a&p semester 1 (ch 1-16)

steps of saltatory conduction

1. Na+ enters axon at a node and diffuses for a short distance along the inner membrane 2. the leaking of Na+ out of the axon and the resistance from the axoplasm weakens the positive charge signal with distance 3. depolarization of membrane at next node opens Na+ channels, triggering new action potential

process of continuous conduction

1. action potential occurs @ trigger zone 2. Na+ enters axon and diffuses across plasma membrane, depolarizing the membrane 3. depolarization excites voltage-gated channels immediately distal to the action potential 4. Na+ and K+ channels open and close just as in step (2) 5. new action potential produced...continues along the axon == CHAIN REACTION

anatomical subdivisions of nervous system

1. central nervous system 2. peripheral nervous system

name the four major regions and two enlargements of the spinal cord.

1. cervical 2. thoracic 3. lumbar 4. sacral 1. cervical enlargement 2. lumbar enlargement

functions of the spinal cord

1. conduction 2. locomotion 3. reflexes

process of action potential

1. depolarization of membrane to produce rising local potential 2. threshold reached (-55mV) and voltage-gated ion channels open 3. neuron produces action potential by opening voltage-gated Na+ channels quickly and K+ channels slower 4. a positive feedback loop of depolarization via Na+ influx into the cell causes membrane voltage to rise even more rapidly 5. as rising potential passes 0 mV, Na+ channels begin closing and voltage peaks at about +35 mV = membrane is now positive on the inside and negative on the outside (opposite of RMP) 6. slow K+ channels are fully open, flowing out of the cell and thus repolarizing the membrane (back to negative #s) 7. more K+ leaves cell than Na+ enters --> negative overshoot produces hyperpolarization

what factors contribute to resting membrane potential?

1. diffusion of ions down their concentration gradients through the membrane 2. selective permeability of the membrane, allowing some ions to pass more easily than others 3. electrical attraction of cations and anions

nucleotides

1. nitrogenous base (single or double carbon-nitrogen ring) 2. sugar (monosaccharide) 3. one or more phosphate groups Ex.: ATP

three components of a negative feedback loop

1. receptor to direct change 2. integrator to understand change and decide what to do 3. effector to create the opposite change

properties of reflexes

1. require stimulation - not spontaneous actions like muscle tics but responses to sensory input 2. quick - involve only a few interneurons 3. involuntary - occur without intent 4. stereotyped - occur in the same way every time, predictable response

how does myelin speed up signal conduction?

1. seals nerve fiber and increases resistance to Na+ leakage out of the axon 2. greater separation between the ICF and ECF = less attraction between anions and cations of the ICF and ECF = faster movement of Na+

what does spinal cord ability to conduct allow it to do?

1. sensory info to reach the brain 2. motor commands to reach the effectors 3. input received at one level of the cord to affect output from another level

steps of the nervous system

1. sensory input 2. integration 3. motor output

steps of hearing

1. sound waves enter external auditory meatus 2. tympanic membrane vibrates 3. auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) amplify vibrations 4. stapes hits oval window and transmits vibrations to cochlea 5. organs of corti contain receptor cells (hair cells) that deform from vibrations 6. impulses sent to the vestibulocochlear nerve 7. auditory cortex of the temporal lobe interprets sensory impulses 8. round window dissipates vibrations within the cochlea

why is the term spinal reflexes not accurate for somatic reflexes?

1. spinal reflexes are not exclusively somatic -- visceral reflexes also involve the spinal cord 2. some somatic reflexes are mediated more by the brain than spinal cord

4 bursa associated with the shoulder joint

1. subdeltoid 2. subacrimonial 3. subcoracoid 4. subscapular

Ratio of muscles to nerves in gastrocnemius

1000:1 for more strength

how many facial bones are there?

14

Steroids

17 carbon atoms in 4 rings

Multiunit Smooth Muscle

1:1, terminal branches of nerve fibres synapse with individual myocytes to form a motor unit (like a skeletal muscle motor unit), each motor unit contracts independently (ex. large arteries and respiratory passages)

Myokinase

2 ADP -> 1 ATP + 1 AMP (transfer of one P1)

what are the 14 facial bones?

2 maxillae, 2 palatine bones, 2 zygomatic bones, 2 lacrimal bones, 2 nasal bones, 2 inferior nasal conchae, 1 vomer, 1 mandible

sister chromatids

2 parallel filaments which make up chromosomes

Other Factors

20 or more hormones, vitamins & growth factors not well understood

Cholesterol

200g in avg adult body -85% endogenous -15% dietary -synthesized only by animal cells

how many bones are in the typical adult body? child?

206, 270

how fast do nerve signals travel via continuous conduction?

2m/sec

how many conchae are in the nasal cavity

3

SEM: Scanning electron microscope

3 D images at high magnification and resolution only view surface features

5 ligaments that support the humeroscapular joint

3 glenohumeral ligaments (relatively weak), Coracohumeral ligament- extends from coracoid process to greater tubercle Transverse humeral ligament- extends from greater to lesser tubercle and forms a tunnel through which a biceps tendon passes

stratum granulosum

3-5 layers of keratinocytes that contain coarse, dark-staining granules

how many nerves in the spinal cord

31 pairs

the vertebral column is a flexible chain of how many vertebrae with _______

33, intervertebral discs

Ratio of muscles to nerves in eye

3:1 for better control

fatty acids

A Chain of 4 to 24 carbon atoms, with a carboxyl (acid) group on one end, a methyl group on the other. H is bonded along the sides 4 types (SUPE): - Saturated - carbon atoms saturated with hydrogen (palmatic acid and stearic acid) - Unsaturated - contains C=C bonds without hydrogen (linoleic acid) - Polyunsaturated - contains many C=C bonds - Essential fatty acids - obtained from diet, body can not synthesize

glycolipids

A carb that coats the external surface of cell membrane

Conjugated carbohydrate

A carb that is covalently bound to a lipid or protein

Ligand-gated ion channels open when

A chemical messenger binds (acetylcholine)

Second Messengers

A chemical that is produced within a cell (such as cAMP) or that enters a cell (such as calcium ions) in response to the binding of a messenger to a membrane receptor, and that triggers a metabolic reaction in the cell

Axons of the motor neurons travel to the muscle. There are 200x branches on average. Each branch leads to

A different muscle fibre

Somatic Motor Pathway

A motor neuron from the brainstem or spinal cord issues a myelinated axon that reaches all the way to a skeletal muscle.

I-bands (light) are composed of

A portion of thin filament, adjacent to the Z disc

Endochondral Ossification

A process by which a bone develops from a pre-existing model composed of hyaline cartilage. Begins at the 6th week of fetal development and continues into the early 20's.

This is an extension of the sarcolemma, it stimulates the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

A transverse tubule

colloids

A type of with-water mixture besides a solution defined by the following physical properties: - particles too large to pass through semipermeable membrane - range: 1 - 100 nm - scatter light and are usually cloudy - particles remain permanently mixed with the solvent when mixture stands Most common colloids in the body are mixtures of protein and water.

Suspension

A type of with-water mixture besides a solution defined by the following physical properties: - particles too large to penetrate selectively permeable membranes - in excess of 100nm - cloudy or opaque in appearance - separates on standing

Acetylcholine (ACh)

ACh is secreted by the preganglionic fibers in both divisions and the postganglionic fibers of the parasympathetic division -called cholinergic fibers -any receptor that binds it is called cholinergic receptor NOTE: A few sympathetic postganglionics also secrete ACh - those that innervate sweat glands and some blood vessels.

The immediate source of energy for muscle

ATP

ATP

ATP consumed within 60 seconds of formation entire amount of ATP in the body would support live for lessthan 1 minute if it were not continually replenished cyanide halts ATP synthesis

start codon

AUG starts synthesizing protein

Calcitriol (Activated Vitamin D)

Abnormal softness of the bones is called rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults

A chemical neurotransmitter in muscles

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Second step of muscle excitation by nerve

Acetylcholine is released

What enzyme is released to break down Acetylcholine and stop the stimulation of a muscle fibre.

Acetylcholinesterase

When ACh is released, it travels

Across the synaptic cleft

Two contractile proteins that overlap creating striations.

Actin and myosin

Thin filaments are beads of

Actin strands

First step of excitation-contraction coupling

Action potentials propagated

Actin strands have these for myosin attachment

Active sites

Sympathetic Division

Adapts the body in many ways for physical activity - exercise, trauma, arousal, competition, anger, or fear -it increases alertness, heart rate, blood pressure, pulmonary airflow, blood glucose concentration, and blood flow to cardiac and skeletal muscle. But at the same time, it reduces blood flow to the skin and digestive tract. NOTE: 'Fight-or-Flight' reaction.

Phosphorylation

Addition of free phosphate group (as released by ATP hydrolysis) to another molecule. - Carried out by enzymes called kinases (phosphokinases)

In the absence of oxygen, glucose is degraded in

Aerobic fermentation to produce a little ATP and lactic acid (glycolysis (2 ATP) -> 2 pyruvic acid + NADH -> 2 lactic acid + 2 NAD)

In the presence of oxygen, fatty acids and glucose are degraded in

Aerobic respiration to produce lots of ATP

State of hydration of muscle

Affects overlap between thick and thin filaments and ability of myosin to form cross bridges with thin filament

Breaking cross-bridges ATP and ATP is no longer produced

After death

metabolism

All the chemical reactions of the body. [2 types: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism and Anabolism are inextricably linked.]

Selectively Permeable

Allows some things to cross but not others; i.e. the plasma membrane

No length-tension limitations like skeletal muscle

Allows stomach to fill (greatly stretch) and then have the force to expel contents into intestine.

A quick up and down voltage shift creates

An action potential (AP)

Long Term Energy

Anaerobic energy needed for prolonged exercise. After 40 seconds of exercise, respiratory and cardiovascular systems must deliver oxygen for electron transport chain. Oxygen consumption rate increases for the first 3-4 minutes and then levels off to a steady state.

ankle ligaments

Anterior and posterior tibiofibular ligaments anchor tibia and fibular Deltoid ligament anchors tibia to foot (calcaneus, talus, and navicular) on medial side Lateral collateral ligament that anchors fibular to lateral side of the foot

Cholinergic Receptor

Any receptor that binds a cholinergic fibers. NOTE: There are 2 categories of cholinergic receptors, the muscarinic and the nicotinic receptors.

Pelvic Splanchnic Nerves

Are formed from the remaining parasympathetic fibers that arise from levels S2 to S4 of the spinal cord; they travel a short distance in the anterior rami of the spinal nerves before forming the pelvic splanchnic nerves.

Carotid Plexus

Are the nerves of the sympathetic nerve route that form together around each carotid artery of the neck and issue fibers from there to effectors in the head.

Pelvic Nerves

Are the parasympathetic fibers that do not synapse in the inferior hypogastric plexus, they pass through it and travel by way of the pelvic nerve to the terminal ganglia in their target organs: the distal half of the colon, the rectum, urinary bladder, and reproductive organs.

Adrenergic Receptors

Are the receptors for the adrenergic fibers.

First step of muscle excitation by nerve

Arrival of nerve signal

The neuromuscular junction is located

At the synaptic knob

How is an ion formed (ionization)

Atoms want 8 valence electrons. Elements with 1-3 valence electrons tend to give them up, and those with 4-7 electrons tend to gain more. If an atom of the first kind is exposed to the second, atoms may transfer from one to the other, turning both of them into ions.

Sympathetic Chain (Paravertebral Ganglia)

Axons exit by way of spinal nerves T1 to L2 and lead to the nearby sympathetic chain of ganglia. This longitudinal series of ganglia that lie adjacent to both sides of the vertebral column from the cervical to the coccygeal level. NOTE: They are interconnected by longitudinal nerve cords.

