A&P 2: Chapter 24 and 25 (Digestive, Nutrition)

HDL, 40-60 mg/dL

"Good" cholesterol? Ideal level?

ADP

(Adenosine Diphosphate) The compound that remains when a phosphate group is removed from ATP, releasing energy

ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work

Ketone bodies

-Compounds produced during the incomplete breakdown of fat when glucose is not available in the cells. -Used for energy by extrahepatic (non-liver) tissues, e.g. muscle & brain during adapted starvation -In extrahepatic tissues, are converted back into Acetyl CoA through the TCA cycle to produce energy -can be used as an energy source when CHO is low and helps to conserve blood glucose

aging and the digestive system

-Decreased secretory mechanisms and motility -Loss of strength and tone of digestive muscular tissue -Changes in neurosecretory feedback -Diminished response to pain and internal sensations

ketosis

-Occurs during uncontrolled Diabetes mellitis, fasting/starvation, very low CHO diet -Ketone concentration rises during accelerated FA oxidation -Occurs during conditions when fat oxidation is overly active or CHO intake is low or impaired = accumulation of Acetyl-CoA -Because Acetyl CoA is present in larger amounts, the extra Acetyl CoA is used to produce ketones

triacylglycerols

-composed of 3 fatty acids bonded by ester linkages to glycerol - nonpolar and hydrophobic -used for energy storage -more reduced than carbohydrates --> oxidation of TAG yields twice more energy -stored as fat globules in adipose tissue

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

2 Acetyl CoA ---> 2ATP + 6NADH + 2FADH2 + 4CO2; occurs in Matrix of Mitochondria

Cytochrome b-c1 complex

2nd of the 3 electron-driven proton pumps in respiratory chain. It accepts electrons from ubiquinone

longitudinal, circular, oblique

3 muscle layers of the stomach

right, left, caudate, quadrate

4 lobes of the liver

glycolysis, glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis

4 processes of carbohydrate metabolism

fatty liver disease

A buildup of lipids that are deposited in the liver tissue

Redox reaction

A chemical reaction involving the transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another; also called oxidation-reduction reaction.

esophagus

A collapsible tube that extends from the pharynx to the stomach; contractions of the muscle in the wall of the esophagus propel food and liquids through it to the stomach

unsaturated fats

A fat that is liquid at room temperature and found in vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds.

saturated fats

A fat that is solid at room temperature and found in animal fats, lards, coconut oil, and dairy products.

prostaglandins

A group of bioactive, hormone-like chemicals derived from fatty acids (arachidonic acid) that have a wide variety of biological effects including roles in inflammation, platelet aggregation, vascular smooth muscle dilation and constriction, cell growth, protection of from acid in the stomach, and many more.

Vitamin A

A group of fat-soluble compounds which includes beta-carotene and that are important for growth and development, for the maintenance of the immune system and good vision

cholesterol

A lipid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids and bile salts

glycolysis

A metabolic process that breaks down carbohydrates and sugars through a series of reactions to either pyruvic acid or lactic acid and release energy for the body in the form of ATP

Beta oxidation

A metabolic sequence that breaks fatty acids down to two-carbon fragments that enter the citric acid cycle as acetyl CoA.

phospholipids

A molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes (cell membrane, myelin sheath), having a polar, hydrophilic head and a nonpolar, hydrophobic tail.

stomach

A muscular and elastic sac that serves mainly to store food, break it up mechanically, and begin chemical digestion of proteins and fat.

salivary amylase

A salivary gland enzyme that hydrolyzes starch.

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP.

rectum

A short tube at the end of the large intestine where waste material is compressed into a solid form before being eliminated

appendix

A small, fingerlike extension of the vertebrate cecum; contains a mass of white blood cells that contribute to immunity.

mass peristalsis

A strong peristaltic wave that begins in the transverse colon and quickly drives the contents of the colon into the rectum.

intrinsic factor

A substance produced by the mucosa of the stomach and intestines that is essential for the absorption of vitamin B12.

bolus

A term used to describe food after it has been chewed and mixed with saliva

dietary fiber

A tough complex carbohydrate (polysaccharide) that the body cannot digest; include cellulose and pectin

sterols

A type of lipid based on cholesterol; includes testosterone and estrogen; compounds containing a four-ring carbon structure with any of a variety of side chains attached.

Vitamin B

A vitamin that acts as a coenzyme in the conversion of glucose to ATP.

