by written rules and regulations, division of labor into specialized units, impersonality (all matters conducted in an unbiased manner), impartial employment based on qualifications/merit
Formal sanction
formally enforced by an institution or organization
Initiation (translation)
formation of initiation complex / tRNA is in the P site at the end of initiation and start of elongation
Ketogenesis
formation of ketone bodies from acetyl CoA and from ketogenic amino acids / requires 2 acetyl CoA molecules per ketone body formed
Neurulation
formation of nervous system from ectoderm / type of organogenesis
Angiogenesis
formation of new blood vessels
Acid anhydride
formed from addition of two carboxylic acids and removal of H2O / also formed from other carboxylic acid derivatives
Strecker synthesis of amino acids
forming a.a. from an aldehyde / create both L and D a.a. (non-stereospecific) / cyanide used in mechanism
Gabriel-Malonic Ester synthesis of amino acids
forming a.a. from primary alkyl halide and phthalimide / also non-stereospecific
Glycogenesis
forming glycogen from glucose / occurs when blood GLC level high / triggered by insulin / source of energy = UTP
Attachment theory
forming strong attachment to primary caregiver is crucial part of personal development / attachment has emotional, physical, and cognitive components
PPP oxidative phase
forms NADPH and ribulose-5-P
PPP non-oxidative phase
forms ribose-5P and other glycolytic intermediates / glycolytic intermediates that are involved (FRC-6P and Glyc-3P) may leave the PPP and enter glycolysis
(Chemical) Equilibrium
forward and reverse rxns are occurring at equal rates so there's no net change in the concentration of products or reactants / no energy entering or leaving the system
Lymph nodes
found throughout body and function to filter lymph / contain WBCs (B and T cells) → vital to immune response
Mole fraction
fraction of mixture of gases that is one specific species / mol fraction A = # mol A / total # mol = na / (na + nb + nc + ... )
Platelets
fragments of cells that originated in bone marrow / crucial to clotting response (hemostasis) / < 1% blood volume
Axodendritic
from axon terminal of presynaptic cell to dendrite of postsynaptic cell
Axosomatic
from axon terminal of presynaptic cell to soma of postsynaptic cell
Broca's area
frontal lobe of dominant hemisphere / controls production of speech
Islet of Langerhans cells
fulfill endocrine functions → hormones travel in blood to distant target organs
Barriers to problem solving
functional fixedness, mental set, irrelevant info, heuristics and biases
Cardiac muscles
functional syncytia → cells interconnected via gap junctions / enables rapid spread of action potential so that all cardiac cells of a certain region are synchronized (contract at approximately the same time) / cells of R and L atria connected but atria separate from ventricles
Nephron
functional unit of kidney; contains special tubules through which fluid travels and urine is formed, as well as surrounding blood vessels that exchange solutes and fluid w/ tubule / performs filtration of blood (separates salts and other solutes from plasma), secretion (active transport, osmosis, and passive diffusion), and reabsorption (removing fluids and other solutes from filtrate for retention)
Theories of macrosociology
functionalism, conflict theory
Pepsin (stomach)
functions optimally in low pH environment of stomach / breaks down proteins into small polypeptides
Reduction
gaining of e- / species reduced = oxidizing agent / oxidation state will decrease
Cluster of PNS neuronal cell bodies
ganglia
Nodes of ranvier
gaps btwn myelin sheath along length of axon
Effusion
gas escaping through a small hole
Deviation of Real Gases from Ideal Gases
gases are MORE ideal at HIGH temp and LOW pressure (weaker IMF) / LOW temp and HIGH pressure -> larger deviations from an ideal gas
KMT and heat capacity
gases have certain heat capacity at constant V, and a different one at constant P heat capacity = energy/temp
Gene amplification
gene duplication; the duplication of a region of DNA resulting in an increase in the number of copies of a gene
Central traits (Allport)
general building blocks of personality
Acidity of alcohols
generally weakly acidic (pKa btwn 15-20) / alcohols w/ more nearby alkyl groups are weaker acids bc alkyl groups are e- donating, so the resultant conjugate base is destabilized / phenol is more acidic bc negative charge of conjugate base is delocalized by resonance (pKa ~ 10)
Linkage
genes are close to each other on a chromosome... more likely to be inherited together / less likely to independently assort
Virus
genetic material enclosed in protein coat (capsid) / not considered living / enveloped or non-enveloped
Stress-diathesis model
genetic vulnerability towards psychological disorder plus environmental stressors results in development of disorder (must have both facets for disorder to develop)
Anchoring
giving additional weight to the first information that you were provided with
Adrenal cortex
glucocorticoids (cortisol) and mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
Glucagon stimulates
gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, lipolysis/beta ox
Triglyceride
glycerol backbone + 3 long chain fatty acids / glycerol linked to hydrocarbon chain by carboxylic acid of fatty acid (ester bond)
Initially fasted state
glycogenolysis runs in order to degrade stored glycogen and release GLC into blood
Aerobic respiration
glycolysis + PDC + CAC + oxidative phosphorylation
Reciprocal regulation
glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are reciprocally regulated -> same substrate regulates opposing enzymes oppositely / one substrate inhibits an enzyme of glycolysis while activating an enzyme of gluconeogenesis (vice versa) / overall impact is that when one of the pathways is being strongly activated, the other is inhibited
Insulin stimulates
glycolysis, glycogenesis, fatty acid synthesis, and protein synthesis (bc the substrates for these processes is present at high BGL)
Hostile aggression
goal to harm / impulsive, uncontrolled, reactive
Command economy
govt owns and operates
Shaping
gradually teach a complex behavior by breaking it down and reinforcing it progressively in steps
Narcissistic
grandiose self-image / unable to apologize / egocentric
Semi-log plot
graph of log(amount) vs time / linear / useful because slope = decay constant
HPLC output
graph w/ series of peaks that shows exact "retention time" (how long it stayed in column) for each component
Bile
greenish-brown fluid that facilitates digestion of fats in small intestine / enables absorption of fat-soluble vitamins / enables excretion of bilirubin
Column
group
"Protecting group"
group added to reactant molecule in order to prevent certain region from reacting
Group think
group decision making tends to occur in a way that minimizes dissent (conformity of group members) → results in less creativity and less analysis of all the possibilities / more common in cohesive groups
Oligarchy
group governed by a select few / the elite
Rh factor
group of 50 different blood antigens / most common = Rh positive and Rh negative
Follicle
group of associate cells in ovary / oocyte is housed and matures here / one follicle grows/matures and releases a single egg per month
Operon
group of genes controlled by a single promoter / mainly in prokaryotes
Species
group of genetically similar organisms able to interbreed, producing viable and fertile offspring
Population (biology)
group of organisms of same species that live in same general region and naturally interbreed w/ each other
Age cohort
group of people around that same age / share similar characteristics and experiences / baby boomers → Gen X → Millennials → Gen Z
Organizations
group of people that come together for a certain purpose
Mirror neurons (observational learning)
group of specialized neurons in cortex that fire when we perform a certain action and when we observe others performing that action / vital component of social functioning
Ejaculatory duct
group of structures that enable ejaculation
Riot
group revolts against society in a violent public demonstration
Out-group
group to which an individual does not identify
In-group
group w/ a shared identity/interset to which an individual identifies
Counterculture
group w/ culture that opposed to dominant culture
Subculture
group w/ diff cultural identity than dominant culture
Types of non-associative learning
habituation, dishabituation, sensitization
Common nucleophiles
halides (I-, Br-, etc.), OH-, RO-, NH3, NH2-, CN-
Group 17
halogens / 7 valence e- → very reactive bc want to gain 1 e- to achieve full octet / react w/ metals forming salts
Parasitic
harm the host -> pathogens
The heart
has 4 chambers → R atrium, R ventricle, L atrium, L ventricle / looking at heart... R/L directionality reversed
AB+ individual
has all three of the most common antigens... makes no antibodies to those
Posterior pituitary
has neural link to hypothalamus / somas in hypothalamus, axons extend into posterior pituitary where axon terminals are
Well-defined
have clear goals/expected solutions / enable more specific planning from the start
Non-enzymatic proteins
have many functions, including transport, regulation, structural, hormonal, and defense
Ketoacidosis
health threatening side effect of too much ketogenesis / can lower pH of blood
When BP is too high
heart releases ANP which counteracts aldosterone
Convection
heat transfer due to movement of warm fluids (liquid or gas)
Conduction
heat transferred from molecule to molecule (materials must be in contact)
Alpha helix
helical structure formed by H-bonds that run parallel to the axis of the helix and form btwn every 3-4 a.a. / right-handed helix w/ approximately 3.6 residues per turn of helix / forms w/in one continuous region of a polypeptide chain / R groups stick outwards from helix
Factors affecting intelligence
heritability/genetics / environment and culture
Regulation of glycolysis
hexokinase inhibited by its product (feedback inhibition) / phosphofructokinase inhibited by ATP and by citrate / phosphofructokinase activated by ADP/AMP and by fructose 2,6-bisphosphate / pyruvate kinase is activated when fructose 1,6-bisphosphate builds up
Schizophrenia and dopamine
high dopamine
Red muscle fibers
high endurance, slow contraction / mainly aerobic respiration to produce ATP / high mitochondria and myoglobin / high capillary density
Regulation of ATP synthase
high levels of ATP = inhibition of ATP synthase
PDC inhibited by
high ratio of ATP/ADP (high energy charge), high ratio of NADH/NAD+, acetyl CoA (feedback inhibition), PDH kinase (turns PDC "off")
Higher IMF
higher MP, higher BP, decreased VP, decreased volatility (evaporates less easily, higher viscosity
Valence shell
highest energy (least stable) shell of that element
Transition state / activated complex
highest energy / least stable state w/in the rxn
E isomers
highest priority groups on opposite sides of the double bond
Z isomers
highest priority groups on same side
Glycogen
highly branched polymer of glucose that is readily broken down into glucose monomers, which then enter glycolysis / stored in liver and skeletal muscle
Adaptive (specific) immunity
highly specialized elimination of pathogens / creation of immunological memory
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
highly specific uptake of molecules
Inflammatory response
histamines and cytokines released / results in recruiting phagocytic and other immune cells to the area, swelling the area, redness, etc.