Sodium-Potassium Pump (4 functions)

Basal part of cell, constantly removes Na from cell 3 Na out of cell, 2 K in the cell keeps potential (-70mv) across membrane. 1. Regulation of cell volume- anion (proteins and phosphates) attract and retain cations retntion of these would cause swelling. so cellular swelling increase Na Ka ATP pump, feedback loop reduces intracellular ion concentration, controls osmolarity, and prevents cellular swelling. 2. Secondary Active Transport maintains steep Na concentration gradient across the membrane 3. Heat Production-Thyroid stimulates synthesis of Na K Pumps consuming ATP releases heat. 4. Maintenance of a membrane potential- resting membrane potential, inside negative outside positive.

Secondary Ossification Center

Begin to form in the epiphyses near time of birth Same stages occur as in primary ossification center result is center of epiphyseal cartilage being transformed into spongy bone Hyaline cartilage remains on joint surface as articular cartilage and at junction of diaphysis & epiphysis (epiphyseal plate) each side of epiphyseal plate has a metaphysis

Third step of muscle excitation by nerve

Binding of acetylcholine to receptor

Third step of excitation-contraction coupling

Binding of calcium to troponin

Forth step of contraction

Binding of new ATP; breaking of cross-bridge

Healing of fractures notes

Blood vessels are broken at the fracture site. Blood clots. Blood vessels grow into the clot and a soft callus of fibrocartilage forms. Mineral deposition hardens the soft callus and converts it to a hard callus of spongy bone. Osteoclasts remove excess tissue from the had callus and the bone eventually resembles its original appearance.

Structure of a Flat Bone

Blow to the skull may fracture outer layer and crush diploe, but not harm inner compact bone.

Puberty Bone Growth

Bone growth especially rapid at puberty hormones stimulate proliferation of osteogenic cells and chondrocytes in growth plate adolescent girls grow faster than boys & reach their full height earlier (estrogen has stronger effect) males grow for a longer time

Bone and Bone Tissue

Bone/osseous tissue - connective tissue with a matrix hardened by minerals (calcium Phosphate)

ATP Synthesis: Immediate Energy (10s) = Phosphagen System

Borrowing P1 and transferring them to ADP. Supply ATP for short burst of intense activity. Two enzyme systems are responsible (myokinase and creatine kinase).

how is myelin produced? how does myelin production in the CNS differ from that in the PNS?

CNS myelin is produced by special cells called oligodendrocytes PNS myelin is produced by Schwann cells the two types of myelin are chemically different, but they both perform the same function to promote efficient transmission of a nerve impulse along the axon

Calcitriol (Activated Vitamin D)

Calcitriol behaves as a hormone (blood-borne messenger) Calcitrol is a form of Vit. D. produced by the sequential action of the skin, liver and kidneys. It is called a vitamin as it is added to the diet in fortified milk for people who do not get enough sunlight to initiate Vit. D. synthesis in the skin.

Smooth muscle contraction is the different from skeletal muscle

Calcium (comes from extracellular fluid through calcium channels, not SR like in skeletal muscle; binds to calmodulin, not troponin like in skeletal muscle) Myofilaments (actin myofilaments are anchored to dense bodies in the sarcoplasm and on the sarcolemma, not to the Z-discs)

During rigor mortis, deteriorating sarcoplasmic reticulum releases

Calcium into the cytosol

Functions of Calcium

Calcium is needed for communication between neurons, muscle contraction, blood clotting & exocytosis 99% of calcium is in the bones. Calcium and phospate is also found in the blood

Ion Imbalances

Calcium phosphate homeostasis depends on calcitriol, calcitonin & Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Second step of excitation-contraction coupling

Calcium released from terminal cisternae

Clinical Application: Calcium Channel Blockers

Calcium- normal function to contract smooth muscle, ex arteries...vasoconstriction High blood pressure- treatment block these calcium channels so that there is more vasodilation, therefore lowering blood pressure

reversible reactions

Can go in either direction under different circumstances symbolized with double-headed arrow Most common equation discussed in this book is: CO2 + H2O <> H2CO3 (Carbonic acid) <> HCO3- (Bicarbonate ion) + H+

metabolic pathways

Chain of reactions, with each step usually catalyzed by a different enzyme A B C D A is initial reactant, B+C are intermediates and D is the end product Regulation of metabolic pathways activation or deactivation of the enzymes cells can turn on or off pathways when end products are needed and shut them down when the end products are not needed

Ion Imbalances

Changes in phosphate concentration have little effect Changes in calcium can be serious hypocalcemia is deficiency of blood calcium causes excessive excitability of nervous system leading tomuscle spasms, tremors or tetany hypercalcemia excessive calcium binding to cell surface makes sodium channels less likely to open, depressing nervous system

Stimulation of Smooth Muscle due to

Chemical stimuli (CO2, hormones, pH), autonomic nervous system (different neurotransmitters may cause relaxation or contraction; depends on type of receptor present), stretch, presence of pacemaker cells (single unit smooth muscle in intestines and stomach have pacemaker cells that spontaneously depolarize and set off waves of contraction -> autorhythmic)

Endochondral Ossification

Chondrocytes at the primary ossification center die and blood vessels penetrate the bony collar and invade. The primary ossification center then becomes the primary marrow cavity as various stem cells and blood fills the central cavity.

12 trace elements of human body (.7%)

Chromium, Cobalt, Copper, Fluorine, Iodine, Manganese, Molybdenum, Selenium, Silicon, Tin, Vanadium, Zinc

Treatment of Fractures

Closed reduction, open reduction internal fixation (ORIF), traction, eletrical stimulation, orthopedics

~glycocalyx: definition

Coats the surface of a cell and serves as ID tag Composition: carbohydrate moieties of membrane glycolipids and glycoproteins

Histology of Compact Bone

Collagen fibers corkscrew down the matrix of a given lamella in a helical arrrangement like the threads of a screw. They alternate between right and left handed helices from lamella to lamella. This enhances the strength of bone. The perforating canals or volkmann canals cross the matrix and feed into the central canals. The innermost osteocytes around each central canal receive nutrients from these blood vessels. They also receive waste from their neighbors and convey them to the central canal for removal by the bloodstream.

Matrix of Osseous Tissue

Combination provides for strength & resilience minerals resist compression; collagen resists tension bone adapts to tension and compression by varying proportions of minerals and collagen fibers

Why are there no striations on smooth muscle?

Contractile proteins are not lined up perfectly

External tension develops as muscle shortens

Contraction

The shortening of muscle fibre

Contraction

After ACh reaches the ACh receptors in the sarcolemma, muscle

Contracts

Smooth muscle is unlike skeletal muscle which

Contracts only in response to nervous stimulation

cAMP

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate nucleotide formed by removal of both second and third phosphate groups from ATP formation triggered by hormone binding to cell surface cAMP becomes "second messenger" within cell activates metabolic effects inside cell

Mineral Resorption Braces

Dental braces reposition teeth, creating greater pressure on the bone on one side of the tooth and less on the other side increased pressure stimulates osteoclasts; decreased pressure stimulates osteoblasts to remodel jaw bone

Limits to endurance are set by

Depletion of glycogen and blood glucose, loss of fluid and electrolytes.

Matrix of Osseous Tissue

Dry weight is 1/3 organic & 2/3 inorganic matter.

This protein links actin to the cell membrane (endomysium)

Dystrophin

Estrogen Replacement Theories

ERT slows bone resorption, but best treatment is prevention -- exercise & calcium intake (1000 mg/day) between ages 25 and 40 Therapies to stimulate bone deposition are still under investigation

The *endomysium* surrounds

Each muscle fibre (muscle cell)

Tension while lengthening

Eccentric

These are made of titin

Elastic filaments

Electrical Stimulation

Electrical stimulation is used on fractures that take longer than 2 months to heal

Importance of electrolytes

Electrolytes are important for their chemical, physical, and electrical effects on the body. electrical effects determine nerve, heart, and muscle actions

The *epimysium*

Encloses the entire muscle.

Endosteum

Endosteum is the internal surface of the bone, while the periosteum is the external surface covering of the bone.

General Features of Bones

Enlarged ends (epiphyses) are spongy bone covered with a layer of compact bone enlarged to strengthen joint & provide for attachment of tendons and ligaments

General Features of Bones

Epiphyseal plate or line depends on age.

Epiphyseal plate:

Epiphyseal plate: in children and adolescents and epiphyseal plate of hyaline cartilage separates the marrow spaces of the epiphysis and diaphysis. The epiphyseal plate is a zone where the bones elongate by a growth process. There are no ephiphyseal plates in adults.

Physiology of Osseous Tissue

Even after a bone is fully formed, it remains a metabolically active organ with many rolls to play including its own maintenance, growth, and remodeling. It also exchanges minerals with the tissue fluid and helps to maintain calcium homeostasis.

Nerve action potentials lead to action potentials in muscle fibre

Excitation

Four actions of muscle fibre movement:

Excitation, Excitation-contraction coupling, Contraction, Relaxation

Action potentials on the sarcolemma activate

Excitation-contraction coupling

Structure of a Flat Bone

External/internal surfaces of flat bone are composed of compact bone.

T/F: signal conduction occurs deep within a fiber's axoplasm, not along the surface of a fiber

FALSE - signal conduction occurs along the surface of a fiber, not deep within its axoplasm

T/F: the spinal cord is a component of the peripheral nervous system while the spinal nerves are part of the central nervous system

FALSE - the spinal cord is a component of the central nervous system while the spinal nerves are part of the peripheral nervous system

T/F: EPSPs and IPSPs are the only thing that determine whether or not a neuron fires

FALSE -- ion leakage through membranes causes all neurons to fire at a certain background rate even when unstimulated. EPSPs and IPSPs only change the rate of firing by stimulating or inhibiting the production or more action potential.

T/F: an unmyelinated fiber has voltage-gated channels only near the cell body

FALSE, an unmyelinated fiber has voltage-gated channels along its entire length

T/F: a stretch reflex is mediated by the spinal cord

FALSE, it is mediated primarily by the brain, so these reflexes can occur even if the spinal cord is severed from the brain - only one synapse between afferent and efferent neuron - little synaptic delay and very prompt response

T/F: the more synapses involved in a reflex arc, the shorter the delay between the input and output

FALSE, the more synapses, there is a longer delay between input and output

Progressive weakness from use

Fatigue

Smooth muscle is very resistant to

Fatigue (low ATP requirement)

Fast Twitch, White, Type II

Few mitochondria, lots of blood capillaries, little myoglobin, phosphagen system (glycogen-lactic acid system), fast twitch duration, example is the gastrocnemius (muscles of eye movement), sport is sprinting

Pulmonary Plexus

Fibers accompany the bronchi and blood vessels into the lungs.

Esophageal Plexus

Fibers regulate swallowing.

Fracture Types - Colles

Fracture of the distal end of the radius and ulna; common in osteoporosis

anatomy of the nail

Free edge, body, lunula, eponychism, root, matrix, dead keratinized epithelia cells

cell cycle

G1 phase growth and normal metabolic roles, S phase DNA replication, G2 growth and preparation for mitosis, Mitotic phase

Bone Marrow - Gelatinous

Gelatinous marrow of old age yellow marrow replaced with reddish jelly

Short Term Energy (1 minute)

Glucose from the break down of glycogen (also obtained from the blood). Requires no oxygen. Provides energy for 30-40 seconds of activity.

Functions of membrane protein 6:7 Cell identity markers

Glycoproteins contribute to glycocalix "identification tag" which cells are ok in the body which cells are foreign.

The recoil of connective tissue

Helps return muscle to resting length

ionizing radiation

High energy radiation ejects electrons from atoms converting atoms to ions -some forms are given off by radioisotopes [[deadly in high doses, in low doses, mutagenic and carcinogenic]]

Eicosanoids

Hormone-like chemical signals between cells - includes prostaglandins - produced in all tissues - role in inflammation, blood clotting, hormone action, labor contractions, blood vessel diameter

First step of contraction

Hydrolysis of ATP; activation and cocking of myosin head

Carpopedal Spasm

Hypocalcemia causing overexcitability of nervous system and muscle spasm of hands and feet

nerves of the lumbar plexus

I - iliohypogastric I - ilioinguinal G - genitofemoral L - lateral femoral cutaneous O - orburator F - femoral

how are IPSPs produced?