Vitamin D

A vitamin that is manufactured in the skin after exposure to sunlight.

deciduous dentition

Also known as baby teeth or milk teeth, this is the first set of teeth, which form in utero and erupt shortly after birth.

protein metabolism

Amino acids are either oxidized to produce ATP or used to synthesize new proteins Excess dietary amino acids are not excreted but converted into glucose (gluconeogenesis) or triglycerides (lipogenesis)

essential amino acids

Amino acids that are needed, but cannot be made by the body; they must be eaten in foods

3L

Amount of gastric juice produced each day

nitrogen homeostasis

Amount of nitrogen ingested in proteins equals the amount excreted in urine/feces

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)

An energy carrier that accepts electrons and feeds them into the electron transport chain

glycogen

An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.

pancreas

An organ in the abdominal cavity with two roles. The first is an exocrine role: to produce digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are delivered to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. The second is an endocrine role: to secrete insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream to help regulate blood glucose levels.

gall bladder

An organ that stores bile and releases it as needed into the small intestine

coenzymes

An organic molecule that is a necessary participant in some enzymatic reactions; helps catalysis by donating or accepting electrons or functional groups; e.g., a vitamin, ATP, NAD+.

Trans fats

An unsaturated fat, formed artificially during hydrogenation of oils, containing one or more trans double bonds.

10 inches

Approximately how long is the esophagus?

molars

Back teeth that grind food

paleolithic diet

Based on the foods ancient ancestors might likely have eaten, such as meat, nuts, and berries.

Digestive system

Breaks down food into smaller molecules. Absorbs these nutrients into the body.

Disaccharides

Carbohydrates that are made up of two monosaccharides

common bile duct

Carries bile from the liver and gallbladder to the duodenum. Also called the choledochus.

Exocrine

Category of glands to which the salivary glands belongs.

proteins, glycerol portion of triglycerides, lactic acid, amino acids (some)

Compounds that can be used for gluconeogenesis

Ketones

Concentration of ______________ rises during accelerated fatty acid oxidation.

pyruvate oxidation

Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA and CO2 that occurs in the mitochondrial matrix in the presence of O2.

gastric pits

Deep infoldings in the walls of the stomach lined with secretory cells.

regulation of metabolism

Depends on chemicals in the cells, signals from the nervous and endocrine systems, and time elapsed since the last meal.

low carb diet

Diet consisting of: High protein (>50%); Mod. fat (30%); Low carb (<20%)

Atkins and ketogenic diets

Diets consisting of: High fat (65%); Mod. protein (35%); Low carb (5%)

cystic duct

Duct leading from the gallbladder to the common bile duct; carries bile

2 minutes

Duration of activity in which primarily anaerobic respiration is performed

Gluten free diet

Eliminates wheat, oats, rye, barley and their derivatives; treatment for celiac disease

lipids

Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

amylase

Enzyme in saliva that breaks the chemical bonds in starches

nucleases

Enzymes that break down nucleic acids

brush border enzymes

Enzymes that complete carbohydrate and protein digestion that are produced by the plasma membrane of microvilli

villi

Fingerlike extensions of the intestinal mucosa that increase the surface area for absorption; largest in the duodenum, decrease in size along the S.I., contain a dense capillary bed and lacteal capillary, digested food is absorbed through epithelial cells and inter the capillary beds and lacteals.

2

For each glucose molecule, how many times does the krebs cycle repeat?

ingestion, secretion, mixing and propulsion, digestion, absorption, defecation

Functions of the digestive system

salivary glands

Glands of the mouth that produce saliva, a digestive secretion

insulin

Hormone that inhibits lipolysis

steroids

Hormones and hormone-like substances that share the same fat-soluble chemical structure (lipids in which the carbon skeleton contains four fused rings)

Cortisol, glucagon, thyroid hormones

Hormones that stimulate gluconeogenesis

catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine), ACTH, GA

Hormones that stimulate lipolysis

.8 g per kg

How much protein should you consume on a daily basis?

alkaline tide

In gastric parietal cell, HCO3- leaves the cell in exchange for Cl- going in the cell.

liver

In this location, glycogen plays a role in regulation of blood glucose levels

muscle

In this location, glycogen serves as a rapidly mobilizable source of glucose to provide energy for contraction

lactate (lactic acid)

In this reaction, what molecule is reduced?

accessory digestive organs

Include structures that are not part of the GI tract, but they contribute to food processing. Include teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

ingestion

Intake of food

defecation reflex

Involuntary response of intestinal contraction and anal sphincter relaxation to rectal distention -Rectal wall distends -Stretch receptors send sensory nerve impulses to the sacral spinal cord -Motor impulses travel back to the descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus -Longitudinal rectal muscles contract and the internal anal sphincter opens -If the external anal sphincter is voluntarily relaxed, defecation occurs and the feces are expelled

Acetyl CoA

Involved in helping 2-carbon acetyl groups enter the Krebs cycle and the synthesis of lipids

Pyruvic acid

Involved in production of lactic acid, the production of alanine, and gluconeogenesis.