Centriole
hollow ring of 9 microtubules triplets
Microtubules structure
hollow rob of tubulin proteins (alpha and beta tubulin dimers) / largest
Hypothalamus
homeostasis / emotions, autonomic functions, basic drives / physiological responses to emotion / "control center" of endocrine system → directly controls pituitary gland via tropic hormones / controls "four F's" → fighting, feeding, fleeing, and sexual functioning
Lytic life cycle
host cell infected and viral genome injected → viral genome replicated and proteins synthesized → host cell lysed by viruses → viral progeny released / host cell always destroyed / special cases for cell w/ cell wall and for RNA virus
Lysogenic life cycle
host cell infected by virus and viral genome injected → viral genome incorporated into host genome → prophage genes silent → host carries out normal activities / reproduces itself normally → prophage replicated and passed onto daughter cells → eventually environmental signal triggers lytic phase to be entered
Lysosomes
house enzymes required to break down polymers / low pH (~4.5) is optimal for enzyme but lower than pH of cytoplasm (~7.2) / "trash and recycle receptacles of the cell" / autophagy
Difference threshold
how different two stimuli need to be for an individual to be able to recognize that they aren't the same (at least 50% of the time) / aka JND
Fluid intelligence
how does individual deal w/ new info given to them
Plasticity of a trait
how much a trait is affected by the environment
Electronegativity
how much an atom pulls e- towards itself / comparing EN of bonded atoms indicates whether the bond is covalent (lower EN diff so more of a "sharing" of e-) or ionic (larger EN difference so one atom in effect "donates" e- to the other, more EN atom) / across row = EN increases / up row = EN increases / FONClBrISCH
Oxidation #/state
how much atom is donating or receiving e- in bond (-, +, 0) / all atoms add up to net charge of molecule
Theoretical yield
how much product can theoretically be produced given starting amount of reactants
Convergence
how much your eyes must converge towards the midline of your face to focus on an image
Kinetics
how quickly rxn occurs, but how fast it reaches equilibrium will not affect the point at which equilibrium is reached
Fitness
how successful an animal is at passing down genes to next generation / measured by how many offspring
Attribution
how we understand our own behavior and the behavior of others / given a certain situation, we will attribute someone's (or our own) behavior to the situation or the person's disposition
Artificial selection
human intervention results in breeding between certain ind.s w/ desired traits / breeding
Humanistic perspective of personality (Carl Rogers)
humans are inherently good
Backcross
hybrid ind crossed w/ one of its parents (or ind w/ same genotype as parents) / can determine recombination frequency
Terpene
hydrocarbon w/ basic formula (C4H8)n / made up of multiple linked isoprenes / role = can be used in synthesis of cholesterol and steroids
Polycyclic aromatic compounds
hydrocarbons that consist of multiple aromatic rings w/o other substituents / nonpolar and not charged
Pathway of signals
hypothalamus (master organ) → pituitary (master gland) → endocrine glands throughout body
Van't hoff factor
i / how many ions one unit of a substance will dissolve into
Compare Q w/ K to determine which direction the rxn will procede
if Q < K → more salt/solute can be dissolved in solution; forward rxn dominates / if Q = K → rxn is at equilibrium (fully saturated) / if Q > K → excess solute dissolved; reverse rxn (precipitation) dominates
Photoelectric effect
if a light shines on certain metals, e- can be ejected from the metal (now called photoelectrons)
Le Chatelier's Principle
if a system is at equilibrium and some change is applied, then it will shift in order to reestablish equilibrium
Preferred conditions for Sn2
if carbocation formed is methyl or primary: Sn2 occurs / if carbocation is tertiary: Sn1 occurs / favored by polar or nonpolar, aprotic solvents (can't hydrogen bond) / favored by good LG / favored by strong and small/not bulky nucleophile (I- > Br- > Cl-)
Preferred conditions for Sn1
if carbocation formed is tertiary - Sn1 > Sn2 / if carbocation is methyl or primary - Sn2 >> / if carbocation is secondary - Sn1 or Sn2 / weaker nucleophile will favor Sn1 (H2O, ROH, NH3) / polar, protic solvents preferred bc they stabilize the carbocation
Chirality when lowest priority group is on dashed (facing back)...
if groups increase in CW = R, CCW = S
Steric effects
if large atoms/groups attached to or nearby carbonyl carbon, then they decrease the carbonyl carbon's susceptibility to nucleophilic attack (decrease reactivity)
Zeroth law of thermodynamics
if temp x = temp z, and temp y = temp z, then temp x = temp y
DNA Reannealing
if the conditions that cause denaturation are reversed, DNA strands can join up again
Conjugation (light / physics)
if there's enough conjugation, the light absorbed will be in the visible spectrum
Types of problems
ill-defined, well-defined
Mass hysteria
illusion of some threat spread throughout society and results in collective panic, fear, and stress
Microglia
immune defense in CNS / recognize foreign bodies, destroy infectious agents and other debris, control inflammation
Cyanohydrin
importance = precursor to some amino acids / formed through nucleophilic rxn in which cyanide ion added to aldehyde/ketone / often catalyzed w/ acid
Chargaff's rule
in a DNA double helix, [A] = [T] and [G] = [C] / so, [A] + [G] = [C] + [T] = 50% / [purines] = [pyrimidines]
Acid-base balance
in blood, bicarbonate buffer system facilitates acid/base balance / disruption of the buffer occurs when there is too much or too little bicarbonate is present in the blood
Deindividuation
in groups, individuals often experience a loss of self awareness and often exhibit a loss of restrain / "mob mentality" / Zimbardo prison experiment
Freudian defence mechanisms
in order to deal w/ discomfort due to subconscious desires, thoughts, or memories, the ego employs a variety of different defense mechanisms
Anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories
Inclusive fitness
includes fitness gaines from helping to protect/raise/support organisms that have some relatedness to the organism
Elongation (translation)
incoming aa-tRNA enters A site (requires GTP and elongation factors) / large ribosomal subunit catalyzes formation of peptide bond btwn a.a. In P site (linked to growing peptide chain) and the new a.a. of A site / growing peptide chain has been transferred to the tRNA of the A site / tRNA at P site moves to E site, exits, as the tRNA at A site (w/ peptide chain) moves into P site / mRNA dragged along when tRNA moves A->P / elongation factor and GTP required
"Self concept" (humanistic perspective)
incongruence occurs if self concept (actual behavior and experience) contradicts ideal self... results in psychological distress
Sensitization
increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus / stimuli usually involve physical pain or emotional response
Allosteric enzyme
increase or decrease activity when some compound (allosteric regulator) binds to their allosteric site (a site other than active site)
Exothermic rxn (enthalpy < 0)
increase temp will decrease K value (more reactants at equilibrium) / "adding heat" like adding product, causes shift reverse, more reactants
Endothermic rxn (enthalpy > 0)
increase temp will increase K (more products at equilibrium) / "adding heat" like adding reactant, causes shift forward, more products
Positive impacts of medicalization
increased awareness, treatment, prevention, development of medications, etc.
Genetic predisposition
increased likelihood of developing certain trait or disease based on one's genotype
Lower EA
increased rate (more of the molecules are able to reach the energy state required to react)
Increased rate
increased temp, increased [reactants], lower activation energy (catalyst present)
More conjugation
increased wavelength of light absorbed = light absorbed closer to red
Nucleophilicity increases w/ ...