IPSPs are produced by opening Cl- channels -The membrane potential is driven toward the Cl- equilibrium potential (approximately -90 mV)

Visceral Motor System

Is distinguished from the somatic motor system that controls the skeletal muscles. NOTE: Is also known as the autonomic nervous systems.

Vagal Trunks

Is located at the lower end of the esophagus, the cardiac, pulmonary, and esophageal plexuses give off anterior and posterior vagal trunks; each of which contains fibers from both the right and left vagus nerves. NOTE: These trunks penetrate the diaphragm, enter the abdominal cavity, and contribute to the extensive abdominal aortic plexus.

Sympathoadrenal System

Is the collective name for the sympathetic nervous system and adrenal medulla are so closely related in development and function.

Adrenal Medulla

Is the inner core essentially a sympathetic ganglion -It consists of modified postganglionic neurons without dendrites or axons -stimulated by preganglionic sympathetic neurons that terminate on these cells -secretes a mixture of hormones into bloodstream -catecholamines - 85% epinephrine (adrenaline) and 15% norepinephrine (noradrenaline) -also function as neurotransmitters

Collateral (Prevertebral) Ganglia

Is the second set of ganglia that comes after the splanchnic nerves; here the preganglionic fibers synapse with the postganglionics.

Inferior Hypogastric Plexus

Is what comes after the pelvic splanchnic nerves. NOTE: Some parasympathetic fibers synapse here, but most pass through this plexus and travel by way of pelvic nerves to the terminal ganglia in their target organs.

Splanchnic Nerves

Is what continues on after the splanchnic nerve route, which leads to a second set of ganglia called collateral (prevertebral) ganglia. Here the preganglionic fibers synapse with the postganglionics.

The Metaphysis Zones

It exhibits 5 histological zones of transformation from cartilage to bone (We begin with farthest from the marrow cavity). Zone of reserve cartilage Hyaline cartilage, no transformation into bone. Zone of cell proliferation Chondrocytes multiply and line up. Zone of cell hypertrophy Enlargement of chondrocytes. Zone of calcification Temporary calcification of cartilage. Zone of bone deposition Death of chondrocytes; bone deposition; trabeculae forming

Calcitriol (Activated Vitamin D) Function

Its function is to raise the blood calcium concentration. Increases small intestine to absorb calcium weakly promotes urinary reabsorption of calcium ions so less calcium is lost in the urine promotes osteoclast activity to raise blood calcium concentration to the level needed for bone deposition

General Features of Bones

Joint surface covered with articular cartilage (lubrication)

Sympathetic Tone

Keeps most blood vessels partially constricted and thus maintains blood pressure. A loss of sympathetic tone can cause such a rapid drop in blood pressure that a person goes into shock.

decomposition reactions

Large molecule breaks down into two or more smaller ones AB --> A + B

Delay between onset of stimulus and onset of twitch

Latent period

Three phases of a twitch

Latent period, contraction, relaxation

Isotonic muscle contraction

Length changes, tension does not. Tension while shortening = concentric. Tension while lengthening = eccentric.

Muscle returns to resting length when contraction of antagonist

Lengthens it (ex. contraction of triceps brachii lengthens the biceps brachii)

polysaccharides

Long chains of monosaccharides. 3 polysaccharides of interest in humans: Glycogen, Starch, and Cellulose. 1. Glycogen: energy storage polysaccharide in animals - made by cells of liver, muscles, brain, uterus, and vagina - liver produces glycogen after a meal when glucose level is high, then breaks it down between meals to maintain blood glucose levels - muscles store glycogen for own energy needs uterus uses glycogen to nourish embryo 2. Starch: energy storage polysaccharide in plants - only significant digestible polysaccharide in the human diet 3. Cellulose: structural molecule of plant cell walls - fiber in our diet

Forth step of relaxation

Loss of calcium ions from troponin

Slow Twitch, Red, Type I

Lots of mitochondria, lots of blood capillaries, lots of myoglobin, ATP from aerobic respiration (don't fatigue easily), long twitch duration, example is the soleus, sport is marathon running

Twitch

Low frequency (up to 10 stimuli/sec). Each stimulus produces an identical twitch response, muscle relaxes completely between stimuli.

pH of muscle

Low pH (acidic) = fatigue = weak twitch

Causes of fatigue

Lowered ATP synthesis as glycogen is consumed, lowered pH due to increased lactic acid (enzymes don't work well), lower activity of Na/K pump (can't maintain RMP and less excitability of muscle fibres), less ACh in motor nerve fibres depleted and less capable of stimulating muscle fibres, central nervous system fatigue and less signal output to skeletal muscles

nerves of the brachial plexus

M - musculocutaneous A - axillary R - radial M - median U - ulnar

monomers & polymers

Macromolecules - very large organic molecules very high molecular weights proteins, DNA

Thick filament

Made of myosin, have myosin heads which pull on actin

Complete Tetanus

Maximum frequency stimulation (40-50 stimuli/sec). Muscle has no time to relax at all. Twitches fuse into smooth, prolonged contraction called complete tetanus. Rarely occurs in the body.

The electrical charge inside a cell relative to outside of a cell is the

Membrane potential

Intramembranous Ossification Process

Mesenchyme (embryonic connective tissue) condenses into a sheet of soft tissue transforms into a network of soft trabeculae osteoblasts gather on the trabeculae to form osteoid tissue (uncalcified bone) calcium phosphate is deposited in the matrix transforming the osteoblasts into osteocytes osteoclasts remodel the center to contain marrow spaces & osteoblasts remodel the surface to form compact bone mesenchyme at the surface gives rise to periosteum

Intramembranous Ossification Notes

Mesenchyme is embryonic connective tissue. When this tissue condenses into a sheet the cells of this sheet enlarge and differentiate into osteogenic cells Osteoblasts deposit an organic matrix called osteoid tissue, calcium phosphate is deposited in the matrix and some osteoblasts get trapped in the lacunae and differentiate into osteocytes. This process gives rise to a sandwich-like arrangement of spongy bone between two surface layers of compact bone.

Metaphysis & Secondary Ossification Center

Metaphysis is cartilagenous material that remains as growth plate between medullary cavity & secondary ossification centers in the epiphyses.

Structure of a Flat Bone

Middle layer is spongy bone (diploe). No marrow cavity.

Mineral Deposition

Mineralization is crystallization process in which ions (calcium, phosphate & others) are removed from blood plasma & deposited in bone tissue

Treppe

Moderate frequency (between 10-20 stimuli/sec). Each twitch has time to recover but develops more tension than the one before -> stronger twitches (staircase phenomenon)

dehydration synthesis

Monomers covalently bond together to form a polymer with the removal of a water molecule A hydroxyl group is removed from one monomer and a hydrogen from the next

Well-conditioned muscles will have

More blood vessels (for O2 delivery), more mitochondria (for endurance activities) and more enzymes for the phosphagen system (for burst type activity)

Single-unit Smooth Muscle

Most common (ex. blood vessels, digestive tract). Forms circular and longitudinal muscle layers. Autonomic nerve fibres have beadlike swellings called varicosities which release neurotransmitters. Muscle fibres connected by gap junctions, not all fibres receive direct input from a nerve fibre (they stimulate each other and large number of cells contract as a unit)

Osteoporosis

Most common bone disease. Bone lose mass and become brittle due to loss of both organic matrix and minerals. risk of fracture of hip, wrist & vertebral column lead to fatal complications such as pneumonia widow's (dowager's) hump is deformed spine

Knee injuries

Most knee injuries are to the meniscus or to ACL; Arthroscopic surgery has greatly improved repair, recovery time and levels of pain associated with knee surgery; Damaged ACLs can be replaced with a graft from either a patellar ligament or a hamstring tendon by drilling holes through the femur and the tibia and attaching the ligament to the bone with a screw

Muscle fibres originates from multiple myoblasts, so it is

Multinucleated

How do muscles resist fatigue

Multiple units work in shifts

Characteristics of Muscle: Responsiveness

Muscle and nerve cells respond to stimuli.

Skeletal muscle cells are called

Muscle fibers or myofibers

Smooth muscle contraction is the same as skeletal muscle

Muscle fibres shorten due to overlap in actin and myosin.

The central nervous system monitors and adjusts length of resting muscles to maintain a state of partial contraction

Muscle tone maintains optimum length and makes muscles ideally ready for action

Characteristics of Muscle: Elasticity

Muscles can stretch and recoil.

Characteristics of Muscle: Extensibility

Muscles can stretch up to 3x of their contracted length.

Muscle fibres are composed of long protein bundles called

Myofibrils

Each myofibril is a bundle of protein microfilaments called

Myofilaments

Fibers remain cross-linked until

Myofilaments decay (48-60 hours)

Thick filaments are made of hundreds of these molecules

Myosin

During rigor mortis calcium activates

Myosin-actin cross-bridging (causes stiff, rigid muscles)

coenzyme NAD+

NAD+ transports electrons from one metabolic pathway to another

Skeletal Muscle: structure of T tubules and calcium source?

Narrow T tubules; calcium from sarcoplasmic reticulum

Smooth muscle tone

Need to maintain muscle tone in arteries (vasomotor tone) or blood pressure will drop. SMT keeps intestines partially contracted (much longer in cadaver)

Most cells' membrane potentials have this charge

Negative

Potassium leaving a cell create a _________________ membrane potential, or _________________________.

Negative; repolarization

Te inside of a cell has an overall negative charge due to

Negatively charged proteins and nucleic acids. Positively charged potassium is also inside a cell.

Mineral Deposition Notes

Now we are going to talk about the physiology of mature osseous tissue. Most tissues have inhibitors to prevent calcification. Calcium phosphate crystals do not form unless the product of calcium and phosphate concentration in the tissue fluids reaches a critical value called the solubility product.

ACh receptors here accept the ACh

On the sarcolemma

The distance of the sarcomere is

One Z-disc to the next

The motor unit is composed of

One nerve fibre and all the muscle fibres it innervates

Flagella

Only one functioning one in human body: Sperm. they are longer than cilium and has a identical axoneme. movement snakelike corkscrew "undulating"

Forth step of muscle excitation by nerve

Opening of ligand-gated ion channel

Fifth step of muscle excitation by nerve

Opening of voltage-gated ion channel

The formation of bone is called

Ossification or osteogenesis

Osteoblasts

Osteoblasts form and help mineralize organic matter of matrix

Osteocytes

Osteocytes (mature bone cells) are osteoblasts that have become trapped in the matrix they formed cells in lacunae connected by gap junctions inside canaliculi signal osteoclasts & osteoblasts about mechanical stresses

Cells of Osseous Tissue Proccess

Osteocytes are strain sensors , when they detect a strain in the bone they communicate this information to osteoblasts; they are a mature bone cell. Osteblasts then deposit bone where needed Osteoclasts remove bone.

Osteogenic Cells

Osteogenic cells reside in endosteum, periosteum or central canals arise from embryonic fibroblasts and become only source for new osteoblasts multiply continuously & differentiate into osteoblasts in response to stress or fractures

Cells of Osseous Tissue

Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, and osteocytes

buffer

Our body uses buffers to resist changes in pH slight pH disturbances can disrupt physiological functions and alter drug actions pH of blood ranges from 7.35 to 7.45 deviations from this range cause tremors, paralysis or even death

oxidation

Oxidation any chemical reaction in which a molecule gives up (electrons and releases energy molecule oxidized in this process electron acceptor molecule is the oxidizing agent oxygen is often involved as the electron acceptor)

Myoglobin is a protein in muscles that carries

Oxygen

percentage vs molar concentration

Percentage # of molecules unequal weight of solute equal Molar # of molecules equal weight of solute unequal

Compact Bone

Perforating canals or Volkmann canals vascular canals perpendicularly joining central canals Circumferential or outer lamellae

A fasicle is bound and defined by

Perimysium

Long Bone

Periosteum and articular cartilage. Compact and spongy bone. endosteum. Yellow Marrow.