Glucose-6-phosphatase

Involved in the synthesis of glycogen, the release of glucose into the bloodstream, synthesis of nucleic acids, and glycolysis.

conjugate bases

Lactate and pyruvate are the _________________ _______________of lactic acid and pyruvic acid, respectively.

ATP synthase

Large protein (enzyme) that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP

emptying of stomach

Largely controlled by factors in duodenum (the beginning of the small intestines)

liver

Largest gland in the body consisting of 4 lobes; makes bile, which is important in the emulsification of fats.

serosa

Layer of the gastrointestinal tract (alimentary canal) that includes the visceral peritoneum and adventita in esophagus.

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins

List macromolecules that are metabolized by the liver

bile acids, sex hormones, adrenocortical hormones, vitamin D

List the major types of steroids.

mechanical digestion (small intestine)

Localized contractions (segmentation) and propulsive contractions (peristalsis) of the small intestines assists in the process of ____________________ __________________.

skeletal muscle, mucous membrane, papillae

Major components of the tongue

4, bone salts

Minerals comprise approximately ______ % of body weight and are primarily found in ________ _________.

nonpolar

Most lipids exhibit this property and results in them being insoluble in water.

gastroesophageal sphincter (cadiac sphincter)

Muscle that connects the esophagus and stomach, and helps keep the stomach contents in the stomach

2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvic acid

Net products of glycolysis

blood supply of liver

Oxygenated blood from hepatic artery, and nutrient rich deoxygenated blood from hepatic portal vein---> hepatic sinusoids---> central vein ---> hepatic vein---> inferior vena cava--> right atrium of heart

chyme

Partially digested, semiliquid food mixed with digestive enzymes and acids in the stomach.

98%

Percent of energy reserves of triglycerides stored in adipose tissue.

5%

Percent of phospholipids and sterols that composes dietary lipids?

97-99.5%

Percent of saliva that is water

mechanical digestion

Physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces

dentin

Primary material found in teeth. It is covered by the enamel in the crown and a protective layer of cementum in the root.

liver, muscle

Primary organ/tissue locations of glycogenesis and glycogenolysis

chemiosmosis

Process by which a Hydrogen pump pumps protons into the outer mitochondrial space. H+ passively flows through the ATP synthase which leads to the creation of ATP.

chemical digestion

Process by which enzymes break down carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids into small molecules that the body can use

26-28 ATP, 6 H2O

Products of electron transport chain?

peristalsis (intestine)

Propulsive contractions that move material through the colon

incomplete proteins

Proteins that are missing one or more of the essential amino acids; found in plant sources such as nuts and legumes

functions of large intestine

Reabsorption of water Compaction of intestinal contents into feces Absorption of important vitamins produced by bacteria Storage of fecal material prior to defecation

cytoplasm

Relative to the cell, specific location of glycogenesis and glycogenolysis

Monosaccharides

Single sugar molecules

cementum

Specialized, calcified connective tissue that covers the anatomic root of a tooth.

Glycogen Metabolism

Storage and mobilization of glucose (glycogenesis and glycogenolysis)

Gums, hard palate, dorsum of tongue

Structures of the oral cavity that are slightly keratinized for extra protection.

nutrients

Substances in food that your body needs to grow, to repair itself, and to supply you with energy

atp, glycogen, amino acid, triglyceride

The body's use of glucose depends on the needs of cells for ________ production, _________ synthesis, ________ _______ synthesis, and _________ synthesis.

hepatic duct

The duct that leads from the liver to the common bile duct; transports bile.