increasing negative charge of atom that acts as nucleophile (NH2- > NH3) / increasing size/polarizability of atom (I- > Cl- ; SH- > OH-) / decreasing EN because better at sharing its pair of e- / generally, strong bases are good nucleophiles (Bronsted-Lowry base is a nucleophile that attacks and forms a bond w/ a hydrogen) / decreasing steric hindrance
Enzyme activity and temperature
increasing temp will generally increase enzyme activity until it reaches the temp at which the protein denatures, at which point the enzyme cannot perform its proper function
External locus
ind believes that he/she doesn't have control over what happens / external forces are at work / more stressed/prone to depression / feels helpless
Internal locus
ind believes that he/she has control over what happens / believes that events arise largely from one's disposition/actions (as opposed to external forces) / praise themselves for success, blame themselves for failure / tend to be happier/less stressed
Indicators (chemistry)
indicate when equivalence point has been reached
Solubility product constant
indicates how soluble a certain substance is: higher Ksp = more soluble / tells us how far the rxn will proceed / rate of forward rxn = rate of reverse rxn / depends on temp and pressure = solubility of solids in liquids increases w/ higher temp, solubility of gases in liquids increases w/ lower temp and higher pressure
Degrees of Unsaturation
indicates number of pi bonds and/or rings / 1 ring = 1 DoU, 1 pi bond = 1 DoU, benzene = 4 DoU / if N is present, add an additional C and H
Positive Tollens test
indicates reducing sugar bc aldehyde present / no hemiacetals = negative
Keq
indicates relative ratio of products to reactants present once rxn has reached equilibrium / depends on relative stabilities of R and P / Keq also ratio of forward rate constant over reverse rate constant / K < 1 → more R than P at equilibrium / K = 1 → equivalent ratio of R:P at equilibrium / K > 1 → more P than R at equilibrium
Norm of reciprocity
individual is more likely to comply w/ request from someone who has accepted their request in the past
Tolerance
individual needs higher dose of the drug to produce the same effect / occurs with prolonged use
Personality
individual's characteristic patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion / influenced by temperament and other environmental elements / more malleable than temperament
Temperament
individual's underlying general nature
Role of culture in expressing and detecting emotion
individualistic cultures (Western) promote feelings of autonomy, pride, and independence; collectivistic cultures (Eastern) promote interconnectedness of individuals
Rational choice/exchange theory
individuals make decisions based on earning the greatest reward at the lowest cost / proposes that opportunities for profit, both tangible and intangible, motivate us to behave and interact w/ others in certain ways / crucial aspect of decision making is cost-benefit analysis / profit = (reward of behavior) - (cost of behavior) / looking at behavior from an economic perspective / costs and benefits are often subjective
Source monitoring error
individuals often make an error in identifying where a memory originated
Market economy
individuals own and operate means of production
Gas chromatography mobile phase
inert gas which carries liquid mixture through heated column
Secure attachment
infant happily explores surroundings when mother present / cries when she leaves, but can be quickly consoled when she returns / wary of stranger, but friendly when mother present / children w/ attentive, loving, and sensitive caregivers
Stepping reflex
infant held upright and feet touch ground → moves as if walking
Tonic neck reflex
infant's head turned to one side → arm on same side extends out, other arm curls inward
Disorganized attachment
infant's response unpredictable, extreme, and erratic / shows both ambivalent and avoidant / may appear passive, angry, and/or confused
Ambivalent attachment
infants cry when mother leaves and remain upset after she returns / inconsistent response to mother
Avoidant attachment
infants not very exploratory and are emotionally distant / show indifference to mother leaving and returning; mainly friendly to stranger
Viroid
infectious pathogen composed solely of a piece of circular ssRNA / no proteins involved / cause disease in plants
Prion
infectious protein molecule / induce other, correctly folded proteins to misfold / have very long incubation periods
Gentrification
influx of more affluent residents, increase the price of housing and goods, and displacement of the original residents who can no longer afford to live there
Working
info held temporarily for processing/manipulation / important for problem solving, decision making, and reasoning
Sensory pathways
info sent from PNS, where it is detected, to CNS, where it is interpreted
Population (sociology)
inhabitants of particular area
Cytoplasmic inheritance
inheritance of any gene found outside nuclear DNA / mitochondria in eukaryotes and chloroplasts in prokaryotes
Non-competitive inhibition
inhibitor binds at a site other than the active site (an allosteric site) and decreases the activity of the enzyme / changes the conformation of the active site, making it less catalytically effective / doesn't impact the binding of the substrate to the enzyme / no change in Km / decrease in Vmax
Uncompetitive inhibition
inhibitor binds to ES complex and reduces the enzyme's catalytic activity / doesn't bind to active site, so substrate can still bind there / better inhibition when substrate is higher (substrate must be present for it to inhibit) / decrease in Km / decrease in Vmax / doesn't compete w/ substrate for binding at active site
Competitive inhibition
inhibitor competes w/ substrate to bind (reversibly) at enzyme's active site / can be overcome by increasing [S] (enabling substrate to "outcompete" the inhibitor and make its effect negligible) / no change in Vmax / increase in Km (bc it interferes w/ binding of enzyme to substrate)
GABA
inhibitory neurotransmitter
Steps of transcription
initiation, elongation, termination
Biological perspective of personality
innate bio differences in personality
Endometrium
inner lining of uterus / where blastocyst is implanted
Medulla (kidney)
inner portion of kidney that contains the lower portion of the nephrons (loop of Henle)
Amnion
inner protective membrane; arises from inner cell mass / surrounds embryo and amniotic fluid / chorion + amnion = amniotic sac
Endoderm
innermost layer / lung inner layers, GI tract organs, liver, thymus, thyroid and parathyroid glands, lining of urethra and bladder
Spatial summation
inputs sent from multiple different neurons (arriving at different areas) are summed
Insertions and deletions
insertions occur when one or more additional base paris are inserted and deletions occur when one or more base pairs are deleted
Depolarization
inside of neuron becomes less negative (more positive) / mediated by influx of cations or efflux of anions / generally caused by influx of Na+ ions / depolarization = excitation → if cell depolarizes enough (reaches a threshold) then action potential will fire
Hyperpolarization
inside of neuron becomes more negative (below resting potential) / mediated by influx of anions or efflux of cations / generally caused by efflux of K+ ions / occurs in response to inhibitory stimuli and makes it more difficult for that neuron to fire a new action potential bc a larger negative voltage must be overcome to reach the threshold
Sertoli cells (testes)
inside seminiferous tubules / protect and nourish developing sperm / produce inhibin - hormone crucial for negative feedback on anterior pituitary
Factors that influence motivation
instinct, drive, needs, arousal
Hormonal regulation (slow control)
insulin and glucagon are released into bloodstream and control blood sugar levels through the regulation of specific enzymes of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis / most commonly these enzymes trigger an intracellular signal that results in the phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of enzymes
Diabetes
insulin not secreted or cells are resistant to insulin
Symbolic culture
intangible elements / shared ideas, values, and beliefs... language, norms, religious beliefs, values
Cell surface receptors
integral membrane proteins that bind to molecules in extracellular environment and relay signal to cell / communication enables cells to alter their structure and function
Main functions of the vertebrate nervous system
integrate and coordinate organ systems of body / interpret and adapt to changing conditions in external environment and to cues from w/in the body / consciousness, learning, memory, sensory capabilities, control of bodily functions, motivations, etc.
Crystallized intelligence
intelligence already committed to memory
Tautomerization
interconversion btwn tautomers / chemical equilibrium exists btwn interconversion (more keto favored)
Infrared region
intramolecular bonds stretch and compress w/ characteristic frequencies / these bond vibration frequencies are usually in the IR region of light / these frequencies can be measured and are indicative of the type of bond (btwn which atoms and w/in which functional group) that are present
Splicing
introns removed and exons joined together / performed by spliceosome complex
Autonomic NS
involuntary control of visceral motor functions / effectors = smooth and cardiac muscles/glands / regulation of internal environment (homeostasis)
ANS
involuntary control of visceral motor functions / homeostasis/ sends info to effectors (muscles, glands) / SyNS and PaNS
Smooth muscle
involuntary movements / controlled by autonomic NS / non-striated / tapered cell, sometimes syncytium / use calmodulin / in digestive tract and blood vessels
Cardiac muscle
involuntary movements / controlled by autonomic NS / striated / branched network of cells connected by intercalated disks / functional syncytium (not multinucleated, but acts like a syncytium bc cytoplasms of cells are directly connected due to intercalated disks) / AP longer than other muscle cells / use troponin + tropomyosin / found in heart
Peristalsis
involuntary wavelike movements of smooth muscle / enable bolus to even be swallowed while person is upside-down
Trauma and stressor-related disorders
involve extreme and prolonged mental disturbance following exposure to a traumatic event / individuals w/ more environmental stressors and from lower SES are more susceptible
Van der Waals forces
involve only partial charges (dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole, London dispersion)
Basophil and eosinophil
involved in allergic response
Cognitive component of attitude
involves one's beliefs, thoughts, and knowledge about the object
Behavioral therapy (behaviorist perspective of personality)
involves use of conditioning to shape client's behavior from maladaptive towards more adaptive patterns
Verbal communication
involves words
IMF strengths
ion-dipole > H-bonds > dipole-dipole > dipole-induced dipole > London dispersion forces
Largest diff EN
ionic bond (diff > 2)
Electrolytes
ions dissolved in solution
Pancreas
islet of Langerhans cells: alpha cells = glucagon production, beta cells = insulin production, gamma cells = somatostatin