Functions of Phosphate

Phosphate is a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, phospholipids, & acid-base buffers 85% - 95% of phosphate is in the bones. Calcium and phospate is also found in the blood

Sodium entering a cell creates a ___________________ membrane potential, or _____________________________.

Positive; depolarization

The outside of a cell as an overall positive charge due to

Positively charged sodium ions. There is also negatively charged chloride ions.

Varicosities

Postganglionic fibers of the ANS do not end by synapsing with a specific target cell, but with a chain of varicosities that diffusely release neurotransmitter into the tissue and stimulate many cells simultaneously.

Third step of contraction

Power stroke; sliding of thin filament over thick filament

Endochondral Ossification Process

Primary ossification center forms in cartilage model chondrocytes near the center swell to form primary ossification center matrix is reduced & model becomes weak at that point Some cells of the perichondrium become osteoblasts, which produce a bony collar The bony collar acts like a splint it also cuts off diffusion of nutrients and hastens their death (becomes periosteum

Triglycerides

Primary: energy storage. Also insulation and shock absorption (adipose tissue)

Mineral Resorption Process

Process of dissolving bone & releasing minerals into the blood performed by osteoclasts "ruffled border" hydrogen pumps in the cell membrane secrete hydrogen ions into the space between the osteoclast & the bone chloride ions follow by electrical attraction hydrochloric acid with a pH of 4 dissolves bone minerals an enzyme (acid phosphatase) digests the collagen

Intramembranous Ossification

Produces flat bones of skull & clavicle

Endochondral Ossification

Produces most other bones. i.e. vertebrae, pelvic bones and bones of the limbs

conjugatied proteins

Proteins that contain a non-amino acid moiety called a prosthetic group Hemoglobin contains four complex iron containing rings called a heme moieties

Peripheral proteins

Proteins that do not protrude into the phospholipid layer but rather adhere to one face of the membrane, often times associated with a transmembrane protein and tethered to the cytoskeleton

many drugs also act on neurotransmitters in CNS

Prozac blocks reuptake of serotonin to prolong its mood-elevating effect

RNA

RNA (ribonucleic acid) - 3 types messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA 70 to 10,000 nucleotides long carries out genetic instruction for synthesizing proteins assembles amino acids in the right order to produce proteins

Bone Marrow - Red

Red marrow looks like thick blood mesh of reticular fibers and immature blood cells hemopoietic means produces blood cells found in vertebrae, ribs, sternum, pelvic girdle and proximal heads of femur and humerus in adults

Reduction

Reduction any chemical reaction in which a molecule gains {electrons and energy molecule is reduced when it accepts electrons molecule that donates electrons is the reducing agent oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions oxidation of one molecule is always accompanied by the reduction of another Electrons are often transferred as hydrogen atoms}

Return to resting length

Relaxation

General Features of Bones

Remainder of bone covered with periosteum outer fibrous layer of collagen fibers continuous with tendons or perforating(Sharpey's) fibers that penetrate into bone matrix inner osteogenic layer important for growth & healing

Purposes for extra oxygen

Replace oxygen reserves (myoglobin, blood hemoglobin, in air in the lungs and dissolved in plasma), replenish phosphagen system, oxidize lactic acid to glucose (in the liver) and serve elevated metabolic rate

Fast twitch

Respond quickly, but fatigue quickly

Fast twitch fibers

Respond quickly, fatigue easily

Slow twitch

Respond slowly, but resistant to fatigue

The difference in charge across the muscle's cell membrane is called the

Resting membrane potential

Fifth step of relaxation

Return of tropomyosin to position blocking active sites of actin

The plasma membrane of a muscle is called the

Sarcolemma

The cytoplasm of a muscle is called

Sarcoplasm

The smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum of a muscle is

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

These allow some limited mitosis, they are unspecialized myoblasts.

Satellite cells

5 properties water has that supports life

Savvy Chefs Adorn Carpeted Tacos Solvency, Cohesion, Adhesion, Chemical reactivity, Thermal stability

myelin sheath is produced by...

Schwann cells (PNS) and oligodendrocytes (CNS)

Calcitonin

Secreted by C cells of the thyroid gland when blood calcium concentration rises too high Important role in children, but little effect in adults calcitonin deficiency is not known to cause any disease in adults may be useful in reducing bone loss in osteoporosis

Parathyroid Hormone

Secreted by the parathyroid glands found on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland Released when calcium blood level is too low Injection of low levels of PTH can cause bone deposition Calcitrol: and as discussed calcitrol raises the level of calcium in the blood.

Describe Smooth Muscle

Short and fusiform cell shape, no striations, few mitochondria, one central nuclei, no T tubules, gap junctions, autorhhythmicity, calcium from extracellular fluid, involuntary control, excitatory or inhibitory effect of nervous stimulation, good regeneration

The contractile proteins, actin and myosin do this to muscle fibres.

Shorten them

wallace is the victim of a hunting accident. a bullet grazed his vertebral column, and bone fragments severed the left half of his spinal cord at segments T8 through T10. since the accident, wallace has had a condition called dissociated sensory loss, in which he feels no sensations of deep touch or limb position on the left side of his body below the injury and no sensations of pain or heat from the right side. explain what spinal tract(s) the injury has affected and why these sensory losses are on opposite sides of the body.

Signals for deep touch and limb position below that level ascend the ipsilateral side of the spinal cord in the gracile fasciculus and do not decussate until they get to the medulla oblongata. therefore, an injury to the left gracile fasciculus would block the transmission of these types of signals from the left (ipsilateral) side of the body below the injury. Signals for pain and heat, however, decussate in the spinal cord near the point of entry and travel up the contralateral side of the cord in the spinothalamic tract. an injury to the left spinothalamic tract would thus block the transmission of these signals from the right (contralateral) side of the body.

Biological classes of muscle fibres

Slow twitch, fast twitch (both types are in 1 muscle but the proportion varies related to type and level)

Stress Relaxation Response

Smooth muscle contracts and then reflexively relaxes in response to stretch (ex. bladder, stretches then relaxes or it would expel contents -> allows bladder to fill)

Bone Marrow

Soft tissue that occupies the medullary cavity of a long bone or the spaces amid the trabeculae of spongy bone

Spheroid

Spherically shaped cells (egg and fat cells)

~Hydrolysis

Splitting a polymer (lysis) by the addition of a water molecule (hydro) - A covalent bond is broken - All digestion reactions consists of hydrolysis reactions - The opposite of dehydration synthesis. Specifics: 1. A water molecule ionizes into -OH and H+ 2. the covalent bond linking one monomer to the other is broken 3. the -OH is added to one monomer, the H+ is added to the other

Spongy Bone

Spongelike appearance formed by rods and plates of bone called trabeculae spaces filled with red bone marrow Trabeculae have few osteons or central canals no osteocyte is far from blood of bone marrow Provides strength with little weight trabeculae develop along bone's lines of stress

Cubodial

Squarish cells and approx. as tall as they are wide (liver cells)

Cells of Osseous Tissue

Stem cells, osteoclast. Osteoclasts develop in bone marrow ; each osteoclast is formed by the fusion of several stem cells, so they are unusually large. They break down bone.

What opens ion gates in the plasma membrane

Stimulation

Stimulus Frequency

Stimuli arriving close together = stronger twitches

Strength of a twitch varies with:

Stimulus Frequency, Amount of Calcium in Sarcoplasmic Reticulum, Degree of Stretch of Muscle, Temperature of Muscle, pH of Muscle, State of Hydration of Muscle and Recruitment

Twitch strength varies with

Stimulus frequency. Intensity remains constant. (high frequency = stronger twitches, low frequency = weak twitches)

Muscle returns to resting length when connective tissue components

Stretch it out to resting length

Smooth muscle response to stretch

Stretch opens mechanically-gated calcium channels in sarcolemma, causing muscle response (ex. food enters the esophagus brings on peristalsis).

Cardiac Muscle

Striated, 25% mitochondria, one nucleus, wide T tubules, gap junctions, autorhythmicity, calcium from SR and extracellular fluid, involuntary control, limited regeneration

Protein Functions

Structural Proteins metabolic proteins

Substrate

Substrate - substance an enzyme acts upon

~enzyme structure & action

Substrate approaches active site on enzyme molecule Substrate binds to active site forming enzyme-substrate complex highly specific fit -'lock and key' enzyme-substrate specificity Enzyme breaks covalent bonds between monomers in substrate adding H+ and OH- from water - Hydrolysis Reaction products released - glucose and fructose Enzyme remains unchanged and is ready to repeat the process

hyperkalemia is an excess of potassium in the extracellular fluid. what effect would this have on the resting membrane potentials of the nervous system and on neural excitability?

Such a change in the K+ gradient across the plasma membrane results in less net diffusion of K+ out of neurons. the K+ concentration in the cytoplasm increases, partially depolarizing the membrane and making neurons more excitable.

disaccharides

Sugar molecule composed of 2 monosaccharides 3 important disaccharides: sucrose, lactose, and maltose 1. glucose + fructose = sucrose (table sugar) 2. glucose + galactose = lactose (milk sugar) 3. glucose + glucose = maltose (malt sugar)

6 lesser elements of human body (.8%)

Sulfur, Potassium, Sodium, Chlorine, Magnesium, Iron

Functions of skeletal system

Support, protection, movement, blood formation, mineral reservoir, pH balance and detoxification.

each zygomatic bone has an inverted _______ shape and usually a small _______ near the intersection of the stem and crossbar of the T

T, zygomaticofacial foramen

T/F: somatic reflexes are responses of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles

TRUE

T/F: temporal summation can occur even if one presynaptic neuron stimulates the postsynaptic neuron at a fast enough rate

TRUE

T/F: somatic reflexes can occur even if the spinal cord has been severed

TRUE, the stimuli simply does not reach the brain

Factors that increase speed of diffusion

Temperature (the hotter the faster) Molecular weight (the heavier the slower) Steepness of concentration gradient (the greater the concentration the more rapid the diffusion) Surface Area (the more surface area the faster the diffusion) Membrane permeability (the more permeable the easier the diffusion)

knee tendons

Tendons, of the muscles of the thigh, m. quadriceps, femoris and m. semimembranous, act to stabilize the knee; strengthening these muscles reduces the risk of injury

Isometric muscle contration

Tension changes, length does not. Important in postural muscle function.

Isometric and isotonic phases of lifting

Tension rises but length remains the same (object is not moved). Tension levels off, muscle begins to shorten (object is moved).

Extensions of the sarcoplasmic reticulum that release calcium ions

Terminal cisternae

Ion Imbalances Notes

Tetany is the inability of a muscle to relax. Tetany begins as calcium concentration falls to 6mg/dL. At 4mg/dL the muscles of the larynx contract. Hypercalcemia: at 12mg/dL and higher hypercalcemia causes depression of the nervous system, emotional disturbances, muscle weakness, sluggish reflexes and sometimes cardiac arrest.

Characteristics of Muscle: Contractility

The ability to contract is unique to muscle. They shorten and pull on bones, causing movement.

A-bands (dark) are composed of

The entire thick filament and a portion of the thin filament

Facial Nerve (VII)

The facial nerve carries parasympathetic fibers that regulate the tear glands, salivary glands, and nasal glands. Soon after the facial nerve emerges from the pons, its parasympathetic fibers split away and form two smaller branches.

Primary Ossification Center

The first sign of Endochondral ossification is the multiplication and swelling of chondrocytes near the center of the model which is called the primary ossification center. There is the formation of the supportive bony collar.

White Communicating Ramus

The preganglionic fibers are small myelinated fibers that travel from the spinal nerve to the ganglion by way of the white communicating ramus, which gets its color and name from the myelin.

Catalysis

The process by which proteins called enzymes speed up reactions (catalysts)

how do proteins and other chemicals synthesized in the soma get to the axon terminals? by what process can a virus that invades a peripheral nerve fiber get to the soma of that neuron?

