A&P Ch.1
What is an Endergonic Reaction?
A reaction that requires input of energy from another source. Products contain more energy than reactants
What are the two parts to a Chemical equation?
Reactants (starting ingredients) and Products (results of chemical reaction)
What is the specialized cellular structure that detects the stimulus.
Receptor (sensor)
What is the source of electrolytes?
Salt
What are the 3 states in which matter can exist?
Solid, liquid and gas
What is an Effector?
Something that has an effect on the original stimulus
What are globular proteins? What are they composed of?
Spherical or globe-like; Function as enzymes, hormones and other cell messengers. Composed mostly of Polar amino acids
What is the Mass Number?
The sum of all the protons and neutrons found in the atomic nucleus
Negative feedback loops ________ initial change in a regulated variable; ________ output
oppose/inhibit ; reduce
What does the Octet Rule state?
An atom is most stable when it has 8 electrons in its outer shell
What are Carbohydrates composed of?
Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. Function primarily as fuel in the body. Has limited structural roles
Wrist
Carpal
What is Hydrolysis?
Catabolic reaction that uses water to break up polymers into smaller subunits
What is required to coordinate body functions?
Cell-to-Cell Communication
Head
Cephalic
Neck
Cervical
An attractive force between atoms that has an energy relationship
Chemical bond
What is a buffer?
Chemical system that resists changes in pH. Prevents large swings in pH when an acid or base is added
What 3 forms of energy are found in the human body?
Chemical, Electrical and Mechanical
What can a Metabolic Process yield?
Chemicals called waste products. (They serve no purpose and can become toxic if accumulated).
A concentration difference between two connected regions is called?
Concentration Gradient
Organic compounds Give examples.
Contain Carbon bonded to hydrogen Ex: Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
What is an Electrolyte? What is it capable of?
Contain ions. Capable of conduction an electrical current
What is a Solution? Give an Example
Contains a solute dissolved in a solvent; will not settle out. Light can get through. Ex: Salt Water, Sugar Water
What controls the Effector?
Control Center
Where is the stimulus sent to determine that the variable is outside out its set point?
Control Center (usually cells of nervous or endocrine system)
What is the strongest bond that can be formed?
Covalent Bonds
Hipbone
Coxal
Leg
Crural
Cellular Level
Groups of several different types of molecules are combined in specific ways to form structures.
What is the sum of all chemical reaction in your body?
Metabolism
Long bones of the hand
Metacarpals
Long bones of the foot
Metatarsals
What is a Cell?
The basic unit of life and the smallest unit capable of carrying out the functions of life. All living organisms are composed of cells.
What is Energy?
The capacity to do work or put matter into motion or fuel chemical reactions
What is the smallest level of organization in the human body?
The chemical level
Anatomy
The study of the structure/form of the human body.
When does growth occur?
When the "building" process outweighs the "breaking down" process?
True or False: Disaccharides can be absorbed.
False
What do we use as Primary Fuel?
Chemical Energy
What are Tripeptides?
3 amino acids
Armpit
Auxiliary
What are changes in the environment called?
Stimuli
What are the two types of Metabolic Processes?
1. Building: Smaller chemicals are combined Ex: Building Muscle 2. Breaking down: Larger chemicals are broken down. Ex: Digestion
The pH scale ranges from?
0 to 14
In what 3 situations do Non-polar molecules occur?
1) Atoms sharing electrons are the same element 2) Arrangement of atoms makes one atom pull more strongly than other atom Ex: CO2 3) Bond is between Carbon and Hydrogen
What Factors influence reaction rate?
1) Concentration, 2) Temperature 3) Partical size and shape 4) Catalyst
What are the four main properties of Water?
1) High-heat capacity- Can absorb heat without raising it's temperature 2) High heat of Vaporization- Carries heat with it when it evaporates 3) Cushions and protects body structures because of relatively high density 4) Acts as a Lubricant between two adjacent surfaces
What are 2 characteristics of Monosaturated fatty acids? Give an example
1) Liquid at room temp. 2) Have 1 double bond between two carbons in the hydrocarbon chain E: Olive oil
What are 2 characteristics of Polyunsaturated fatty acids?