cDNA library procedure
isolate and collect mRNA / use reverse transcriptase to change into DNA / insert DNA into bacterial plasmids / insert plasmids into bacteria / grow bacteria / isolate plasmid and purify DNA / sequence DNA
Epimers
isomers that differ at only one stereocenter
Tautomers
isomers that differ in position of H atoms and/or e-
Reproductive isolation
keeps distinct species separate / prevents hybridization / prezygotic barriers (prevents mating/fertilization) / postzygotic barriers (hybrid offspring inviable or sterile)
Secondary alcohol + oxidizing agent
ketone (redox rxn)
Regulation of CAC
key point = control over how much acetyl CoA is present / CAC slows when energy charge is high (lots of ATP), when the NADH:NAD+ ratio is high, and due to feedback inhibition / succinyl-CoA inhibits alpha-ketoglutarate DH and citrate synthase / citrate inhibits citrate synthase
When BP too low
kidney cells secrete renin → triggers angiotensin II to form → aldosterone released from adrenal cortex → increased Na+ uptake in kidneys → excess water reabsorbed → less fluid excreted / blood volume increases → BP increases
Erythropoietin
kidney hormone that stimulates RBC production in bone marrow
Cytotoxic (Killer) T Cells
kill abnormal host cells / detection = T receptor protein interacts w/ specific antigen (bound to MHC class I proteins) displayed on surface of abnormal host cell / each T is specific to a particular antigen/MHC
Parietal lobe
kinesthetic sense, spatial perception, spelling and arithmetic, general perception, object recognition, sensory discrimination / somatosensory cortex
Monarchy
kings and queens
Structural genes of Lac operon
lacZ, lacY, lacA
Hypoxia
lack of oxygen in a tissue
Criticism of psychoanalytic perspective of personality
lack of scientific basis
Bacterial pop growth
lag phase (bacteria prep cellular parts required for initial rounds of duplication) / exponential growth phase / stationary phase (nutrients limited, pop reaches carrying capacity)
Linguistic determinism
language entirely determines thought
Linguistic relativity (more ascribed to Whorfianism)
language shapes thought / more flexible than linguistic determinism
Cholesterol
large component of cell membranes / maintains fluidity and firmness
Ecclesia
large dominant religious organization that includes majority of members from the society / generally recognized as a national religion and allied w/ government / the state
Large intestine structure
large muscular tube w/ three main segments = ascending, transverse, and descending colon / thicker but shorter than small intestine, with no villi
Repetitive DNA
large proportion of eukaryotic and prokaryotic DNA is comprised of highly repetitive sequences (~⅔ in humans) / noncoding / not translated / highly variable btwn individuals
Larger diff EN
larger dipole moment
Secondary group
larger group comprised of less personal and more temporary relationships / often formed in a more formal setting
Retina
layer of eye onto which light is projected and detected by photosensitive cells (rods and cones)
Primase
lays down RNA primer (type of RNA polymerase)
Modeling (observational learning)
learning by observing and imitating others
Escape learning
learning occurs to get rid of an ongoing and unwanted stimulus / stop ongoing stimulus
Avoidance learning
learning to avoid unwanted stimulus that would arrive after correct behavior is not performed / avoid impending stimulus
Alkalosis
less bicarbonate reabsorbed
Concentration cell
less important / half cells have equivalent species but differ in concentration (occasionally temp) / same metal at anode and cathode / same solution but differing concentration
Source traits (Cattell)
less obvious, take a while to uncover
Absolute threshold
level of stimulus at which it will be detected 50% of the time
cDNA library
library of genetic material made from full transcribed and spliced eukaryotic mRNA
Dramaturgical approach
life is a stage analogy
Signal transduction
ligand binds to membrane receptor and signal is transmitted to inside via cascade of changes, often involving protein phosphorylation
Primary messenger
ligand that triggers cascade
Low amount of conjugation
light absorbed is in the UV spectrum
Stage 2
light sleep / theta waves w/ sleep spindles and K complexes
Spongy bone
lighter and less tough / made up of thin threads of bone called trabeculae
Info processing model
likens our cognitive processing to the functioning of a computer → both have an input device, a processing device, and storage / information can be moved into and out of storage / PIC
STM
limited duration memory (a few seconds) / information must be rehearsed and processed in order to be transferred to LTM / proposed capacity of STM is 7± 2 chunks of information
Anaerobic conditions
limited/no O2 available / only use glycolysis to make energy... needs NAD+ / pyruvate forms lactate or ethanol
Endothelial cells (endothelium)
line entire circulatory system (heart and all vessels / simple squamous cells
Nucleic Acid
linear strand of nucleotides joined by phosphodiester bonds / DNA and RNA
Anterior pituitary
linked to hypothalamus via portal system / receives hormones from hypothalamus, which are secreted into blood of portal system
Ligase
links Okazaki fragments of DNA daughter strand
Symbiotic
live in harmony w/ the host -> mutually beneficial
Mesophile
live in moderate temps
Psychrophile
live in very low temps
Secondary structure
local regions of folding of polypeptide chain due to interactions btwn backbone atoms (all atoms besides R groups) / H-bonds, alpha helix, Beta pleated sheet
Peripheral protein
located on outer surface of plasma membrane / rooted by polar and ionic interactions btwn protein residues and polar phospholipid head group
ATP synthase
location - inner-mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes / harnesses stored energy in proton gradient to make ATP through oxidative phosphorylation / H+ gradient causes rotation of protein and joins together ADP + Pi
Long bones
long and rod-shaped / often acted on by muscles like a lever → ex: humerus
LTP
long-term potentiation / strengthening of synapses btwn neurons that have fired together from recent experience
Intersectionality
looking at various social aspects and how they interact to shape the unique experiences of individuals / especially oppression and discrimination
Initiation complex
mRNA + tRNA + ribosome large & small subunits + IF proteins
Properties of translation
mRNA read 5'->3' / energy input required at every step... anabolic process
Oxytocin and ADH (hypothalamus)
made in soma of neuroendocrine cells whose axons terminals are located in posterior pituitary / released by posterior pituitary
Ribosomes structure
made of rRNA and other proteins / contain a small and a large subunit / large subunit = catalyzes peptidyl transfer / small subunit = recognizes and binds to the correct region of the mRNA
Starch
main carb in humans' diet
Lungs
main organ of gas exchange / surrounded by pleura (two thin membranes)
Church
mainstream and well-integrated religion / may be affiliated w/ the state or not
Steady-state
maintaining relatively constant conditions of a certain parameter or rxn / maintenance of steady-state in an organism is, as a whole, homeostasis / aka "dynamic equilibrium"
Le Chatelier's Principle (fast control)
maintains chem equilibrium in rxn / higher concentration of reactants than products induces the rxn to flow in the forward direction
Progesterone (ovaries)
maintains secretory endometrium
Homeostasis
maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment (temp, blood GLC level, etc.)
Types of depressive disorders
major depressive disorder, persistent depressive disorder, premenstrual dysphoric disorder, postpartum depression, seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
PCT
major site of reabsorption and secretion / nutrients and salts reabsorbed, wastes secreted
CO2 transport in blood
majority of CO2 transported in blood as carbonic acid and bicarbonate / requires carbonic anhydrase
O2 transport in blood
majority of O2 carried by hemoglobin / small amount travels freely in plasma
Agents of socialization
majority of socialization occurs during the formative years of our childhood
Beta cells
make and release insulin
Government
makes and enforces rules of society, maintains social order, dictates operation of economy, maintains relationships w/ other nations
RNA polymerase II
makes hnRNA/mRNA
SER
makes lipids used by cell or secreted / metabolizes carbs, steroids, and some toxins
RNA polymerase I
makes rRNA
RNA polymerase III
makes tRNA
rRNA in translation
makes up ribosomes (along w/ associated proteins), which catalyze the synthesis of polypeptides
Amylopectin
makes up starch / branched (glycosidic bonds at branch points)
Amylose
makes up starch / unbranched (glycosidic bonds btwn GLC monomers)
Confabulation
making up info to fill memory gaps / part of Korsakoff's syndrome
Biological sex
male, female, intersex = based on genital structures, not fluid
Metals
malleable / shiny / solid @ room temp (except Hg) / good conductors of heat and electricity / easily lose valence e- / good reducing agents / lower EN
The 3 Ossicles
malleus, incus, stapes
Polygyny
man married to multiple women
Types of bipolar and related disorders
manic episode (hypomanic), depressive episode (mild = dysthymia / severe = major depressive episode), Bipolar I disorder, Bipolar II disorder
Dreaming (Freud)
manifest content (actual events/plot of the dream) and latent content (dream's symbolic meaning)
Gender segregation
many activities, institutions, and traditions are segregated
Cilia and flagella
many cilia per cell, only a few flagella / attached at basal body / 9+2 arrangement of microtubules
Vitamins
many water soluble vitamins act as cofactors / may be a precursor to a cofactor or act as a cofactor itself / ex: FAD and FMN (electron carriers) made from vitamin B2
Social network theory
map of social network contains nodes (individuals) linked by social ties / ties differ in strength
Mass defect
mass of an intact nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of the nucleons that make it up / this amount of mass was converted to energy and released when the nucleus formed (nuclear binding energy) and these quantities are related by E=mc^2
Glomerulus (nephron)
mass of capillaries through which blood filtration occurs
Structure of erythrocytes
mature RBCs contain no nuclei or cellular organelles / biconcave disk shape / cytoplasm has extensive amount of hemoglobin
Osteocyte
mature bone cell embedded inside spaces in bone
Social construct
meaning, significance, and concepts associated w/ a particular object/event → created and modified by individuals in society / assess how individuals and groups contribute to this dynamic and ongoing process of social construction
Social control
means of controlling the behavior of an individual/group
Entropy (S)
measure of "disorder" of system / Sgas > Sliquid > Ssolid / systems naturally evolve towards states of increasing entropy / entropy of the universe is constantly increasing
Reduction potential
measured in volts / how much does it want to require electrons (is it able to be reduced)? / high EA = larger rdx potential / measures tendency of molecule to be reduced