The process that moves proteins and other chemicals from soma towards the synaptic knobs is called anterograde axonal transport. All proteins in the neuron are synthesized in the soma using the somatic organelles such as the nucleus, ribosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum. These proteins need to be delivered to the branches of the neuron. The two-way transport along the axon is divided into anterograde transport, which delivers the protein away from the soma and towards the synapses.

The contractile unit of a muscle fibre is

The sarcomere

calcaneal tendon

The tendon formed by union of the tendons of the calf muscles, the soleus and gastrocnemius, and inserted into the heel bone.

Fractures are classified by

Their structural characteristics -- causing a break in the skin, breaking into multiple pieces, etc or after a physician who first described it

3 Major Collateral Ganglia

There are three major collateral ganglia in the abdominal aortic plexus: -- The Celiac Ganglia -- The Superior Mesenteric Ganglia -- The Inferior Mesenteric Ganglia Located at points where arteries of the same names branch off the aorta. The postganglionic fibers accompany these arteries and their branches to the target organs.

Elbow joints

There are two articulating points with the humerus form the hinge joint of the elbow: humeroulnar and humeroradial joints; both are enclosed in a single capsule (fig. 9.25 a-d) Side-to-side movement is restricted by pairs of ligaments: radial collateral ligament (lateral) and ulnar collateral ligament (medial) An olecrannon bursa easies the movement of tendons over the posterior surface of the elebow Proximal radioulnar joint is another articulation in the region of the elbow and is held in place

beta-adrenergic Receptors

These are usually inhibitory. Example, NE relaxes and dilates the bronchioles (thus enhancing respiratory airflow) when it binds to b-adrenergic receptors of the smooth muscle. NOTE: However, when it binds to the b-adrenergic receptors of cardiac muscle, its has an excitatory effect.

Functions of membrane protein 4 of 7: Ion channels

Transmembrane proteins, or protein clusters with pores that allow water and dissolved ions to pass through the membrane. some always open some consist of GATES (ligand-regulated gates, voltage-regulated gates, mechanically regulated gates)

This binds tropomyosin and calcium ions and shifts the tropomyosin off of binding sites.

Troponin

These are the regulatory proteins that act like a switch

Troponin and tropomyosin

Blood Vessels of Compact Bone

You can see the concentric lamellae that encircle a haversian canal. An osteon or haversian system is the central canal and its lamellae. The skeleton receives half a liter of blood per minute.

codon

a 3 base sequence in mRNA

cyanosis

a bluish discoloration of the skin resulting from poor circulation or inadequate oxygenation of the blood

Pathological Fracture

a break in a bone weakened by some other disease bone cancer or osteoporosis

corpus callosum

a broad band of nerve fibers joining the two hemispheres of the brain

olfactory tracts

a bundle of axons connecting the cells of the olfactory bulb to several target regions in the brain

nerve

a bundle of nerve fibers (axons) wrapped in fibrous connective tissue

arrestor muscle

a bundle of smooth muscle cells extending from dermal collagen fibers to the connective tissue root sheath of the follicle

third degree burn

a burn involving all layers of the skin; characterized by the destruction of the epidermis and dermis, with damage or destruction of subcutaneous tissue

second degree burn

a burn marked by pain, blistering, and superficial destruction of dermis with edema and hyperemia of the tissues beneath the burn

sodium potassium pump

a carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell 3 sodium for every 2 potassium

Cytosol or intracellular fluid

a clear gel (intacellular fluid [ICF]) containing the organelles and cytoskeleton

nerve

a cordlike organ composed of numerous nerve fibers (axons) bound together by connective tissue

periosteum

a dense fibrous membrane covering the surface of bones (except at their extremities) and serving as an attachment for tendons and muscles

electrical potential

a difference in the concentration of charged particles between one point and another - a form of potential energy that, under the right conditions, can produce a current

endocrine gland

a ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream

myelin

a fatty substance that helps insulate neurons and speeds the transmission of nerve impulses

positive feedback loop

a feedback loop in which change in a system is amplified - childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, and generation of nerve signals

bursa

a fibrous sac filled with synovial fluid; it is located between adjacent muscles where a tendon passes over a bone, or between bone and skin

dermal papillae

a fingerlike projection of the dermis that may contain blood capillaries or Meissner corpuscles (of touch)

electrical current

a flow of charged particles from one point to another

cochlear duct

a fluid filled cavity within the cochlea that vibrates when sound waves strike it

node of ranvier

a gap in the myelin sheath of a nerve, between adjacent Schwann cells

exocrine gland

a gland (as a sweat gland, a salivary gland, or a kidney) that releases a secretion external to or at the surface of an organ by means of a canal or duct - contain septa dividing structure into lobules - simple: unbranched duct - compound: branched duct - tubular: uniform diameter - acinar: forms dilated sac

stratum lucidum

a layer of clear epidermis found only in the thick skin of the fingers, palms, and soles

Hypotonic

a lower concentration of nonpermeating solutes than the intracellular fliud (ICF) If a cell is in a hypotonic solution...a cell then is considered hypertonic (more solutes than the outside) then water will move from hypotonic (outside) solution to hypertonic (inside cell)...diluting the solute inside cell .....Balloon water goes into cell, bursts=lysis occurs

melanocytes

a mature melanin-forming cell, typically in the skin

Carrier-Mediated Transport

a method of transportation where ATP is needed, active transport facilitated diffusion and vesicular

first degree burn

a mild burn characterized by heat, pain, and reddening of the burned surface but not exhibiting blistering or charring of tissues

ANS can be defined as

a motor nervous system that controls glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle

Elevation

a movement that raises a body part vertically in the frontal plane; e.g. when lifting an object your scapula moves up

Supination

a movement that turns the palm to face anteriorly or upword

Rotation ( def, specifically for joint movements)

a movement which a bone spins on a its longitudinal axis

multipolar neuron

a nerve cell that has many dendrites and a single axon - most common, brain and spinal cord

bipolar neuron

a neuron with one axon and one dendrite attached to its soma - nose, eyes, ears

unipolar neuron

a neuron with one process extending from its cell body - carry signals to spinal cord for sensing touch and pain - axon defined by presence of myelin and ability to generate action potential

dorsal root ganglion

a nodule on a dorsal root that contains cell bodies of afferent spinal nerve neurons

peripheral neuropathy

a painful condition of the nerves of the hands and feet due to damage to the peripheral nerves; also known as peripheral neuritis

refractory period

a period of time after a nerve or muscle cell has responded to a stimulus in which it cannot be reexcited by a threshold stimulus

Retraction

a posterior movement

Chemical reaction

a process in which a covalent or ionic bond is formed or broken

chemical reaction

a process in which a covalent or ionic bond is formed or broken

Plasma (cell) membrane

a protein/lipid layer formed around the cell phospholipids and proteins, different composition from one region to another (basal, lateral, upper)

what is a receptor? give two examples of effectors

a receptor is sense organs and simple sensory nerve endings that go to the CNS two examples of effectors would be cells and organs

reciprocal inhibition

a reflex that prevents muscles from working against each other by inhibiting antagonists

muscle spindle

a sensory receptor located in a muscle that senses its tension and inform the brain of muscle length and body movements

Base triplet

a sequence of 3 DNA nucleotides that stands for 1 amino acid

epithelial tissue

a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity

depolarization

a shift in the electrical potential across a plasma membrane to a value less negative than the resting membrane potential

reflex arc

a simple neural pathway that mediates a reflex

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

hematoma

a solid swelling of clotted blood within the tissues

Hypertonic

a solution with a higher concentration of nonpermeating solutes than the ICF. Outside cell hypertonic inside cell compared to outside would be hypotonic so water will go to the outside of cell cell will lose water and shrivel up (crenate)

resting membrane potential

a stable voltage across the plasma membrane of an unstimulated nerve or muscle cell

Cytoskeleton

a supportive framework to the cell

Rotator cuff injury

a tear in the tendon of any of the SITS muscles, common in baseball pitchers, third basemen, bowlers and swimmers

gray commissure

a thin strip of gray matter that surrounds the central canal of the spinal cord and, along with the anterior white commissure, connects the two halves of the cord

basement membrane

a thin, delicate membrane of protein fibers and glycosaminoglycans separating an epithelium from underlying tissue

CNXI

accessory, motor

when a patient needs a tendon graft, surgeons sometimes use the tendon of the palmaris longus, a relatively dispensable muscle of the forearm. the median nerve lies nearby and looks very similar to this tendon. there have been cases in which a surgeon mistakenly removed a section of this nerve instead of the tendon. what effects do you think such a mistake would have on the patient?

accidental removal of a part of the median nerve denervates the thenar muscle group and the first and second lumbricals (see table 13.4). The results include inability to flex the fingers (inability to grip objects), loss of many thumb functions (abduction, flexion, and opposition), and extension of the interphalangeal joints

is connective tissue cellular or acellular?

acellular -- some cells but mostly matrix (ground substance and protein)

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

acidic phosphorus rich substance hereditary matter found in our genes, consists of polymers of nucleotides, double helix structure

ear canal

acoustic meatus

Kinase

activated my cAMP, add phosphate groups to other cellular enzymes

extrinsic muscle

acts on a region, but its origin is elsewhere

how to test CNVI

adduct the eyeballs

tight junctions

adjacent cells are bound together by fusion of the outer phospholipid layer of their plasma membranes through transmembrane cell-adhesion proteins - ensure that nutrients pass through the epithelial cell and not between them - prevent bacteria from invading tissue - prevent leakage of substances between the cells (water-proof)

afferent vs efferent

afferent carries impulses toward the region of interest - any input coming into the brain is considered to be afferent. (sensory) efferent carries impulses away from the region of interest - any output from the brain will be efferent (motor)

spinal tracts

aggregations of axons running up and down the spinal cord that allow reflex arcs to communicate with higher centers and higher centers to communicate with the reflex arc - white matter

auditory tube

air passage between the middle ear and throat that equalizes air pressure on either side of the eardrum also called the Eustachian tube

odorants

airborne chemicals that are detected as odors

what does bitter taste indicate?

alkaloids (potential poison or spoiled food)

Somatic cells

all other cells except sperm and egg

autosomes

all other chromosomes except X and Y

codominant

alleles that are equally dominant

node of ranvier function

allows for faster signal transmission; 30x faster than non-myelinated nerves

fibrous joint

also called synarthrosis, when adjacent bones are joined by collagen fiber, ex. sutures, gomphoses, and syndesmoses

bony joint

also called synostosis, an immovable joint, caused when the gap between two bones ossifies and they become, in effect, a single bone, ex. Some cranial sutures and the attachment of the first rib to the sternum

the root of each tooth is inserted into a deep socker called what?

alveolus

local potential

an electrical potential that is initiated by stimulation at a specific site, which is a graded response that spreads passively across the cell membrane, decreasing in strength with time and distance

G protein

an intracellular side to a peripheral protein that a receptor is linked onto, named for the ATP-like chemical guanosine triphosphate (GTP) from which they get their energy. 60% of drugs work by altering the activity of this protein.

gland

an organ that produces and releases chemicals either through ducts or into the bloodstream

apical surface

an upper free surface exposed to the body exterior or the cavity of an internal organ

Elastic filament

anchor the thick filaments to the Z disc and M line

desmosomes

anchoring junctions that prevents cells subjected to mechanical stress from being pulled apart - found in epithelium of the uterine cervix, other epithelia, and cardiac muscle - each cell contributes half of the desmosome

Basal Body

anchors the cilium, a continuation of the peripheral microtubules extending into the cell.

what is required to produce a total loss of sensation from a singular dermatome?

anesthetizing or severing three sequential spinal nerves

the body and ramus of the mandible meet at a corner called what?

angle

an irreversible loss of the sense of smell and a great reduction in the sense of taste? injury to what bone?