NADH dehydrogenase complex

The first respiratory complex in the ETC that accepts electrons from NADH in the form of a hydride ion which is then converted into a proton and two high-energy electrons.

saliva

The fluid released when the mouth waters that plays an important role in both mechanical and chemical digestion

HCl production in stomach

The formation of an alkaline tide is a feature of what process?

gluconeogenesis

The formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources, such as amino acids (anabolic process)

Carbohydrates

The macromolecules that are broken down and empty out the quickest from the stomach (decreases satiety)

fats

The macromolecules that are broken down and empty out the slowest from the stomach (increases satiety)

kilocalories (kcals)

The measurement of energy in foods. Commonly referred to as calories.

phosphorylation

The metabolic process of introducing a phosphate group into an organic molecule.

Absorption (small intestine)

The movement of digested food molecules through the wall of the small intestines into the blood -Nutrients that are absorbed through the wall of the small intestine (villi) gets absorbed by the capillary network which comes together to form the hepatic portal vein

enteric nervous system

The nervous system of the gastrointestinal tract. It controls secretion and motility within the GI tract, and is linked to the central nervous system. Controls short reflexes.

small intestine

The part of the digestive system in which most chemical digestion takes place; Consists of the duodenum, jejunum, ileum

absorption

The process by which nutrient molecules pass through the wall of the digestive system into the blood and lymph (nutrition)

chemical digestion

The process in the mouth in which salivary amylase converts polysaccharides to disaccharides, lingual lipase begins the breakdown of fats.

secretion

The release of biosynthesized substances (water, acid, buffers, and enzymes) into lumen of GI tract.

cori cycle

The removal and recycling of lactate by the liver, Liver converts lactiate to pyruvic acid, Glucose is released to recharge muscle glycogen reserves (a gluconeogenic process)

gastrointestinal tract

The stomach and intestine as a functional unit. (aka alimentary canal)

Premolars

The teeth immediately behind the canines; first and second; used in chewing, grinding, and shearing food. "bicuspids"

anal (rectal) sphincter

The valve that controls the release of feces from the recturm. It has an internal part made of smooth muscle (thus involuntary) and an external part made of skeletal muscle (thus voluntary).

Canines

These teeth are used are for ripping or piercing. "cuspids," "eyeteeth"

Ileum

Third part of the small intestine. It connects to the cecum of the large intestine. Some digestion takes place there. There is absorption of nutrients and water through its wall into the blood; about 12 feet in length

cytochrome oxidase complex

Third protein complex in ETC. This complex uses 4 electrons to reduce a molecule of oxygen with 2 protons to form water. O2+(4H+)+(4e-)=2H2O

teniae coli, haustra, epiploic (omental) appendages

Three unique anatomical features of the large intestine

3-6 days

Time period in which mucosal surface of the mucosal barrier of the stomach is renewed

True

True or False. Some amino acids can circumvent being converted into Acetyl CoA and directly enter the Kreb's cycle with minimal modification.

False

True or False. The body can store essential amino acids

Thick epithelium

Type of covering in the oral cavity that helps to withstand the friction of chewing

anaerobic

Type of glycolysis that occurs in the absence f O2, and is used during short duration activity.

aerobic

Type of glycolysis that occurs in the presence of O2, and is needed for long duration activity

crown

Visible part of the tooth

complex b vitamins, vitamin k

Vitamins synthesized by bacterial action in the colon.

D, K, A

Vitamins that can be synthesized in the body

facilitated diffusion

What allows glucose to pass through the plasma membrane to be used by the cell?

insulin

What hormone acts by increasing the insertion of GluT4 transporters into the plasma membrane increasing the rate of facilitate diffusion of glucose into the cell?

2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2

What is generated and produced from the Krebs Cycle?

produce energy, cytoplasm

What is purpose of glycolysis? Where does it occur?

45-65%

What percent of your diet per day should be carbohydrates?

30%

What percent of your diet per day should be fat?

water, electrolytes, some vitamins

What substances does the large intestine absorb?

acetyl coenzyme a

When oxygen is present, pyruvic acid is transported to the mitochondrion, where each pyruvic acid is converted into WHAT?

liver (mostly), kidneys (sometimes)

Where does gluconeogenesis occur?

matrix of the mitochondria

Where does pyruvate oxidation occur?

matrix of the mitochondria

Where does the Krebs cycle take place?

inner membrane of mitochondria (series of electron carriers)

Where does the electron transport chain take place?

VLDL, 2-30 mg/dL

Which lipoprotien is the "bad" cholesterol that transports triglycerides from the liver to adipose tissue? What is the ideal level for this lipoprotein?