Cell potential
measured in volts / voltaic cells are spontaneous and create a net current, so cell potential > 0 / reduction potential of cathode species should be larger / redox rxns... spontaneity related to cell potential
Enthalpy (H)
measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system
fMRI
measures changes in blood flow / info about activity and functioning of brain
Calorimetry
measuring amount of heat absorbed or released during a rxn
Mass media
media that reaches large amount of people → powerful influence on culture
Limbic system
mediates emotional responses, basic drives, memory, and the maintenance of homeostasis / thalamus, hypothalamus*, amygdala*, olfactory bulb, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus
Antipsychotics
medications often used to treat schizophrenia / first-generation "typical" antipsychotics / second-generation "atypical" antipsychotics
Treatment of depressive disorders
medications, counseling, CBT, TMS, ECT (TMS and ECT only for severely depressed patients)
Hindbrain
medulla, pons, and cerebellum
Pineal gland
melatonin = makes one feel tired
Normative organization
members organized together voluntarily due to shared goals and sense of purpose / ex: religious organizations, charities, sorority/fraternity
Utilitarian organization
members rewarded and/or compensated for their contributions and membership / shared purpose of productivity / ex: businesses, university
Coercive organization
membership is not voluntary / members must conform to strict rules and obey authority; extremely structured and strict / use force to ensure conformity / loss of individuality / ex: prison, military
Exocytosis
membrane-bound vesicle (endosome) fuses w/ plasma membrane, releasing its contents to extracellular environment / particles exit cell
Implicit / Nondeclarative
memories w/o conscious recall / procedural (skills and muscle memory) / priming / conditioning
Flashbulb memories
memory of an extremely salient and emotionally-charged event
3 key elements of persuasion
message characteristics, source characteristics, target characteristics
mRNA
messenger RNA: encode the polypeptide's a.a. sequence, as encoded by the DNA (starts as hnRNA in eukaryotes, then processed to mRNA)
Cellular respiration
metabolic pathways that convert energy from food nutrients into energy stored in ATP
Glycogenolysis
metabolizing glycogen into glucose monomers / occurs when blood GLC level low / triggered by glucagon and epinephrine
Complex ion
metal ion surrounded by many ligands (lewis bases - e- donors) / net charge of complex ion adds up to net charge of molecule
Brain stem
midbrain + hindbrain
Mesoderm
middle germ layer / connective tissue, cardiovascular system and lymph vessels, muscles, urinary and genital organs, adrenal cortex
Activation energy
min energy that must be provided to reactants for rxn to occur / EA required so that reactants can get over initial energy "hump", which is the highly unstable and high energy transition state / activated complex
Mitochondria self-replicating
mitochondrial DNA = circular / derived from prokaryotic cells / have their own transcription and translation machinery / has its own 70s ribosomes / shows maternal inheritance
Beta ox location
mitochondrial matrix
Location of CAC
mitochondrial matrix in eukaryotes and cytoplasm in prokaryotes
Location of PDC
mitochondrial matrix in eukaryotes and cytoplasm in prokaryotes
Ketogenesis location
mitochondrial matrix of cells in liver
Kinetic molecular theory (KMT) of Gases
model that is used to describe how (ideal) gases behave / rests on assumptions of ideal gas law
Inosine
modified A base / often at the wobble position of the anticodon / can base pair w/ A, U, and C
Golgi body
modifies, sorts, packages, and sends out proteins and lipids / structure = stack of multiple flattened disks called cisternae / cis region = receives proteins from RER / trans region = where proteins and other molecules sent out to proper destination
Facilitated diffusion
molecule requires a helper protein to cross the membrane (moving down its gradient) / selective permeability bc proteins only allow certain solutes to diffuse through
Zwitterion
molecule that has both (-) and (+) and is net neutral
Carbocation
molecule w/ carbon atom that has a +1 charge (only has 3 bonds to it) / doesn't have full octet / unstable
Carbanion
molecule w/ carbon atom that has a -1 charge (has 3 bonds to it plus a lone pair) / has full octet / unstable bc -1 FC on atom w/ low EN
Basicity
molecule w/ more stable conjugate acid = more basic / opposite trends as acidity (i.e. decreasing EN of atom that gains H / smaller atom that gains the H atom) / less resonance of base (CH3CH2NH2>C6H5NH2) / atomic groups that are poor LGs are in general stronger bases
Acidity
molecule w/ more stable conjugate base = more acidic / increasing EN of the atom that loses the H (and gets a - charge as a conjugate base) / increasing resonance of conjugate base (delocalizing the - charge) / increasing size/polarity of the atom that has a - charge (HCl > HF) / if you have a smaller atoms, packing the (-) charge on that atom is more difficult to do because it is smaller
Hydrogen bond
molecule w/ partial + H atom (bonded to highly EN atom), which interacts w/ the lone pair on a highly EN atom (N, O, or F)
Size exclusion chromatography mobile phase
molecules dissolved in solvent
Diffusion of oxygen in lungs
molecules naturally move into an area of lower concentration
Heterocyclic aromatic compounds
molecules w/ multiple aromatic rings and one or more elements other than carbon (often S, O, or N) / know furan and pyrrole
Secondary messengers
molecules w/in cell involved in transducing and amplifying signal
Eukaryotes and Central Dogma
monocistronic mRNA / transcription occurs in nucleus / translation occurs in cytoplasm / 3 main RNA polys
Serotonin
mood, hunger, sleep, digestion / depression = low / tryptophan
High BP for hydrocarbons
more Cs, higher molecular weight, less branching, less kinks
Effect of multiple bonds on rigidity
more bonds = more rigid / atoms in single bond are free to rotate about the bond / partial double bond restricts movement / atoms involved in double-triple bond fixed
Compact bone
more compact and tough / made up of osteons (Haversian systems)
Normal phase HPLC longer time spent in column
more polar
DCT
more reabsorption and secretion / fine tuning based on hormonal cues / salts and H2O reabsorbed / urea, H+, and K+ secreted
Better LG
more reactive acid derivative / less basic LG = better LG / halides (Cl-) are great LGs (very poor bases) → acid halides are the most reactive / RCOO- = good LG / RO- and NHR-/NR2- are poor LGs (basic groups)
Blastulation
morula continues to divide and cells arrange themselves into a blastula
Albumin
most abundant blood protein
Neutrophil
most abundant type / defend against fungi and bacteria
"Wild-type"
most common form of trait (may be recessive)
Mesylates (OMs) and tosylates (OTs)
most commonly used to protect alcohols / good LGs, so easily removed once done protecting
Voltaic/Galvanic cells
most important / spontaneous redox rxn occurs and generates flow of e- (current) / chem rxn (redox) used to create electrical energy
Single Copy DNA
most translated genes / highly conserved (low mutation rate)
Efferent nerves
motor = carry signals from CNS to effector tissues
Path of food
mouth → pharynx → esophagus → x sphincter → stomach → pyloric sphincter → duodenum (small intestine) → jejunum → ileum → ileocecal valve → large intestine → rectum → anus
Isomerase
move atoms around on one molecule so that it changes into a new isomer / ex: phosphohexose isomerase
Cerebellum
movement and balance / coordination
Gene flow
movement of genes/alleles btwn pops / migration
Osmosis
movement of water across semi-permeable membrane from area of low solute concentration (hypotonic) to area of higher solute concentration (hypertonic) / [low] to [high]
Secularization
movement towards embracing attitudes and beliefs that do not have a religious basis → religion losing its significance in society
Effect of multiple bonds on length and BDE
multiple bond = shorter bond length, larger BDE (bc stronger bond)
Allelic series
multiple diff alleles for a gene w/ varying degrees of dominance / one allele may be dominant when paired w/ a certain allele and recessive when paired w/ another
Quaternary structure
multiple subunits (folded polypeptide chains) interacting
Sliding filament theory
muscle contraction occurs when thin and thick filaments slide past each other due to the interaction btwn myosin head groups and actin / myosin head groups shift in one direction pulling all the thin filaments in that direction and shortening the sarcomere
Diaphragm
muscle that facilitates inhalation and exhalation by changing the volume of the thoracic cavity
Vagina
muscular tube connecting to uterus at cervix
Dependent
must be taken care of / submissive and clinging behavior
Blood-GLC levels
must stay w/in very constant range (homeostasis)
Auxotroph
mutant organism that cannot synthesize particular substance required for growth or cannot metabolize a particular nutrient
White matter in CNS
myelinated axons
"Heart attack"
myocardial infarction (MI) - blockage of one of these 3 coronary arteries → ischemia of cardiac muscle → cardiac muscle begins to die
Principle quantum number
n / tells you the energy shell of the electron and ranges from 1 onwards / higher n values = further from the nucleus = higher in energy / the value of n also tells you how many different subshells are in that energy level
Cervix
narrow bottom portion of uterus / where blastocyst is implanted
Piaget's theory of development
nature and nurture, assimilation, accomodation
Myopia
nearsightedness / lens too curved so too much refraction of light / correct w/ concave lens
Baby boomer cohort is aging
need to prepare the funds, programs, med resources, and working force to support them and eventually replace them in the economy
Reflex arc
nerve pathway controlling reflex
Bundles of PNS axons
nerves
PNS
nerves / bundle of axons = nerves / afferent nerves (sensory) / efferent nerves (motor) / SNS and ANS / neurons carry signals btwn CNS and rest of the body
Grey matter in CNS
neuronal cell bodies
Electrical synapse
neurons connected by gap junctions / direct transmission
Ion-exchange chromatography pH = PI
neutral
Strong acid + strong base =
neutral salt / neutral salt contains the very weak conjugate base of a strong acid and very weak conjugate acid of a strong base
Bicarbonate
neutralizes highly acidic bolus coming from low pH stomach, enabling enzymes to function
Rules for resonance structures
never move atoms from one resonance to another (don't move H atom) / net charge of molecule must be same across all contributors / some, more stable resonance contributors will contribute more to the true structure of the molecule
Assimilation
new info is fit into existing schema (schema informs the new experience) --- same schema
Accommodation
new info results in changing an existing schema or creating a new one (new info informs the schema) --- change schema / create schema
Retroactive interference
new learned gets in the way
Nucleotide
nitrogenous base + sugar + 1-3 phosphates
Effects of adding an uncoupler protein?