anosmia, ethmoid

nerves of the cervical plexus

ansa cervicalis, supraclavicular, phrenic

facial bones lie _______ to the cranial cavity

anterior

the lateral masses of the atlas are connected by an ___ and ___, which bear slight protuberances called the ___ and ___

anterior arch, posterior arch, anterior and posterior tubercle

a pair of bony spines of the lesser wing of the sphenoid bone that appear to guard the optic foramina

anterior clinoid processes

cranial fossae that is relatively shallow, crescent-shaped and accommodates frontal lobes of the brain

anterior cranial fossa

what muscles does the cervical plexus innervate?

anterior neck muscles and diaphragm - supplies neck and phrenic nerve to the diaphragm, plays important role in breathing

what muscles does the lumbar plexus innervate?

anterior, medial, and lateral thigh

the four sites of fontanels that are especially prominent and regular

anterior, posterior, sphenoid (anterolateral), mastoid (posterolateral)

the frontal bone forms what wall and about 1/3 of the _____ of the cranial cavity. it turns inward to form nearly all of the _____ cranial fossa and the _____ of the orbit.

anterior, roof, anterior, roof

Hip ligaments

anteriorly: iliofemoral and pubofemoral posteriorly: ischiofemoral ligaments hold the femur into the acetabulum; Round ligament (ligamentum teres) is a distinctive ligament from the head of the femur to the lower margin of the acetabulum; Transverse acetabular ligament spans the gap on the inferior margin of the acetabulum

sound

any audible vibration of molecules -- the collision of millions of air molecules against each other allow some to collide with the eardrum and make it vibrate

diploid

any cell with 23 pairs of chromosomes

hilton's law

any nerve serving a muscle that produces movement at a joint also innervates the joint and the skin over the joint

Joint or an articulation

any point where two bones meet; self-lubricating, frictionless, weight bearing, movable structures, which enables vertebrates and animals, in general, to do work Other types of joints are immovable for strength of uniting two or more bones Joints are typically named after the bones involved in articula

what gland secretes pheromones?

apocrine sweat glands

skeleton which includes the bones of the upper limb and pectoral girdle and the bones of the lower limb and pelvic girdle

appendicular skeleton

autonomic effects on glandular secretion

are often an indirect result of their effect on blood vessels -vasodilation - increased blood flow - increased secretion -vasoconstriction - decreased blood flow - decreased secretion

Preganglionic Fiber

are small myelinated fibers that travel form spinal nerve to the ganglion by way of the white communicating ramus (myelinated)

fovea centralis

area consisting of a small depression in the retina containing cones and where vision is most acute

types of loose connective tissue

areolar, reticular

dried bones held together by wires and rods to show their spatial relationships to each other

articulated skeletons

gullian-barre syndrome

ascending muscle weakness and tingling in your extremities. immune system attacks the nerves

frontal lobe

associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving

quaternary

associations of two or more separate polypeptide chains functional conformation - three dimensional shape

___ allows for 'yes' and ___ allows for 'no'

atlas, axis

anion

atom that gains electrons during ionization (net negative charge)

cation

atom that lost an electron during ionization (net positive charge)

isotopes

atoms with different numbers of neutrons -(give the atoms different atomic weights) [[same chemical behavior, differ in physical behavior breakdown (decay) to more stable isotope by giving off radiation]]

ligament

attach a bone to a bone; holds skeleton together

hemidesmosomes

attach epithelial cells to the basement membrane

suspensory ligament

attaches the lens to the ciliary body

Insertion

attachment site at mobile end

Origin

attachment site at stationary end

what is another name of the visceral motor nervous system? what are its two subdivisions? what are their functions?

autonomic nervous system (ANS) two subdivisions are sympathetic division and parasympathetic division sympathetic division tends to arouse the body for action, accelerating the heartbeat and increasing respiratory airflow, but inhibits digestion parasympathetic division tends to have a calming effect, slowing the heartbeat, but stimulates digestion

anterior/posterior rami lead (to/away from) the vertebral column and spinal cord

away from

skeleton which forms the central supporting axis of the body, includes the skull, auditory ossicles, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and thoracic cage (ribs and sternum)

axial skeleton

two different skeletons in human body

axial, appendicular

identify which plexus gives rise to each of the following nerves: axillary, orburator, phrenic, radial, and sciatic.

axillary - brachial orbutator - lumbar phrenic - cervical radial - brachial sciatic - sacral

vertebra c2 is called what?

axis

what is the first vertebra that exhibits a spinous process

axis

where is the first voltage gated channel on a neuron?

axon hillock (react to a membrane reaching threshold and produce action potential)

types of skin cancer

basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, malignant melanoma

floor of the cranial cavity

base

a thick median plate anterior to the foramen magnum

basilar part

suppose a poison were to slow down the Na+/K+ pumps of nerve cells. how would this affect the resting membrane potentials of neurons? would it make neurons more excitable than normal, or make them more difficult to stimulate? explain.

because the Na+-K+ pump removes three positive charges from the cell for every two it brings in, it contributes to the negative membrane potential. if the activity of the Na+/K+ pumps was reduced, ion leakage would make the plasma membrane less polarized and more excitable.

why does referred pain occur?

because the sensory information from the two places synapses in the same spinal interneuron

suderiferous glands are found (above/below) sebaceous glands

below

tertiary

bending, folding into a globular or a fibrous form ~ie Globular - enzymes, anitibodies, blood albumin Fibrous - collagen, keratin , fibrin

in vertebrae c1-c6, the process is forked, or ___, at its tip

bifid

functions of connective tissue

binding and support, immune protection, insulation, transportation, movement, heat production

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

binds a free amino acid in the cytosol and delivers it to the ribosome to be added to a growing protein chain, carries anticodons

Parathyroid Hormone Functions

binds to osteoblasts causing them to release osteoclast-stimulating factor that stimulates osteoclast multiplication & activity promotes calcium resorption by the kidneys promotes calcitriol synthesis in the kidneys inhibits collagen synthesis and bone deposition by osteoblasts

RNA Polymerase

binds to the DNA and assembles the RNA, starts at the TATATA box, opens up DNA's helix 17 base pairs at a time and makes corresponding base pairs, makes premature mRNA

Tropomysoin

blocks the active sites of actin when muscle is relaxed

how does the skin regulate body temperature?

blood vessels in the skin release or hold in heat, depending upon what the body needs at the time

the horizontal portion bearing the teeth of a mandible is the ____

body

a mass of spongy bone and red bone marrow covered with a thin shell of compact bone that is the weight-bearing portion of the vertebra

body (centrum)

negative feedback loop

body senses a change and activates mechanisms to reverse it "alter" "reverse"

the median _____ of the hyoid is flanked on either side by hornlike projections called what?

body, greater and lesser horns (cornua)

the atlas has no ____ and ___ like the typical vertebra does

body, spinous process

Fracture Types - Greenstick

bone is bent on one side and has incomplete fracture on opposite side.

variety of ridges, spines, bumps, decompressions, canals, pores, slits, cavities, and articular surfaces on the bone

bone markings

the horizontal plates from the palatine bones form a poasterior one-third of what?

bony palate

Four major classes of joints

bony, fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial

gray matter

brain and spinal cord tissue that appears gray with the naked eye, consists mainly of neuronal cell bodies (nuclei) and lacks myelinated axons

how is a crossed extension reflex produced?

branches of efferent nerve fibers cross from the stimulated side of the body to the contralateral side of the spinal cord to synapse with interneurons, which, in turn, excite or inhibit motor neurons to the muscles of the contralateral limb

How is the crossed extensor reflex tied in with the withdrawal reflex? Is the crossed extensor reflex an ipsilateral or contralateral reflex?

branches of the afferent nerve fibers nerve fibers cross from the stimulated side of the body to the contralateral side of the spinal cord there they synapse with interneurons, which in turn excite or inhibit alpha motor neurons to the muscles of the contralateral limb

arthritis

broad term embracing more than 100 types of joint rheumatism

bone

calcified matrix arranged in concentric lamellae around central canals FUNCTION: physical support of body, leverage leverage for muscle action, protective enclosure of viscera, reservoir of calcium and phosphorus LOCATION: skeleton

Troponin complex

calcium binding protein

Stages of healing 3

callus formation (3) soft callus of fibrocartilage replaced by hard callus of bone in 6 weeks

Parasympathetic Division

calms many body functions reducing energy expenditure and assists in bodily maintenance digestion and waste elimination NOTE: 'Resting-and-Digesting' state.

dome of the top of the skull that is composed of parts of multiple bones that form the roof and walls

calvaria

two major parts of cranium

calvaria and base

Multiaxial

can move in three anatomical planes, ex. ball-and-socket joints

Biaxial

can move in two anatomical planes ex. condylar and saddle joints

Energy

capacity to do work to do work means to move something all body activities are a form of work

Cardiac muscle cells are called

cardiocytes or myocytes

passage for the internal carotid artery, a major blood supply to the brain

carotid canal

two prominent foramina on the inferior surface of the petrous part of the temporal lobe

carotid canal and jugular foramen

sex.linked traits

carried on the X and Y chromosomes, inheritance of by one sex more than the other (colorblindness or hemophilia)

Secondary Active Transport

carrier mediated transport of a solute through a membrane (glucose)UP its concentration gradient, but Na DOWN. (its like facilitated diffusion but, uses ATP indirectly from NaK ATP pump has to get Na out) ex kidney Na glucose transporters that bind both of them and transport them into tubular cells but use NaK Pump to get Na out.

Primary Active Transport

carrier mediated transport of a solute through a membrane UP its concentration gradient, using energy provided by ATP. Pi attaches to protein, (this protein carrier is like an enzyme, selective, however the carrier does not change substrate or ligand) ex NaK ATP pump.

Facilitated Diffusion

carrier-mediated transport of a solute through a membrane DOWN its concentration gradient (hypertonic "more"-->to "less" hypotonic)via passive transport (no ATP necessary) ex glucose.

Uniport Carrier

carries one solute at a time (Ca++ takes it out of the cell so it doesn't crystallize cell) Uniport takes Ca out.

visceral motor division

carries signals to glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle, INVOLUNTARY

somatic motor division

carries signals to skeletal muscles

third order neuron of ascending tract

carries the signal the rest of the way to the cerebral cortex

Antiport

carries two or more solutes in oppposite directions. NaK Pump

Symport Carrier

carries two or more solutes through a membrane simultaneously in the SAME direction (Na and glucose)

Purpose of transverse tubules

carry electrical signals from cell surface to interior, lets SR gates of calcium ions to open and create muscle contraction

descending tracts

carry motor commands away from brain towards the spinal cord

Functions of membrane protein 3 of 7: Enzymes

carry out the final stages of starch and protein digestion in the small intestine, help produce second messengers, break down hormones and other signaling molecules whose job is done, stopping the cell from being over stimulated

ascending tracts

carry sensory information up the spinal cord towards the brain

chondroblasts

cartilage-forming cells that produce the matrix

Menisci (-us)

cartilaginous pads that grow inward from the joint capsule, acts as shock absorbers and holds the articulating bones in position to avoid dislocations, and distributes pressures evenly during work

Pronation

causing the palm to face posteriorly or downward

structure of a neuron

cell body myelin sheath dendrites Schwann's cells axon axon terminal

Mitosis

cell division, growth of tissues, organs, replaces dead cells, repair

Osmolarity does not = tonicity

cell placed in solution of 300 miliosm/L of urea (urea penetrates cell easily) Urea +water (osmosis) go into the cell and it bursts so 300mosm/L of urea is not isotonic 300 miliosm/L of NaCl (NaCl does not penetrate cells easily) NaCl solution little change in cell volume.

effectors

cells and organs that respond to signals from the CNS

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Polygonal

cells with irregularly angular shapes and with four, five, or more sides

is epithelial tissue cellular or acellular?

cellular -- mostly cells, not much extracellular matrix

central canal of spinal cord

center of spinal cord which contains cerebrospinal fluid

spinal cord regions

cervical (8) thoracic (12) lumbar (5) sacral (5) coccygeal (1)

list the five plexuses of spinal nerves and state where each one is located.