ATP

Which of the following contains a high-energy bond? ATP, ADP, AMP

LDL, less than 190 mg/dL

Which of the lipoproteins is the "bad" lipoprotein that delivers most cholesterol in blood and delivers it to cells? What is the ideal level of this lipoprotein?

1 kcal, 1kg, H2O, 1 degree C

_________ equals the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of __________ of ___________ by __________

bile

a bitter greenish-brown alkaline fluid that aids digestion and is secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder; important in the emulsification of fats

vegetarian diet

a diet in which vegetables are the foundation and meat, fish, and poultry are restricted or eliminated

mesentery

a double layer of peritoneum that attaches to the back wall of the abdominal cavity and supports the small intestines; route for blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves

lingual lipase

a fat-splitting enzyme secreted by cells at the base of the tongue

mucin

a glycoprotein constituent of mucus

lacteal

a lymph tubule located in the villus that absorbs fatty acids

tongue

a mobile mass of muscular tissue covered with mucous membrane and located in the oral cavity

peritoneum

a multilayered membrane that protects and holds the organs in place within the abdominal cavity

vegan diet

a plant-based diet that eliminates all animal products

alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3 fatty acid)

a polyunsaturated essential fatty acid found in fish, shellfish, some nuts, and flaxseed

submandibular gland

a salivary gland inside the lower jaw on either side that produces most of the nocturnal saliva

pectin

a soluble gelatinous polysaccharide that is present in ripe fruits and is extracted for use as a setting agent in jams and jellies; soluble in the digestive system, and keeps some water in intestinal contents.

dental plaque

a sticky biofilm of debris, sugar, and bacteria accumulating on the teeth that is formed by and harbors bacteria; also called tartar; causes leaches calcium salts from teeth

contractile proteins

actin and myosin; generate force during contraction

AMP

adenosine monophosphate

9.3 L

amount of water ingested and secreted per day (average)

9.2 L

amount of water reabsorbed mostly from small intestine (some from large intestine)

sigmoid colon

an S-shaped structure that continues from the descending colon above and joins with the rectum below

carbonic anhydrase

an enzyme that catalyzes the interconversion of dissolved bicarbonates and carbon dioxide; important in formation of HCl in stomach acids

arachidonic acid

an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid with 20 carbons and four double bonds; present in small amounts in meat and other animal products and synthesized in the body from linoleic acid.

bilirubin

an orange-yellow pigment formed in the liver by the breakdown of hemoglobin and excreted in bile (colors feces)

oral orifice

anterior opening of the mouth

4 hours

approximate length of time it takes to completely empty stomach after normal meal

fat soluble vitamins

are absorbed by fat, include vitamins A, D, E, K

periodontal ligament

attaches tooth to jaw, thus holding it in the socket

Dental caries

bacterial enzymes ferment CHO deposits on plaque, enzymes produce acids that demineralize surface

animal products

best source of complete proteins

muscularis externa

bilayer of smooth muscle which consists of a layer running circularly and another running longitudinally

functions of liver

bile production, storage, nutrient interconversion, detoxification, phagocytosis, synthesis, vitamin D activation

High-density lipoprotein (HDL)

blood fat that helps transport cholesterol out of the arteries, thereby protecting against heart disease

low-density lipoprotein (LDL)

blood fat that transports cholesterol to organs and tissues; excess amounts result in the accumulation of fatty deposits on artery walls

immunoproteins

blood proteins such as antibodies that play a role in the functioning of the immune system (antibodies)

hard palate

bony anterior (front) portion of the palate

catabolic reactions (decomposition)

break down large chemicals and release energy

Lipolysis (lipid catabolism)

breakdown of fat from triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol

Glycogenolysis

breakdown of glycogen to glucose

glycogenolysis

breakdown of glycogen to glucose (catabolic process)

lactose

carbohydrate found in milk

types of nutrients

carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, water

hydrolases

catalyze cleavage with the addition of water

oxidoreductases

catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions that involve the transfer of electrons

ligases

catalyze the formation of bonds with the input of ATP and the removal of water

isomerase

catalyzes the rearrangement of bonds within a single molecule

incisors

central and lateral teeth between the canines that are used for cutting and nipping; erupt 1st.