no ATP made / result in production of heat
Chemical synapse
no direct connection btwn neurons / neurotransmitters used
Passive transport
no energy input required / solute particle moves down its gradient into an area of lower concentration (spontaneous movement)
Saturated solution
no more solute can be dissolved in solvent
Pauli exclusion principle
no more than 2e- per orbital, one w/ up spin and one w/ down spin
Adding inert gas to a container w/ constant volume
no shift (bc no change in ratio of species' partial pressures)
Group 18
noble gases - full octet → unreactive (inert) therefore rarely participate in chemical reactions
Transposon / Transposable Element (TE)
non-coding regions of DNA that can move around in the genome and can cause structural changes and mutations in DNA / makeup over 40% of human DNA
Telomeres
non-coding repeats added to ends of DNA to prevent degradation / length of telomere tells the age of the cell
Nonmetals
non-malleable / dull / s, l, or / poor conductors of heat and electricity / good oxidizing agents / higher EN
Glial cells (neuroglia)
non-neuronal "helper cells" of nervous system / provide structural support, nutrition, insulation, waste cleanup, and protection
Cofactors
non-protein molecule or ion that helps the enzyme perform its bio function / include metal ions, coenzymes, vitamins, prosthetic groups
Coenzymes
non-protein organic (nonmetal ions) helper molecules loosely associated w/ the enzyme
Prosthetic groups
non-protein organic helper molecules that are "permanently"/covalently bound to the enzyme; ex: iron of the heme prosthetic group in the center of hemoglobin / required for its function
Cult
non-traditional and socially deviant beliefs and practices (strays far from societal norms)
Reverse phase HPLC higher retention time
nonpolar
Reverse phase HPLC mobile phase
nonpolar
Reverse phase HPLC stationary phase
nonpolar
No diff EN
nonpolar covalent
Formation of ATP
nonspontaneous
Sympathetic in heart
norepinephrine and epinephrine increase rate and force contraction
Culture lag
norms and rules w/in culture take time to catch up w/ tech innovations and rapid societal advances → conflict / material culture evolves more quickly than non-material/symbolic culture
Informal
norms and values of a society dictate what is right and wrong
Carrier protein
not a tunnel / bind to molecule that needs to be transported -> conformational change -> molecule released to other side; uniporter, symporter, antiporter
Paramagnetic
not all e- are spin paired / attracted to an external magnetic field
Ischemia
not enough blood flow through a tissue → tissue starved of oxygen and nutrients, dangerous wastes and metabolites build up
Overall Sn2 mechanism
nucleophile attacks R-LG as LG leaves molecule → Nucleophile bound to carbon
Electron capture
nucleus captures e- from its own e- cloud and uses it to convert a proton into a neutron / daughter nucleus has one less proton but one more neutron, so same total mass
Gamma radiation
nucleus in excited state releases gamma rays and falls back to ground state / no change in mass or charge of parent nucleus... just in energy state
Behavior influencing attitude
numerous techniques of persuasion/acquiring compliance capitalize on the fact that previous behavior shapes one's attitude towards the request, often altering their subsequent behavior (know techniques in context of attitude/behavior and in that of persuasion)
Types of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders
obsessive-compulsive disorder, body dysmorphic disorder, hoarding disorder, trichotillomania (hair-picking)
Manifest functions
obvious and intended functions of a structure
Shock waves
occur when an object creates disturbances (or waves) in a medium that travel faster than the speed of sound in that medium (causes waves to pile onto each other, leads to high amplitude... sonic booms)
Luteal phase
occurs after ovulation and continues until next menstruation / corpus luteum secretes E and P / E and P cause endometrium to thicken and prevent GnRH, FSH, and LH (via negative feedback) → prevent another follicle from developing as body prepares to accept zygote in endometrium / corpus luteum begins to degenerate if fertilization doesn't occur / as corpus luteum degenerates at the end of luteal phase, E and P are no longer secreted and levels drop / drop in E and P → endometrium no longer maintained and sloughs off (menstruation) → cycle restarts
Oxidative phosphorylation
occurs in mitochondrial intermembrane space, directly requires O2
CAC
occurs in mitochondrial matrix (cytosol for prokaryotes), indirectly requires O2
PDC
occurs in mitochondrial matrix (cytosol for prokaryotes), indirectly requires O2
Role exit
occurs when an individual disengages from a particular role
Extinction
occurs when conditioned behavior stops once reinforcement or punishment has been removed
Operant conditioning
occurs when frequency of behavior is increased or decreased due to presentation of a consequence that follows it (reinforcement / punishment)
Associative learning
occurs when stimulus becomes associated w/ a certain response or w/ another stimulus
Oxidative stress
occurs when there are many reactive oxygen species (ROS) and not enough antioxidant species to defend against them / ROS = O2-, OH, H2O2 / cause damage to proteins, lipids, and bases of DNA/RNA / can trigger apoptosis
Rxn coupling
occurs when two rxns, 1 spontaneous and 1 nonspontaneous, are added together to yield a net rxn that is spontaneous
Schizotypal
odd and bizarre thoughts and behavior / limited affect / magical thinking
Cluster A
odd or eccentric behaviors / paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal
Short bones
often cuboidal or round → ex: ankle bone
TLC stationary phase
often silica gel (polar)
Integrity vs. despair (Erickson)
old age / look back on life and feel fulfilled... have a strong sense of identity and wisdom
Smell (olfaction)
olfactory bulb / mitral cells (receive info from olfactory receptor neurons), nasal epithelium (lines roof of nasal cavity), olfactory glomerulus (cluster of nerve endings), and olfactory receptor neurons
Negative cooperativity
once one substrate molecule is bound to the protein, the other binding sites have decreased affinity for subsequent ligands to bind
Unidirectional transfer
one cell donates, one cell receives
Induction (biology)
one cell signal to another, influencing developmental fate / may occur due to cells being in physical contact or a chem messenger
Two half rxns
one describes the species (electrode) that is oxidized and the other describes the species reduced
Dipole-induced dipole
one molecule w/ a permanent dipole attracted to another (NP) molecule
Interposition
one object that blocks another is closer
Phosphoryl group transfers
one of the phosphate groups of ATP can be transferred to another substrate to make an unfavorable rxn favorable
Conjugate acid base pair
one species before (conjugate acid) and after (conjugate base) having donated a proton / strong acid's conjugate has no basic properties / strong base's conjugate has no acidic properties
Meso compound
one stereoisomer in of a set of them for a molecule w/ at least 2 chiral centers and an internal plane of symmetry / optically inactive
Ascribed status
one that you are born w/ or is beyond your control
Bone remodeling
ongoing process of altering composition of bone due to hormonal cues or stress/strain on bone
Osteogenic cell
only dividing bone cells / differentiate into osteoblasts
Class II MHC
only found on antigen presenting cells (APCs), like B cells and macrophages, which phagocytize a foreign cell and display its antigens
Artery vs. Vein
only veins have valves / arteries are more muscular and thicker / vasoconstriction largely carried out by arterioles / pressure differences (artery > vein)
Before birth (oogenesis)
oogonia (in primordial follicles) divide by mitosis forming primary oocytes
Gated channels
open in response to change in voltage (voltage-gated channels) or to binding of a specific ligand, such as a neurotransmitter (ligand-gated channels)
ORF
open reading frame / continuous stretch of nucleotides w/ possibility of being translated / starts w/ start codon and ends w/ stop codon
Anus
opening at end of GI that enables feces to exit
O region of Lac operon
operator / repressor binds to decrease transcription
Enantiomers
opposite configuration at every chiral center / pair of enantiomers are optically active / will rotate light in opposite directions
Brain, vision pathway
optic chiasm → axons of optic nerve → LGN of thalamus → primary visual cortex of occipital lobe → higher visual processing in other regions of optical cortex
Hydrocarbons
organic compound containing C and H atoms only
Carboxylic acids
organic compound w/ carboxyl functional group / polar and protic / high boiling pt / weakly acidic (stronger than alcohols)... pKa ~ 4
Aneuploidy
organism has abnormal number of chromosomes
Polysomy
organism has one or more additional copies of a chromosome / down syndrome, triple X, kleinfelter's, turner
Haploid (1n)
organism has one set of chromosomes / each gene encoded by one allele
Chemotaxis
organism moves in response to gradient of chemical stimulus (to/away from increasing concentrations of substance)
Diploid (2n)
organism w/ two sets of chromosomes (one from each parent), called homologous chromosomes
Bureaucracy
organization w/ a hierarchical structure that is governed by extensive amount of rules/policies, and has detailed procedures for operation / purpose to max efficiency and order of organization / typically associated w/ governmental organizations, but can be non-governmental
Cattell (trait perspective of personality)
organized 16 personality factors (surface traits) into 5 global factors (source traits)
Eukaryotic initiation (transcription)
other helper proteins (transcription factors) find the promoter and recruit RNA pol / promoter has a "TATA Box" w/ many T and A bases
Attitude influencing behavior
our attitude towards a particular person, object, or situation often underlies how we behave
Self-efficacy
our evaluations of how well we can do something; may be low or high depending on task
Cortex (kidney)
outer portion of kidney that contains uppermost region of nephrons (glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, convoluted tubes)
Chorion
outer protective membrane / arises from trophoblast / contributes to placenta
Ectoderm
outermost germ layer / nervous system, pituitary gland and adrenal medulla, "attractive" stuff
Epidermis
outermost layer of skin / provides barrier to external environment and pathogens, and regulates water loss
Leydig cells (testes)
outside of tubules / release androgens
Inner ear
oval window, cochlea filled w/ fluid (endolymph), organ of Corti, hair cells, tectorial membrane, and basilar membrane (plus the vestibular system) / stapes transmits the vibrations to the oval window, which transmits them through the endolymph / pressure waves in the endolymph transmitted to hair cells (auditory sensory receptors)
Tertiary structure
overall 3D shape that polypeptide chain folds into due to interactions btwn side chains / involves mainly non-covalent bonds, disulfide bonds, hydrophobic interactions
Illness experience
overall subjective experience of being in a state of poor health / how people perceive and adjust to changes in their health
Bias
overconfidence, confirmation bias, anchoring, belief perseverance
Redox rxns involving aldehydes and ketones basic conditions
oxidation of aldehyde forms salt of carboxylic acid
pKa
pH at which half of the molecules of the compound are protonated and half are deprotonated