1) Liquid at room temp. 2)Have 2 or more separate double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon chain
What are the four misconceptions about Homeostasis?
1) Negative feedback is bad for the body; positive feedback is good 2) Maintaining homeostasis means body's internal environment is static or unchanging 3) Regulatory mechanisms and feedback loops are either "on" or "off", like a switch 4)Any physiological variable can be controlled
What are 2 characteristics of Saturated fatty acids? Give an example
1) Solid at room temp. 2) Carbon atom with no double bonds Ex: Butter
What are the 4 main properties of enzymes?
1) Speed up reaction by lowering Activation energy 2) Highly specific for individual substrates 3) Do not alter the reactants or products 4) Not permanently altered in reactions catalyzed
What are the properties common to all living organisms?
1. Cellular Composition, 2. Metabolism, 3. Growth, 4. Excretion, 5. Responsiveness, 6. Movement, 7. Reproduction
Reproduction takes what two forms in multicellular organisms?
1. Individual cells reproduce in the organism during growth 2. The organism itself reproduces to yield similar offspring.
What are two types of Movement?
1. Motion of one or more cells within the organism 2. Movement of the organism itself.
What two types of growth can occur?
1. The growth of an individual cell 2. An increase in the number of cells
What are Polypeptides?
10 or more amino acids
What is a Tertiary Structure?
3D shape that peptide chain assumes (twists, folds + coils) including secondary structure. Stabilized by H. bond
What is the pH of Blood? What is it inside cells?
7.35-7.45. 7.2 Inside cells
What is an Ion? Give an Example.
A Charged Atom Ex: Salt (Sodium + Chlorine)
What is a polypeptide?
A chain of amino acids
What is Metabolism?
A collection of chemical processes carried out by living organisms.
What are Lipids? Give 2 examples.
A group of Non-polar hydrophobic molecules composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen. Ex: Fats and Oils
What is Suspension? Give an example.
A mixture that contains 2 or more components with large unevenly distributed particles. The particles are so heavy that they cannot stay afloat in the mixture; will settle out. Ex: Blood
What is a Colloid? Give an example.
A mixture that contains 2 or more components with small, evenly distributed particles; will not settle out. Cant't see through this type of solution Ex: Milk, Plasma
What is an anion? When is it formed?
A negatively charged ion. When a nonmetal gains one or more electrons.
What is a cation? When is it formed?
A positively charged ion. When a metal loses one or more electrons
What is Transcription?
A process in which RNA copies the recipe for a specific protein found in a gene on DNA
What is Translation?
A process in which cellular ribosomes create proteins. In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA)—produced by transcription from DNA—is decoded by a ribosome to produce a specific amino acid chain, or polypeptide.
What is a base?
A proton acceptor; number of H+ ions decrease in H20 when a bases is added
What is an acid?
A proton donor; number of H+ ions increase in H20 when acid is added.
What is an Exergonic Reaction?
A reaction that releases excess energy. Products have less energy than reactions
What is a Catalyst?
A substance that increases reaction rate by lowering activation energy. It does not get consumed it just facilities the reaction. Catalyst can be used over and over
The production of large quantities of ATP requires what?
ATP
What is used exactly by the cell for energy?
ATP
What is the energy required for all chemical reaction called?
Activation Energy
What synthesizes ATP?
Adenosine and a diphosphate
What is a Primary Structure?
Amino Acid sequence of polypeptide chain
What is Atomic Weight?
An Average of Mass Numbers
What does the Duet Rule state? When does this rule apply?
An atom is most stable when its valence electron shell holds 2 electrons. When an atom has 5 or fewer electrons
What is an Isotope?
An atom with the same atomic number but different mass number.
What can't be broken down into a simpler substance by chemical means?
An element
What does an Ionic bond result in the formation of?
An ion: cation and anions
What is Dehydration Synthesis?
Anabolic reaction that links monomers together and makes a molecule of H20
Forearm
Antebrachial
Front of Elbow
Antecubital
Salt
Any metal cation and nonmetal anion held together by ionic bonds. Salt can dissolve in water to form cation anions.
What is a Mixture?