cervical plexus- in the neck brachial plexus - near the shoulders lumbar plexus - of the lower back sacral plexus - immediately inferior to this coccygeal plexus - adjacent to the lower sacrum and coccyx

what vertebrae's function is to support the head and allow for its movements

cervical vertabrae

secondary cruvatures in spin

cervical, lumbar

the four bends in the vertebral column

cervical, thoracic, lumbar, pelvic curvatures

mutations

changes in DNA structure , results from replication errors, or from environmental factors

thermoreceptors respond to

changes in temperature

Gates

channels in the membrane that open and close under different circumstances. Three types of stimuli that would open gates 1) Ligand-gated channels-chemical messengers 2) Voltage gated channels- difference in voltage 3) mechanically gated channels (stretching & pressure of membrane)

Aquaporins

channels of transmembrane proteins through which water diffuses easily. the more aquaporins the more water can be transported. In red blood cell amount of water passing through a membrane every 1 sec=100times the volume of the cell.

ions

charged particles formed when an atom gains or loses an electron

Karyotype

chart of 23 pairs of chromosomes laid out in order by size.

why are chemical synapses so important?

chemical synapses are the decision-making devices of the system -- the more synapses a neuron has, the greater its information-processing capability

chemoreceptors respond to

chemicals in aqueous solution

the hyoid bone is beneath what

chin

sex chromosomes

chromosomes X and Y, determine individuals sex

hyaline cartilage

clear, glassy appearance because of fineness of collagen fibers, chondrocytes enclosed in lacunae FUNCTION: eases joint movement, holds airways open during respiration, moves vocal cords during speech LOCATION: a thin articular cartilage, lacking perichondrium, over the ends of bones at moveable joints, costal cartialge attaches to the end of a rib to the breastbone

what makes it difficult for an infant to generate the suction needed for nursing

cleft palate

when the palatine processes fail to join

cleft palate, cleft lip

pathway of vestibulocochlear nerve

cochlear/vestibular branch, medulla oblongata, pons, primary auditory cortex in temporal lobe

intensity of stimulus

coded by number of receptors activated and frequency of action potentials

secondary

coiled or folded shape held together by hydrogen bonds hydrogen bonds between slightly negative C=O and slightly positive N-H groups most common secondary structure are: alpha helix - springlike shape beta helix - pleated, ribbonlike shape

secondary

coiling into a springlike alpha helix or folding into a pleated beta sheet

Matrix of Osseous Tissue Organic Matter

collagen, glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans & glycoproteins

fibrous connective tissue fibers

collagenous fibers, reticular fibers, elastic fibers

ganglion

collection of nerve cell bodies (neurosomas) in the peripheral nervous system - enveloped in an epineruium continuous with that of the derve

ganglion

collection of nerve cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system

gene pool

collective genetic makeup

Solar Plexus

collective name for the celiac and superior mesenteric ganglia -comes from the nerves radiating from the ganglion like rays of the sun.

what basic physiological properties do a nerve cell and a muscle cell have in common? name a physiological property of each that the other one lacks

common: excitability and conductivity difference: nerve cell has secretion and muscle cell does not. muscle cell has contractility, extensibility, and elasticity and nerve cell does not

motor functions

complex muscle-and-nerve acts that produce movement (walking, writing, typing running etc.)

tastants

compounds that stimulate the gustatory hairs to send nerve impulses to the brain

genomics

comprehensive study of the whole genome ad how its genes and noncoding DNA interact to affect the structure and function of the whole organism

concave vs convex lens

concave lens disperses light convex lens focuses light

Reaction Rates affected by:

concentration reaction rates increase when the reactants are more concentrated temperature reaction rates increase when the temperature rises catalysts -substances that temporarily bond to reactants, hold them in favorable position to react with each other, and may change the shapes of reactants in ways that make them more likely to react. speed up reactions without permanent change to itself holds reactant molecules in correct orientation catalyst not permanently consumed or changed by the reaction Enzymes - most important biological catalysts

canal found posterior to each occipital condyle

condylar canal

posterior branch of the ramus of the mandible

condylar process

types of connective tissue

connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, blood

blood

connective tissue with a fluid matrix called plasma in which red blood cells, white blood cells, and cell fragments called platelets are suspended FUNCTION: transports gases, nutrients, wastes, chemical signals, and heat throughout the body; contains defensive leukocytes, clotting agents, platelets LOCATION: heart and blood vessels

centromere

consists of 2 genetically identical, rodlike sister chromatids joined together at a pinched spot

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

consists of Adenine Guanine Cytocine and Uracil instead of thymine. Single nucleotide chain, transcribed from DNA

semiconservative replication

consists of new helix synthesized by from free nucleotides and old helix conserved as parental DNA

nucleotides

consists of sugar, a phosphate group, sing or double ringed nitrogenous base,

central nervous system

consists of the brain and spinal cord, which are enclosed and protected by the cranium and vertebral column

mixed exocrine glands

contain both serous and mucous secretions

Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla Oblongata

contain: -nuclei for cardiac and vasomotor control, salivation, swallowing, sweating, bladder control, and pupillary changes

anterior (ventral) horns

contains large neurosomas of motor neurons whose axons lead out to the skeletal muscles - extend toward the anterolateral surfaces

thoracic cavity

contains mediastinum, pericardial cavity, and pleural cavities

Sarcoplasm components

contains myofibrils (protein bundles), glycogen (gives energy to cell) and myoglobin (stores oxygen until needed)

dorsal body cavity

contains the cranial cavity and spinal column

second order neuron of ascending tract

continues as far as a "gateway" called the thalamus at the upper end of the brainstem

myoepithelial cells

contract in response to stimulation by sympathetic nervous system and squeeze perspiration up the duct in eccrine gland

crossed extension reflex

contraction of extensor muscles in the limb opposite from the one that is withdrawn

what happens when the ciliary muscles contract?

contraction of this ring-like muscle, narrows the circumference of the ring and relaxes the suspensory ligaments attached to the lens. this allows the lens to return to its normal, resting shape which is rounder, a shape conducive to greater refraction and closer vision.

the primary somatosensory cortex in each cerebral hemisphere receives signals from the (ipsilateral/contralateral) side of the body

contralateral, pathways of sensory neurons below the head decussate either at or near the point of entry into the brainstem

third function of muscle

control of body openings and passages,

medulla oblongata

controls vital life-sustaining functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and digestion

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret

Translation

converts nucleotides to amino acid , like a language, tRNA binds to A site (aminoacyl) which accepts amino acids then shifts to the P site (peptidyl) that carries the growing protein then shifts to E the exit site, 3 steps Initiation, Elongation, Termination

hinge joint

convex surface fits into a concave surface and is monaxial; Limiting lateral movement

medullary cone

cord tapers to a point inferior to lumbar enlargement - vertebral canal from L2 to S5

crosses the crown of the head from right to left and joins the frontal bone to the parietal bones

coronal suture

the anterior branch of the ramus of the mandible is a blade called _______ that is the point insertion point of the temporalis muscle

coronoid process

nonpolar covalent

covalent bond in which electrons are equally attracted to both nuclei. May be single or double. Strongest type of chemical bond.

astrocytes

cover brain surface and non synaptic regions of neurons to form supportive framework in CNS - most abundant - contribute to BBB - induce formation of blood-brain barrier - communicate with neurons and may influence synaptic signaling - regulate composition of ECF

thin skin

covers most of the body, has four layers of keratinocytes, thin stratum corneum

thick skin

covers the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, has five layers of keratinocytes, thick stratum corner

what are the cavities in the skull

cranial cavity, orbits, nasal cavity, oral (buccal) cavity, middle-ear cavity, inner-ear cavity, paranasal sinuses

three paired depressions on base of cranial cavity

cranial fossae

braincase

cranium

on each side of the crista galli in the cribriform plate, there is an elongated depressed area perforated with numerous holes called what?

cribriform (olfactory) foramina

foramen of CNI

cribriform foramen

forms the roof of the nasal cavity (horizontal)

cribriform plate

the cribriform plate has a median blade that is an attachment point for the dura mater called what?

crista galli

Terminal cisternae

cross muscle fiber from one side to another

decussation

crossing of the midline that occurs in many tracts so that brain senses and controls contralateral side of body

Sarcoplasm

cytoskeleton of skeletal muscle fiber

give an anatomical explanation of why a stroke in the right cerebral hemisphere can paralyze the limbs on the left side of the body.

decussation: as tracts pass up or down the brainstem and spinal cord, they cross over from the left side of the body to the right side, or vice versa

reticular layer

deeper layer of the dermis that consists of dense irregular connective tissue, is much more fibrous than cellular (thus tougher than the papillary layer), and supplies the skin with oxygen and nutrients - less room for ground substance, small clusters of adipocytes

Hypocalemia

deficiency of blood calcium causes excessive excitability of nervous system leading tomuscle spasms, tremors or tetany

depressed fontanels indicate what

dehydration

pia mater

delicate, transparent membrane composed of one or two layers of squamous to cuboidal cells and delicate collagenous and elastic fibers

axon vs dendrite

dendrites are processes that conduct impulses toward the neuron cell body axon is a process that leads away from the cell body

the axis' most distinctive feature is a prominent anterior knob called the ___, or ___, on its anterosuperior side

dens, odontoid process

perichondrium

dense irregular connective tissue membrane covering cartilage

dense irregular tissue

densely packed collagen fibers running in random directions, scanty open space, few visible cells, scarcity of blood vessels FUNCTION: withstands stresses applied in unpredictable directions, imparts durability to tissues LOCATION: deeper portion of dermis of the skin, capsules around viscera, fibrous sheaths around cartilages and bones

dense regular tissue

densely packed, parallel, often wavy collagen fibers, slender fibroblast nuclei, scanty open space, scarcity of blood vessels FUNCTION: ligaments tightly bind bones together and resist stress, tendons attach muscle to bone and transfer muscular tension to bones LOCATION: tendons and ligaments

each spinal nerve except C1 receives sensory input from a specific area of skin called a...

dermatome

first order neuron of ascending tract

detects a stimulus and transmits a signal to the spinal cord or brainstem

Law of mass action

determines direction proceeds from the side of equation with greater quantity of reactants to the side with the lesser quantity

alleles

different forms of a gene , produce alternative forms of a particular trait

what muscle opens the mouth

digsatric muscle

along the cut edge of the calvaria, a layer of spongy bone in the middle of the cranial bones

diploe

primary motor cortex

directs voluntary movements to motor neurons --> precentral gyrus

bones taken apart so their surface features can be studied in more detail

disarticulated skeletons

Discoid

discly shaped cells (red blood cells)

dislocation

displacement of a bone from its normal position at a joint, common in the fingers, thumb, shoulder and knee

describe the distal (inferior) end of the spinal cord and the contents of the vertebral canal from level L2 to S5.

distal (inferior) end widens at the two enlargements of the spinal cord and tapers into the medullary cone 1. cervical enlargement: gives rise to nerves of the upper limbs 2. lumbar enlargement: gives rise to nerves of the pelvic region and lower limbs 3. medullary cone: inferior to the lumbar enlargement

nucleosomes

divided segments composed of chromatin, (DNA and histones and linker dna)

sagittal plane

divides body into left and right

frontal plane

divides the body into anterior and posterior portions

transverse plane

divides the body into superior and inferior parts

cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm into two cells

inorganic

does not contain carbon and hydrogen

quaternary

doesnt always occur, but sometimes two or more protein chains associate with eachother ~ie - hemoglobin

adipose tissue

dominated by adipocytes (large, empty-looking cells with thin margins) FUNCTION: energy storage, thermal insulation, heat production, protective cushion, filling space, shaping body LOCATION: subcutaneous fat beneath skin, surrounds organs

thickest and toughest meninges that lies loosely against the inside of the cranium in most places but is firmly attached to it at a few points

dura mater

types of meninges

dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater

how do oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath?