Isoelectric point
pH at which molecule is net neutral
pH regulation by respiratory system
pH of blood regulated via blood bicarbonate buffer system / blood pH must be btwn: 7.35-7.45
Synapsis
pairing of homologous chromosomes
Indicators (physics)
pairs of conjugates / either both different or one colored, one colorless (H-Ind and Ind-) / at a pH below that of the pKa of the indicator color of H-Ind dominates
Parathyroid
parathyroid hormone = increases Ca in blood by stimulating osteoclasts to breakdown bone and release Ca / reabsorption of Ca in kidneys and GI tract
Law of segregation
parent has 2 alleles per gene but only passes on one allele onto next generation / those two alleles of the parent cell segregate into daughter cells randomly, resulting in gametes that have one allele for a given gene
Authoritarian
parent is extremely strict, controlling, and shows little warmth/support
Permissive
parent is inconsistent, often gives in to child, and lacks the ability to discipline the child
Uninvolved/Neglectful
parent is uninvolved, emotionally detached, indifferent to child, and doesn't set rules
Lymphatic system
part of circulatory system composed of a network of vessels into which lymph drains from tissues and eventually returns to blood
Vestibular sense
part of the inner ear that sense motion, balance, and spatial orientation / orientation of our body w/ respect to gravity / contributes to our kinesthetic sense
Asch's experiment
participant conforms to other people's answers... even though it was wrong
High culture
participated in by the elite
Transverse wave
particles move in the axis perpendicular to the propagation of the wave / light propagates via transverse waves
Protection by respiratory system
particulate matter filtered out via organs/tissues of respiratory system
Emission spectrum
pass light through a substance and certain frequencies of light are emitted / it is visualized as bright bands (colors of bands represent which frequencies of light emitted) on a dark surface / light is emitted from the substance when an atom transitions from a high energy state (due to an excited electron) to a low energy/ground state / "fingerprint" of an atom
Socialization
passing down norms and values to next generation / facilitates overall functioning and homeostasis of society
B.F. Skinner (behaviorist perspective of personality)
patterns of behavior acquired through observational learning and operant conditioning; involves reinforcement / good behavior is rewarded = perform more of that behavior in future / bad behavior is punished = perform less of that behavior in future
Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders
patterns of obsessive thoughts/urges and maladaptive compulsions / thought → behavior
Central route info processing
people are largely persuaded by the content of the argument / attitude change results in highly predictable and enduring behavior
Bystander effect
people are less likely to help a victim when they are on of many bystanders
Normative social influence
people conform bc they want to be liked/accepted by others / peer pressure
Informational social influence (social proof)
people conform bc they want to be right and assume that others are correct
Peripheral route info processing
people largely persuaded by superficial aspects of the message or speaker / attitude change that results is temporary and not highly predictive of future behavior
Social facilitation
people tend to perform some tasks better when in the presence of others
Social loafing
people tend to put in less effort when they are in a group than they would if they were doing the project/task alone
Presbyopia
peoples lenses become less flexible as they age / become far-sighted
Hydrophilic hormones
peptides and amino acid derivatives / majority of hormones / made and modified by rough ER + Golgi / result in secondary messenger-involved signal cascades that alter enzyme activity / peptide hormones cannot diffuse through plasma membrane, bind to receptor on membrane / all others that aren't hydrophobic
P site
peptidyl-tRNA site / where the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain is held most of the time
Obsessive-compulsive
perfectionistic and rigid behavior / stubborn
Yerkes-Dodson law
performance is optimum at medium level of arousal / too much or too little will impair performance
Row
period
Descending limb of Henle
permeable to H2O / as fluid travels down, more H2O is reabsorbed from tubule into interstitial fluid / concentration gradient ensures constant H2O reabsorption even as filtrate becomes more concentrated deeper into the medulla → forms more concentrated urine
Ascending limb of Henle
permeable to NaCl and K+ / NaCl reabsorbed via passive transport at bottom of ascending limb, then reabsorbed by active transport at top of limb
Personality disorders
persistent, maladaptive thoughts, emotions, behaviors / characterized by a specific disordered 'personality type' / Clusters A → C
Dichotic listening test
person has headphones on with a different auditory input in each ear → asked to attend to one or both → how much information gets through from the unattended ear? Can person listen to both at the same time?
Obligations of the sick role
person must try to get better / person should seek out and comply w/ medical care
Rights of the sick role
person not held responsible for his/her illness / excused from carrying out normal social duties
Self-actualization (humanistic perspective)
personal development and fulfillment of potential / ideal self vs. real self
Self-esteem
personal evaluation of our worth
Trait perspective of personality
personality determined through accumulation of personality traits
Social cognitive perspective of personality
personality formed through environment, social experiences, cognitions / involves mimicking and observational based on those we interact with
Eysenck (biological perspective of personality)
personality is largely genetic, along w/ some learning / two dimensions = introversion vs. extroversion and emotional stability vs. neuroticism / activity in limbic system
Macrophages
phagocytic WBCs / move out of circulatory system by squeezing through capillary walls into tissue / most efficient phagocyte
Phagocytes (macrophages and neutrophils)
phagocytize foreign particles, pathogens, and dead cells / scavenge and engulf / may be attracted to an area by chemical signals like cytokines (chemotaxis)
Types of phenols to know
phenol, quinone, hydroxyquinone / phenols are oxidized to quinones / quinones are oxidized to hydroxyquinones
Types of anxiety disorders
phobia (ex: agoraphobia), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder (panic attacks), separation anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder
Baddeley's Model of Working Memory
phonological loop (deals with auditory information and rehearsal), visuospatial sketchpad (deals with visual and spatial information), central executive (coordinates and regulates all processes of working memory), episodic buffer (links different sensory inputs / deals with chronology and semantics)
Plasma membrane general structure
phospholipid bilayer = hydrophobic tails facing each other on interior and hydrophilic head groups facing outsides
Phototransduction pathway w/ light
photon converts I I-cis retinal into all-trans retinal → conformational change of opsin GPCR → PDE activated and breaks down cGMP → Na+ channels close → rods and cones hyperpolarize and stop releasing glutamate → bipolar cells depolarize → ganglion cells depolarize → action potential sent along optic nerve to the brain
Chiasma
physical link btwn chromatids of homologous chromosomes during recombination
Somatic symptom and related disorders
physical symptoms that cause extreme distress but can't be explained by some medical condition
Function of erythrocytes
pick up O2 in lungs then carry and deliver it to tissues
Cytochromes
pigment molecules / contain iron / commonly e- carriers
Neural crest cells
pinch off and migrate to diff regions of developing fetus → form many parts of PNS, bones and cartilage of face, adrenal medulla, nerves of gut and cranial nerves, melanocytes, glial cells, and more
Transmission of viroid
plant to plant contact or indirect transmission through insect
Half-equivalence point
point at which half amount of titrant required to reach equivalence point has been added
Properties of carboxylic acid derivatives
polar carbonyl bond and nucleophilic carbon of carbonyl / all have dipole-dipole interactions / only H bonding for amides → amides have stronger IMF than other derivatives
Some diff EN
polar covalent (partial ionic character) / results in partial charges
Ion-dipole
polar molecule (permanent partial charges) attracted to ion (permanent full charges)
Column chromatography basis of separation
polarity
TLC basis of separation
polarity / solvents move based on being more attracted to or repelled by the solvent and/or paper
HPLC basis of separation
polarity and/or charge
Prokaryotes and Central Dogma
polycistronic mRNA / no RNA processing / transcription and translation take place in cytosol and can occur simultaneously / 1 main RNA poly
Microfilaments structure
polymers of actin protein / dynamic / smallest
Intermediate filaments structure
polymers of many diff associated proteins
Bottleneck effect
pop size dramatically reduced / subsequent pop doesn't resemble pop before it (genetic drift occurs) / usually caused by random disaster/event
Distance to left of mirror (front)
positive
Reward circuit in brain (VTA and nucleus accumbens)
positive and pleasurable emotional responses
Gram negative
possess two lipid bilayers w/ a cell wall btwn them / staining color = pink / more resistant to antibiotics / produce mainly endotoxins (only released when cell lyses)
Soap
potassium or sodium salts of fatty acids
Tumor suppressor genes
potentially cancer preventing genes
Prejudice
preconceived judgements or opinions of a person or group that aren't based on actual evidence/experience but on social characteristics
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
preconventional morality, conventional morality, postconventional morality
A/B/O blood type
presence of A, B, or neither antigen
Positive symptoms of Schizophrenia
presence of abnormal behaviors
"Self-presentation"
presenting ourselves in a certain way to control how others perceive us
Systolic
pressure exerted by heart on vessels of body as blood is pumped through body
Partial pressure
pressure exerted by one gas species in a mixture of gases
Diastolic
pressure in vessels when heart is momentarily resting
"Negative-pressure breathing"
pressure inside lungs is (-) relative to outside environment (atmospheric pressure) / air moves into areas of lower pressure
Priming
previous exposure to a stimulus results in easier/quicker subsequent retrieval of the same or a closely related concept
Proactive interference
previously learned gets in the way
The serial position effect
primacy effect (beginning better recalled), recency effect (more fresh in memory)
Lazarus' theory of cognitive appraisal
primary appraisal = initial interpretation of nature of stressor and potential threat/danger it poses / secondary appraisal = assessment of one's ability to cope w/ the stressor... presence of available resources... conclusions determine emotional response
Thurstone theory of intelligence
primary mental abilities / 7 primary mental abilities / similar to Gardner
Denaturation
process by which a protein is unfolded from it native state / secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures are lost (primary isn't) / via changes in temp, pH, chemical environment