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

bile salts

cholesterol derivatives that function in fat emulsification and absorption

mixing and propulsion

churning and movement of food through GI tract

lipoproteins

clusters of lipids associated with proteins that serve as transport vehicles for lipids in the lymph and blood

flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

coenzyme that shuttles protons and electrons from glycolysis and the Krebs cycle to the electron transport chain

hepatic portal vein, bile duct, hepatic artery

components of a portal triad

bile salts, bilirubin

components of bile

water, electrolytes, salivary amylase, lingual lipase, lysozyme, IgA, Mucin

components of saliva

vitamins

compounds that help regulate many vital body processes, including the digestion, absorption, and metabolism of other nutrients

lesser curvature

concave medial surface of the stomach

VLDL, LDL

considered "bad" cholesterol because they carry cholesterol to peripheral cells >can contribute to disease due to build up of plaque in arteries

feces

consist of water, inorganic salts, sloughed-off epithelial cells, bacteria, products of bacterial decomposition, and undigested portions of food

pulp cavity

contains blood vessels and nerves of the tooth

actin, myosin

contractile proteins

autonomic nervous system

controls glands and muscles of the digestive system (stimulate--sympathetic; suppress--parasympathetic)

Fructose, galactose

converted to glucose in the liver

greater curvature

convex lateral surface of the stomach

microvilli

create the "brush border" of the mucosa's absorptive cells (enterocytes); formed by extensions of the enterocyte's cytoplasm

circular folds

deep folds of the mucosa and submucosa that extend completely or partially around the circumference of the small intestine

eggs, dairy, organ meats

dietary sources of cholesterol

amino acids

digested proteins are broken down into ___________ ___________.

amylase, protease, lipase, nuclease

digestive enzymes produced by the pancreas

gastric juice

digestive secretions of the stomach glands consisting chiefly of hydrochloric acid and mucin and the enzymes pepsin and rennin and lipase

central vein

drains blood from sinusoids and out of liver

defecation

elimination of feces from the digestive tract through the anus (elimination only)

post absorptive state

energy needs are met by fuels already in the body; break down stored energy sources via glycogenolysis, lipolysis, protein catabolism, and gluconeogenesis

hepatic sinusoids

enlarged, leaky capillaries located between hepatic plates that allow blood to percolate from triads to central vein

lipases

enzymes that break down lipids

proteases

enzymes that continue the breakdown of polypeptides in the small intestine

gastric ulcers

erosion of the gastric mucosa

enteric pacemaker cells

establish the stomach's basic electrical rhythm of peristaltic waves; generate subthreshold depolarization waves

flavin mononucleotide, cytochromes, iron-sulfur centers, copper atoms, coenzyme Q

examples of electron carriers

ketoacidosis

excessive production of ketones, making the blood acidic

essential fatty acids

fats needed by the body that must be consumed in the diet because the human body cannot manufacture them

omentum

fatty sheet extension of the peritoneum attached to the stomach and connecting it with other abdominal organs

collagen, elastin, keratin

fibrous proteins

duodenum

first portion of the small intestine distal to the stomach

Gluconeogenesis

formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources

glycogenesis

formation of glycogen from glucose

glycogenesis

formation of glycogen from glucose (anabolic process)

Linoleic acid (omega-6 fatty acid)

found in vegetable and nut oils, and forms arachidonic acid

triglycerides

fuel skeletal muscle and hepatocytes

lobules

functional units of the liver; hexagonal in shape with hepatocyte plates radiating out

pharynx

funnel shaped tube that extends from the internal nares to the esophogas

reduction

gain of electrons

fasting

going without food for a period of time; typically a few hours to a few days

starvation

going without food or inadequate food intake for weeks or months

teeth

hard bony projections in the jaws for masticating (chewing) food

enamel

hard, outermost layer of a tooth

IgA

immunoglobulin A

proton pumps

important transport proteins that use energy from ATP to pump protons from the inner mitochondrial space to the outer mitochondrial space

water soluble vitamins

includes Vitamin C, Vitamin B-Complex

splanchnic circulation

includes those arteries that branch off the abdominal aorta to serve the digestive organs and the hepatic portal circulation

gingivitis

inflammation of gums as tartar disrupts seal between gingivae and teeth

Absorptive state

ingested nutrients are entering the bloodstream, and glucose is readily available for ATP production

gastric accommodation

intrinsic ability of smooth muscle to exhibit stress-relaxation response, which enables hollow organs to stretch without increasing tension or contractions