Atoms of 2 or more elements physically intermixed without changing the chemical nature of the atom itself. Combining 2 substances
What is it called when something exists more in one area than another?
Gradient
If something dissociated into a hydroxyl ion its a _______.
Base
What is Induced-fit mechanism?
Binding of a substrate causes a small shape change that reduces activation energy. Allows transition state to proceed to final products
Upper Arm
Brachial
Cheek
Buccal
Polar molecules with partially positive and negative ends are known as __________.
Dipoles
What can disturbances in homeostasis lead to if they are uncorrected?
Disease or death
What are polysaccharides covalently bound to either proteins or lipids called?
Glycoproteins or gylcolipids
What are the physiological responses that return the variable back to a normal range called?
Effectors
What is it called when protons attract electrons?
Electronegativity
Are Anabolic Reactions considered Endergonic or Exergonic
Endergonic
What is Mechanical Energy? Give an example
Energy directly transferred from one object to another. 1 object pushing or pulling another. Ex: Using your arms to row a boat
Are Catabolic Reactions considered Endergonic or Exergonic?
Exergonic
Are Redox Reactions considered Endergonic or Exergonic?
Exergonic
True or False: Atoms can only have 3 shells
False
True or False: Positive feedback loops are more common than negative feedback loops.
False
What is the monomer for Lipids?
Fatty acids
Thigh
Femoral
Digital
Fingers or toes
Pollex
First digit of the Forelimb (Thumb)
What is the most electronegative element?
Flourine (F)
What is a Molecule?
Formed by chemical bonding between 2 or more atoms of the same element
What is a Compound?
Formed by chemical bonding when 2 ore more atoms of different elements combine
On a periodic table how does an elements electronegativity increase?
From bottom left to the upper right
Skull
Frontal or Cranial
Inorganic compounds Give examples.
Generally don't contain carbons bonded to hydrogen Ex: Water, Acids, Bases, and Salts
How is Electrical Energy Generated? Give an example.
Generated by Movement of charged particles or ions Ex: Nerve/Muscle Impulses
What are 4 examples of Monosaccharides?
Glucose, Fructose, Galactose, Ribose and Deoxyribose
What are phopholipids composed of?
Glycerol backbone, two fatty acids tails, one phosphate group "head"
CO2 and H20 react and form what?
H2CO3
Big toe
Hallux
What is the maintenance of the internal environment called?
Homeostasis
What are the four major elements that make up 96% of the human body?
Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, Nitrogen
What type of solutes do not dissolve in water?
Hydrophilic
Where is Chemical Energy found?
In bonds between atoms. Drives nearly all the chemical processes
What roles do protein play a part in?
Involved in movement, function as enzymes, play structural roles, function in the body's defenses, and can be used as fuel
What is a Catabolic Reaction?
Large Molecules are broken down into smaller ones
What is a Quaternary Structure?
Links together more than 1 polypeptide chain in a specific arrangement; critical to function of protein as a whole. Held together by H. bond
What are fibrous proteins? What are they composed of?
Long rope-like strands that link things together & add strength and durability. Composed mostly of Non-polar amino acids
Chin
Mental
What control Responsiveness?
Nervous System
Give and example of Cell-to-Cell communication.
Nervous system communication with cells
What is the range of values in a feedback loop called?
Normal range
Atomic Number
Number of protons in the nucleus
Eye or Vision
Ocular
What are Proteins composed of?
One or more polypeptide chains folded into distinct structures that must be maintained to be functional.
What is a Secondary Structure? What holds it together? Give two examples.
One or more segments of primary structure folded in specific ways. Held together by hydrogen bonds. Ex: Alpha helix: coiled spring and Beta-pleated sheet: Venetian blind
Mouth
Oral
Eye
Orbital
Ear
Otic
Polar Covalent Bonds are ____________ charged.
Partially
Kneecap
Patella
Amino acids are linked by what into polypeptides?
Peptide bonds
Back of the knee
Popliteal
What is Kinetic Energy? Give an example.
Potential energy that has been release or set in motion. Ex: Ball rolling down a hill
Pressure differences between two connected regions is called?
Pressure Gradient
Water is considered the body's ________ ________.