Impression management
process of managing our self image by attempting to influence others' perceptions
Acquisition (classical conditioning)
process of pairing US and NS/CS together / subject learns that presence of CS signals arrival of US
Oligodendrocytes
produce myelin sheath that surround and insulates axons of neurons in CNS / one can myelinate multiple axons
Schwann cells
produce myelin sheath that surround and insulates axons of neurons in PNS / wrap around a region of a single axon
Seminal vesicles
produce nearly 70% of semen / containing proteins and nourishment
Ovaries
produce ovum/eggs, as well as estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone
Bulbourethral gland
produce small amount of semen / mucus-like fluid lubricates and neutralizes
Testes
produce sperm and androgens (testosterone) / protected and kept warm by the scrotum / seminiferous tubules = site of spermatogenesis in testes
Pepsin (protein digestion)
produced in gastric glands / released in stomach / acidic pH
Lipase (fat digestion)
produced in pancreas / released in small intestine / basic pH
Nuclease (nucleic acid digestion)
produced in pancreas / released in small intestine / basic pH
Nucleotidases (nucleic acid digestion)
produced in pancreas / released in small intestine / basic pH
Pancreatic amylase (carb digestion)
produced in pancreas / released in small intestine / basic pH
Trypsin (protein digestion)
produced in pancreas / released in small intestine / basic pH
Salivary amylase (carb digestion)
produced in salivary glands / released in mouth / neutral pH
Maltase (carb digestion)
produced in small intestine / released in small intestine / basic pH
Peptidases (protein digestion)
produced in small intestine / released in small intestine / basic pH
Interference
a phenomenon that occurs when multiple waves interact w/ each other
Positive checks (Malthusian Theory)
anything that shortens human life therefore increasing the death rate
Class consciousness
awareness an individual has regarding his/her social economic status, and the social class that they are in
Aberrations
cause images to look blurry (spherical aberration) or have unnecessary rainbows around them (chromatic aberration)
Intergenerational mobility
change in social class from generation to generation
Intragenerational mobility
change in social class w/in single generation
Ultrasound
comprises frequencies of sound too high for ears to detect / used in medicine / sound transmitted and reflected differently off of different tissues
Concave mirror
converging, form real images and virtual images
Convex lenses
converging, have (+) radii of curvatures and focal lengths / if object placed beyond focal point, get an inverted, real image... if placed btwn focal point and mirror, get an upright, virtual image... object placed at focal point yield no image
Preventative checks (Malthusian Theory)
decreasing birth rate by exercising 'moral restraint' / birth control measures
Young's double-slit experiment
demonstrates light's wavelike properties / light that is passed through two miniscule slits will show a pattern that is the result of alternating constructive and destructive interferences of the waves / would look like alternating dark and light spots on the screen / known as an interference pattern
Institutional discrimination
discrimination of a group by institutions of society / intentional or unintentional
Radius of curvature (r)
distance from mirror to center of curvature
Focal length (f)
distance from mirror to its focus
Convex mirror
diverging, always form virtual images
Concave lenses
diverging, have (-) radii of curvatures and focal lengths, can only form virtual images
Linearly polarized light
electric field oscillates vertically
Migration pull factors (people want to enter)
employment, opportunity, safety, stability, political security, fertile land, etc. / expected pop shifts and growth rates projected using models
Globalization: Civil changes
globalization can result in increasing inequality or colonialism
Urban growth
growth of urban areas
Near-sighted (myopic)
have lenses that are too good at converging light → light rays from objects that are far away converge/focus in front of retina / given diverging (concave) lenses
Demographic Transition Theory: 5 stages
high BR and DR... high BR, dropping DR → pop increases rapidly... dropping BR and DR → slower pop increase... low BR and DR → pop stabilizes... very low BR, low DR → pop drops slightly
High pitch sounds
high frequencies
Pitch
how we perceive the frequency of a sound / pitch of a sound wave never changes
Malthus (Malthusian Theory)
human pop grows exponentially but resources grow at an arithmetic (linear) rate → pop will exceed its capacity → result is Malthusian catastrophe
Real images
if object is placed beyond focal point / result of light rays that converge in front of the mirror / always inverted
Virtual images
if object is placed btwn mirror and focal point / formed behind mirror and do not result from actual convergence of light rays / always upright
Doppler effect
if observer is moving toward source of sound, use (+) in numerator and if it is moving away from the source, use (-) / if source is moving toward the observer, use (-) in the denominator and if it is moving away from the observer, use (+)
If magnitude of magnification > 1
image is enlarged
If magnitude of magnification is a fraction
image will be smaller than original
Absolute poverty
inability to meet basic needs and obtain necessities due to lack of money
Relative poverty
inability to meet certain living standard as defined by society
False consciousness
inability to perceive/understand one's true status in society
Nuclear family
includes a couple and their children
Extended family
includes grandparents, cousins, nieces, nephews, etc.
Secondary relationships
includes those who are directly related to anyone in your nuclear family
Globalization
increasing global connections and interdependence of societies / growth of a global consciousness and a global economy
Individual discrimination
ind makes a conscious choice to discriminate against another person
Relative deprivation
individuals compare what they have to what others have, and feel discontent when they feel deprived of certain things
(-) magnification means image is
inverted... real images always inverted
Low pitch sounds
low frequencies
Food desert
low-income urban area w/ lack of healthy, fresh food options → residents surrounded by fast food, dried and processed foods, and other unhealthy options → increased risk of diabetes, obesity, etc.
Vertical mobility
movement to a higher or lower class
Horizontal mobility
movement w/in same class
Distance to right of mirror (back)
negative
Social capital
non-financial resources in forms of relationships, social support, and connections to social networks that promote upward mobility
Social exclusion
occurs when specific people/groups are systematically prevented from accessing certain resources, opportunities, and rights that the majority has access to
Longitudinal wave
particles move in the same axis as the wave / like the compressions and stretches of a slinky / sound propagates via longitudinal waves
Antinodes
peaks and troughs; oscillate up and down
Suburbanization
people begin moving out of urban areas and into suburban areas surrounding the city
Environmental justice
poorer neighborhoods suffer more detrimental environmental impacts → negatively impacts health of its residents
Urban renewal
process of renovating and improving an urban area that has fallen into disrepair as a result of previous urban decline
Sound
produced through the vibration or oscillation of particles that propagate via longitudinal waves / needs a medium to travel in / travels fastest in low density solids / travels slowest in high density gases / the only way to change the velocity of a sound wave is to change the medium through which it is traveling
Education
provides a way to pass down values, norms, ideas, and other aspects of the dominant culture / promotes critical thinking and formation of new ideas, as well as helps maintain discipline/obedience in young individuals
Hidden curriculum
refers to any unintended results of education / education can reinforce and perpetuate existing inequalities by teaching students according to their class/social status / resources, expectations, rigor, and quality of education correlated w/ class or SES of the students
Nodes
regions that don't move
Kinship
relationships due to marriage, adoption, or blood ties / helps define relationships btwn people in society
Important functions
reproduction and child rearing, socialization, formation of identity, religious and cultural transmission, affection, love/belonging, and defining social status
Prestige
respect/reverence others have for an individual based on that person's achievements, social class, and reputation
Residential segregation
segregation of groups into different neighborhoods ("groups" mainly categorized by race/ethnicity, income, and SES) / majority of low income families are racial minorities / produces negative socioeconomic outcomes for minorities / effects of Jim Crow laws and other discrimination persist
Demographic Transition Theory
shift from high BR and high DR → low BR and low DR / occurs as society industrializes / pop increases throughout transition then eventually stabilizes and decreases slightly in the last stage
Pop pyramids
show % of people w/in each age range and gender category / shape shows whether pop is increasing, stable, or decreasing
Resonance
source inducing oscillation of medium has same frequency as natural frequency of medium itself / maximization of the amplitude of the wave
Social reproduction
structures, activities, and customs in society that result in inequality being reinforced and transmitted from one generation to the next
Teacher expectancy
teacher expects certain behavior from certain students based on their social class, race, SES, gender, etc. → affects how teachers treat those children → alters how those students perform / students begin to conform to the expectations
Crude birth rate =
total births / 1000 people
Crude death rate =
total deaths / 1000 people
Migration push factors (people want to leave)
unemployment, poverty, fear, feeling unsafe, political unrest, war, disasters, drought, etc.
Urban decline/decay
urban area deteriorates and falls into disrepair
If image distance calculation yields (-) result, means that it is a
virtual image (formed behind mirror)
Standing wave
wave appears to no longer moving forward or backward due to resonance being achieved
Randomly / unpolarized light
waves of light that have different polarizations (light from sun)
Social stratification
way in which individuals are categorized into different strata of a social hierarchy based on social characteristics such as race, income, education, political power, etc. / lower class → working class → middle class → upper class
Destructive interference
when the waves are out of phase, provided that the waves are otherwise identical, they will completely cancel each other out and there will be no resulting wave
Constructive interference
when the waves are perfectly in phase, their amplitudes add up and the resulting wave is much larger
Breaking bond
(+deltaH) / energy required
Penetrance
% of individuals w/ given phenotype that show expected phenotype
Ion-exchange chromatography anion exchanger
(+) column traps (-) molecules
SyNS
"fight-or-flight"
Purines
A and G
Ion channels
allow ions through
B cells
release antibodies
Fad
temporary trend