Polysaccharides

large macromolecules formed from monosaccharides (10+)

liver

largest gland in the body

1.5 m

length of large intestine

parotid salivary gland

lies under the skin covering the lateral and posterior surface of the mandible

very low density lipoproteins

lipoproteins that transport triglycerides and other lipids from the liver to various tissues in the body (adipose tissue)

hepatocytes

liver cells; produce bile, absorb and secrete nutrients like glucose, and secrete plasma proteins

segmentation

local constriction of the small intestine that mixes food with digestive juices

Ribosomes

location of protein synthesis

hepatocytes

location of synthesis of cholesterol

oxidation

loss of electrons

100,000 times

magnitude of acidity of gastric juices compared to blood

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

main energy source that cells use for most of their work; composed of a sugar ribose, nitrogenous base adenine, and a chain of three phosphate groups bonded to it.

fluid balance

maintenance of the proper types and amounts of fluid in each compartment of the body fluids

maltose

malt sugar; glucose + glucose

digestion

mechanical and chemical breakdown of food

mucous membrane (mucosa)

membrane that forms the linings of body cavities open to the exterior (digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts)

Jejunum

middle portion of small intestine where chemical digestion ends and absorption begins; about 8 feet in length

lactose

milk sugar; glucose + galactose

Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium

moderate amounts of these minerals are required in diet for body functions

GluT

molecule that transports glucose via facilitated diffusion in the cell membrane

simple carbohydrates

monosaccharides and disaccharides; found in sugars in fruits, honey, sugar beets, milk, & sugar cane

triglycerides

most abundant dietary fats

plants

most dietary carbohydrates come from what source?

haustral churning

movement of the chyme back and forth within the haustra in the large intestine, results in onward movement of contents

bicarbonate (HCO3)

mucus of stomach lining rich in this compound

pyloric canal

muscle that connects the stomach to the proximal duodenum

soft palate

muscular posterior (back) portion of the palate

myenteric plexus

nerve supply between the two layers of the muscularis externa; provides smooth, coordinated contraction for peristalsis

30-32 ATP, 6 CO2, 6 H2O

net products of all steps of cellular respiration from one molecule of glucose (excluding coenzymes)

submucosal plexus

neuronal network in submucosa that controls secretions of esophageal, stomach, and intestinal walls

2 ATP

number of ATP needed to facilitate glycolysis

4

number of complexes which remove electrons from coenzymes (NADH, FADH2)

20

number of deciduous teeth

4

number of lobes of the liver

32

number of permanent teeth

fermentation

occurs in the large intestine, and substances are further broken down by bacteria

complex carbohydrates

oligosaccharides and polysaccharides; found in grains, potatoes, and vegetables

liver, intestines

organs that produce lipoproteins

root (tooth)

part of the tooth below the gum line

small intestine, lymphatic vessel, hepatic portal vein, liver, vena cava, heart, systemic circulation

pathway of nutrients

25%

percent of cardiac output that infuses splanchnic circulation

peridontitis

periodontal ligament and bone are attacked by immune cells

cellulose

polysaccharide consisting of glucose monomers that reinforces plant-cell walls; insoluble in the digestive system

colon

portion of the large intestine consisting of the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid segments

haustra

pouches that form in the large intestine when the longitudinal muscles are shorter than the colon

1.5

pressure remains constant in stomach for the first __________ liters added to it

Lipogenesis

process of synthesizing lipids from glucose or amino acids; occurs when individuals consume more calories than needed; stored mostly as triacylgycerols

mucous neck cells

produce thin, acidic mucus to lubricate the food entering the stomach

2 CO2, 2 NADH, 2 acetyl CoA

products of pyruvate oxidation

mucosal barrier

protective barrier that prevents gastric juice from destroying the stomach itself

Electron carriers

proteins arranged in chains on the membrane to allow the transfer of electrons from one carrier to another.

enzymes

proteins that act as biological catalysts

adipose tissue

provides protective padding, insulation, and support

receptive relaxation

reflex-mediated relaxation of smooth muscle coordinated by swallowing center of brain stem

anal canal

region, containing two sphincters, through which feces are expelled from the body

lipid metabolism

regulates circulating levels of triglycerides, fatty acids, and cholesterol

neurons, RBCs

rely almost entirely upon glucose to supply their energy needs

neurons, red blood cells

rely exclusivly on glucose to meet their energy needs

negative nitrogen balance

results from excessive protein breakdown; ex. physical/emotional stress, starvation

pyloric sphincter

ring of muscle that guards the opening between the stomach and the duodenum

papillae

rough, bumpy elevations on dorsal surface of tongue, some of which contain taste buds.