Primary Solvent
What is protein denaturation?
Process of destroying a protein's shape by heat, pH changes or exposure to chemicals
What defines an element?
The atomic number
What types of physiological processes do Gradients drive?
Respiration, nutrient exchange, formation of urine
What is Responsiveness?
Sensing and reacting to changes in the environment.
What is the normal value called in a feedback loop?
Set point
Acromial
Shoulder Blade
What happens in a positive feedback loop when conditions return to the normal range?
Shuts off
What is an Anabolic Reaction? Give an example.
Small molecules join to make larger ones Ex: Building Muscle
What is the information that detects when a regulated variable is outside its normal range?
Stimulus
What is Potential Energy? Can it be released? Give an example.
Stored Energy. Yes to do work at some later time. Ex: Ball on top of a hill
What is a Solvent?
Substance that dissolved the solute (larger) Ex: Water
What is a Solute?
Substance that gets dissolved (smaller) Ex: Salt
What key property of water are hydrogen bonds responsible for?
Surface tension
Ankle
Tarsal
A temperature difference between two connected regions is called?
Temperature Gradient
What side of the equation are the products on?
The left side
What is Excretion?
The process in which waste products are removed from the body.
What side of the equation are the reactants on?
The right side
What is an Atom? What charge does it have?
The smallest unit of matter that retains original properties. Neutral charge
What is a Triglyceride? Give example.
The storage polymer for fatty acids Ex: Fat, Adipose
What is Glycogen?
The storage polymer for glucose found mostly in skeletal muscle and liver cells
Physiology
The study of the body's function.
How do humans and animals perceive stimuli?
Through their senses such as: Sight, Pain, Touch, Hearing and Smell.
What two sizes do chemicals range from?
Tiny atoms to complex structures called molecules (composed of atoms ranging from 2 to 2 million).
True of False: Form follows function
True
True or False: All atoms have kinetic energy.
True
True or False: Chemical, Electrical, and Mechanical energy can be kinetic or potential depending on the location or process.
True
True or False: Every system requires good communication?
True
True or False: Homeostasis is independent to what goes on outside the body.
True
True or False: Lack of communication can lead to disease.
True
True or False: Negative feedback loops end or close once the variable has returned to normal.
True
True or False: The Valence shell is the only shell involved in chemical reactions.
True
True or False: The set point is usually a range of values.
True
What are Dipeptides?
Two amnio acids
What are Radioisotopes?
Unstable Isotopes that have high energy or radiation
What determines how an atom interacts with other atoms and whether it will form bonds with a specific atom?
Valence electrons
What are Macromolecules?
Very large molecules composed of many atoms
Covers the surface of the lungs?
Visceral Pleura
What are Hydrogen Bonds? Give and example.
Weak attractions between the partially positive end of one dipole and the partially negative end of another dipole. Ex: Water molecule bonded to another water molecule
If you are healthy you are considered what?
Well-balanced
What is radioactive decay?
When a Radioisotope releases high energy or radiation in order to become more stable
When does a Chemical reaction occur?
When a chemical bond is formed, broken, or rearranged, or when electrons are transferred between two or more atoms
What is a Redox reaction?
When electrons and energy are exchanged instead of atoms. The reactant that loses electrons is oxidized while the reactant that gains electrons is reduced
When is an Ionic bond formed?
When electrons are transferred from a metal to a nonmetal.
When is a Polar Covalent bond formed? Give an example.
When nonmetals with different electronegativities interact, resulting in an unequal sharing of electrons. Ex: Oxygen and Hydrogen
What is an Exchange Reaction?
When one or more atoms from reactants are exchanged for one another
When is a Non polar Covalent bond formed?
When two nonmetals in a molecule with similar or identical electronegativities pull with the same force and share the electrons equally.
When are Peptides formed?
When two or more amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds through dehydration synthesis
When is a Covalent bond formed?
When two or more nonmetals share electrons between themselves to complete their outer shell.
When are Chemical bonds formed?
When valence electrons in the valence shell of atoms interact
In positive feedback loops; the effector activity _________ and __________ initial stimulus.
increases; reinforces