fundus (stomach)

rounded upper portion of the stomach

sublingual gland

salivary gland under the tongue

parietal cells

secrete HCl and intrinsic factor

enteroendocrine cells

secrete hormones and paracrine messengers that regulate digestion

chief cells

secrete pepsinogen and lipases

Oligosaccharides

short chains of 3-10 monosaccharides

bile canaliculi

small ducts between hepatocytes that collect bile

epiloic (omental) appendages

small, fat filled pouches of visceral periotneum that hang from the surface of the large intestine

peritoneal cavity

space between the parietal and visceral peritoneum; contains serous fluid

anabolic reactions (synthesis)

synthesis of larger molecules from smaller ones

sucrose

table sugar; glucose + fructose

deglutition

the act of swallowing

Nitrogen balance

the amount of nitrogen consumed compared with the amount excreted in a given time period

oropharynx

the area directly posterior to the mouth

cellular respiration (aerobic respiration)

the breakdown of organic molecules within the cell when oxygen is present

cecum

the cavity in which the large intestine begins and into which the ileum opens

oral cavity (buccal cavity)

the cavity within the mouth

Chylomicrons

the class of lipoproteins that transport lipids from the intestinal cells to the rest of the body, especially adipose tissue

metabolism

the combination of chemical reactions through which an organism builds up or breaks down materials

pylorus

the distal narrow passage that connects the stomach with the small intestine

duodenum

the first part of the small intestine immediately beyond the stomach, leading to the jejunum; approximately 10" in length

rugae

the folds in the mucosa lining the stomach

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger. Used by cells to produce ATP.

visceral peritoneum

the inner layer of the peritoneum that surrounds the organs of the abdominal cavity

pharynx

the membrane-lined cavity behind the nose and mouth, connecting them to the esophagus.

transverse colon

the middle part of the large intestine, passing across the abdomen from right to left below the stomach.

parietal peritoneum

the outer layer of the peritoneum that lines the interior of the abdominal wall

anaerobic glycolysis

the overall process where pyruvic acid generated durring glycolysis is converted to lactic acid

mastication

the process of chewing

peristalsis

the process of wave-like muscle contractions of the alimentary tract that moves food along

ileocecal sphincter

the ring-like muscle that controls the flow from the ileum of the small intestine into the cecum of the large intestine

hepatic vein

the vein that collects blood from the liver and returns it to the heart

alimentary canal

the whole passage along which food passes through the body from mouth to anus. It includes the esophagus, stomach, and intestines.

teniae coli

three bands of longitudinal smooth muscle in muscularis of large intestine

mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa

tissue layers of alimentary canal

gingiva

tissue surrounding the teeth and covering the jaw (gums)

10

total number of reactions involved in glycolysis

8

total number of reactions involved in the citric acid (krebs or TCA) cycle?

iron, iodine

trace amounts of these are required in diet for body functions

transferases

transfer functional groups from one substrate to another

fatty acids

transported through small intestinal epithelial cells to lacteals of lymphatic system

amino acids, dipeptides, tripeptides

transported via diffusion to blood capillary from small intestine

glucose, galactose, fructose

transported via facilitated diffusion to blood capillary from small intestine

albumin, lipoproteins

transporter proteins

descending colon

travels down the left side of the abdominal cavity to the sigmoid colon

ascending colon

travels upward from the cecum to the undersurface of the liver

oxidation, phosphorylation

two processes involved in the ilectron transport chain

tight junctions

type of intercellular junction between mucosal cells of the stomach

calculus

unremoved dental plaque that has calcified

exercise, diet, certain drugs

used to reduce high cholesterol levels

nutrition

using nutrients for growth, synthesis, repair and energy

ileocecal valve

valve between the ileum of the small intestine and the cecum of the large intestine

coenzymes

vitamins that assist in the normal functioning of enzymes

Metabolic water

water generated as a result of oxidative phosphorylation

capture energy, ATP

what is the function of the electron transport chain? In what form is this acheived?

positive nitrogen balance

when protein intake and/or synthesis is higher than protein breakdown; ex. after tissue injury, pregnancy, childhood, illness

neck (tooth)

where the crown and root meet

root canal

where the pulp cavity extends into the root; provides a route for blood vessels, nerves, and other pulp structures to enter the pulp cavity of the tooth