each oligodendrocyte reach out to myelinated several nerve fibers in its immediate vicinity. pushed new layers of myelin under the older ones, so myelination spirals inward toward the nerve fiber - no neurilemma or endoneurium

Action

effect produced by a muscle to produce or prevent movement

third-class levers

effort in the middle

elastic cartilage

elastic fibers form weblike mesh amid lacunae, always covered by perichondrium FUNCTION: provides flexible, elastic support LOCATION: external ear, epiglottis

nervous system employs what kinds of means to send messages quickly from cell to cell?

electrical and chemical

why do cells have resting membrane potential?

electrolytes are unequally distributed between the ECF and ICF

Trace element

elements that are present in tiny amounts in the human body

tendon sheath

elongated cylindrical tubes wrapped around a tendon, seen especially in the hand and foot.

hypothalamus

emotions, hunger, thirst, hormones, homeostasis, connects to pituitary

law of complementary base pairing

enables us to predict the base sequence of one strand if we know the sequence of the complementary strand

axon terminal

endpoint of a neuron where synaptic vesicles are located and neurotransmitters are released

Potential energy

energy contained in an object because of its position or internal state not doing work at the time water behind a dam Types: chemical energy and free energy

electron shells

energy levels of an atom - inner shell = 2 e-, all the rest have 8 e- (the rule of eights)

Kinetic energy

energy of motion; energy that is actively doing work moving water flowing through a dam heat - kinetic energy of molecular motion electromagnetic energy - the kinetic energy of moving 'packets' of radiation called photons

what does a sweet taste indicate?

energy source + caloric value (sugars)

Anabolism

energy-consuming SYNTHESIS reactions

Catabolism

energy-releasing breakdown reactions

parasympathomimetics

enhance activity

DNA ligase

enzyme that joins together segments produced by DNA polymerase

layers of the skin

epidermis, dermis, hypodermis

four types of tissues

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

anatomical position

erect, feet forward, arms at side with palms facing forward, head facing forward

cranial bone that contributes to the medial wall of the orbit, the roof and walls of the nasal cavity, and the nasal septum

ethmoid bone

the anterior cranial bone located between the eyes

ethmoid bone

the labyrinth is a maze of air spaces called _______

ethmoidal cells

types of melanin

eumelanin (brown) and pheomelanin (yellow)

why does nervous tissue have one of the highest rate of ATP consumption of any tissue in the body?

every signal generated by a neuron slightly upsets the distribution of sodium and potassium, so the Na/K pump must work continually to restore equilibrium

Denervation Hypersensitivity

exaggerated responses cardiac and smooth muscle if autonomic nerves are severed

Hypercalcemia

excessive calcium binding to cell surface makes sodium channels less likely to open, depressing nervous system

hirsutism

excessive hair growth over the body

diaphoresis

excessive sweating

Universal properties of muscle

excitability, conductivity, contraction, extension, elasticity

universal properties of neurons

excitability, conductivity, secretion

local potentials can be either excitatory or inhibitory, meaning...

excitatory: they depolarize a cell and make a neuron more likely to produce an action potential inhibitory: they hyper polarize a cell and make the membrane more negative, inhibiting the neuron and making it less sensitive and less likely to produce an action potential

Equilibrium

exists in reversible reactions when the ratio of products to reactants is stable

what does crossed extension reflex help maintain?

extends and stiffen the limb to enable you to keep your balance

hyperextension

extension of a joint beyond zero position; moving behind the frontal plane

Microvilli

extensions of the plasma membrane that serve primarily to increase a cell's surface area, best developed in cells specialized in absorption. Brush border- "carpet" some have actin filaments inside, anchor microvillus to a protein mesh called terminal web. Actin can shorten microvillus to absorb contents. Cells like taste buds and inside ear serve more for sensory (tiny bumps)

prominent medial bump on occipital bone that is the attachment for the nuchal ligament

external occipital protuberance

glycoproteins

external surface of cell membrane mucus of respiratory and digestive tracts

Protein Denaturation

extreme conformational change that destroys function due to extremes of heat or pH

ethmoid bone is not porous and not delicate at all (t/f)

f

what passes through the stylomastoid foramen

facial n.

what passes through the internal acoustic meatus?

facial n. and vestibulocochlear n.

CNVII

facial, both

what nerves are involved in taste?

facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus

T/F: all sensory signals go to the brain

false

T/F: sensory cells have to be individual epithelial cells

false, neurons can be sensory cells

T/F: dead neurons are replaceable

false, surviving neurons cannot multiply to replace the lost

T/F: rods and cones are neurons

false, they are related to ependymal cells of the brain

5 primary types of lipids

fatty acids triglycerides phospholypids eicosanoids steroids

Bone Marrow - Yellow

fatty marrow of long bones in adults

referred pain

feeling of pain when sensory information from internal and external areas converges on the same nerve cells in the spinal cord

reticular fibers

fibers made of collagen fibers that are very thin and branched, form a tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues

fibrous connective tissue cells

fibroblasts, macrophages, leukocytes, plasma cells, mast cells, adipocytes

joint (articular) capsule

fibrous and encloses the joint cavity and has two layers: fibrous capsule and synovial membrane

the bones of an infant are jointed at fontanels only by _____

fibrous membranes

Epimysium

fibrous sheath that surrounds the entire muscle

types of lingual papillae

filiform, foliate, fungiform, vallate

golgi vesicles

final golgi cisterna, farthest from the ER either buds off new coated vesicles containing the finished protein or may simply break up into vesicles to be replaced by younger cisterna

chromatin

fine filamentous material made of proteins that make up DNA

flaccid vs spastic paralysis

flaccid paralysis → muscles atrophy (waste away) due to lower motor neuron damage, - i.e. no impulses reach muscles spastic paralysis → muscles are stimulated irregularly by reflex activity, damage is to upper motor neurons

gliding joint

flat articular surfaces move (slightly) over an adjacent bone; monaxial

elastic fibers

flexible and "stretchy" connective tissue fibers that add elasticity to tissue

aqueous humor

fluid in the eye, found between the cornea and the lens

anterior chamber

fluid-filled space between the cornea and iris

posttranslational modification

folds back chain of amino acids on itself, three disulfide bridges form and 35 amino acids removed from the middle of the protein

how to test CNIII

following a pen right/left or up/down - test of nystagmus/ pupil dilation

spaces between the unfused cranial bones of an infant

fontanel

what influences taste?

food texture, aroma, temperature, and appearance

an irregular gash that occurs at the junction of the sphenoid, temporal and occipital bones and is filled with cartilage in life and transmits no major vessels of nerves

foramen lacerum

most conspicuous feature of the occipital bone that admits the spinal cord to the cranial cavity and provides a point of attachment for the dura mater

foramen magnum

opening where the spinal cord meets the brain

foramen magnum

foramen of CNV3

foramen ovale, mandibular + mental foramen

foramen of CNV2

foramen rotundum + infraorbital foramen

passages lateral to the sella turcica for two branches of the trigeminal nerve

foramen rotundum and foreman ovale

about the diameter of a pencil lead and provides passage for an artery of the meninges in the sphenoid bone

foramen spinosum

holes that allow passage for nerves and blood vessels

foramina

Flexion

foreward bending movements

oligodendrocytes

form myelin in brain and spinal cord

schwann cells

form neurilemma around all PNS nerve fibers and myelin around most of them; aid in regeneration of damaged nerve fibers

Sacroplasmic reticulum

forms network around each myofibiril

sphenoid bone

forms part of the base of the skull and parts of the floor and sides of the orbit

ethmoid bone

forms part of the posterior portion of the nose, the orbit, and the floor of the cranium

nitrogenous base

found in nucleotides, classified as single or double carbon-nitrogen ring (ATCG)

eccrine sudoriferous gland

found throughout the skin of most regions of the body, especially in skin of forehead, palms, and soles; secretes a less viscous product consisting of water, ions, urea, and ammonia; regulates body temperature and removal of metabolic wastes

Stages of healing 1

fracture hematoma (1) broken vessels form a blood clot

Fracture Types - Linear

fracture parallel to long axis of the bone.

Closed Reduction

fragments are aligned with manipulation & casted

the spinal cord extends through the vertebral canal from.....to.....

from foramen magnum to L1

supporting cells of taste buds

from the capsule surrounding the taste receptors cells, these cells support and protect there receptor cells

bone that extends from the forehead back to a prominent coronal suture

frontal bone

what are the four nasal sinuses

frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillary

first-class levers

fulcrum in the middle

tertiary

further bending and folding of proteins into globular and fibrous shapes globular proteins -compact tertiary structure well suited for proteins embedded in cell membrane and proteins that must move about freely in body fluid fibrous proteins - slender filaments better suited for roles as in muscle contraction and strengthening the skin

proteoglycans

gels that hold cells and tissues together forms gelatinous filler in umbilical cord and eye joint lubrication tough, rubbery texture of cartilage

multiple alleles

genes that exist in more than 2 allelic forms

smooth area of the frontal bone ust above the root of the nose

glabella

lacrimal gland

gland located in the upper outer region above the eyeball that secretes tears

CNIX

glossopharyngeal, both

what passes through the jugular foramen

glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory

fifth function of muscle

glycemic control, stabilize blood concentration of glucose by absorbing, storing and using it

secretory vesicles

golgi vesicles that migrate to the plasma membrane and fuse with it and releasing cell product exocytosis (salivary gland secretes mucus and digestive enzymes

characteristics of local potentials

graded, decremental, reversible, excitatory or inhibitory

Stages of healing 2

granulation tissue (2) fibrous tissue formed by fibroblasts & infiltrated by capillaries

gray and white matter in the brain

gray outside, white inside

which wing of the sphenoid bone forms part of the lateral surface of the cranium just anterior to the temporal bone

greater

a nerve passage to the bony palate that marks the horizontal plates of the palatine bones

greater palatine foramen

Chaperone

guides new protein in folding into the proper shape and helps to prevent improper association between different proteins

accessory organs (appendages) of the skin

hair, nails, and cutaneous glands

Cilia

hairlike processes helping the cell move, nearly all human cells have a primary cilium. Can't move cause it lacks 2 microtubules in middle. other ciliated cells: sensory, sense of balance in ear, retina in eye receptors for light, kidney monitor flow of fluid for urine. respiratory tract, uterine, ventricles in brain, short ducts in testis. Wavelike motion (power strokes) to move mucus or egg.recovery stroke restores it to upright position. If in sticky mucus they can't beat freely, therefore Cl pumps in apical membrane allow it to beat in a saline solution.

the palate consists of a bony _______ anteriorly and a fleshy _______ posteriorly

hard palate, soft palate

keratin

hard protein material found in the epidermis, hair, and nails

cell body of neuron

has centrally located nucleus with large nucleolus and surrounding organelles "soma" or "perikaryon"

"ruptured" or "slipped" disc when excessive stress cracks the anulus and causes the nucleus to ooze out

herniated disc

gamma particle/ray

high energy photons, deadly

free radical

highly reactive, destructive particle with an unpaired electron -superoxide anion, O2- - produced by normal metabolic rxns, radiation, chemicals

each palatine bone has an L shape formed by what two plates?

horizontal plate, perpendicular plate

duration of stimulus

how long the stimulus lasts

measures of concentration

how much solute in a given volume of solution

articular cartilage

hyaline cartilage, approximately 2mm thick in young, healthy joints

types of cartilage

hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

the accumulation of excessive amounts of cerebrospinal fluid, which causes the cranium to swell and newborns have abnormally wide sutures

hydrocephalus

the larynx is suspended from what bone by a broad ligament

hyoid bone

what passes through the hypoglossal canal

hypoglossal n.

CNXII

hypoglossal, motor

deep pit in sella turcica that houses the pituitary gland

hypophyseal fossa

action potentials are irreversible, meaning...

if a neuron reaches threshold, the action potential goes to completion, it cannot be stopped once it begins

action potentials are all or none, meaning...

if a stimulus depolarizes the neuron to threshold, the neuron fires at its maximum voltage, but if threshold is not met, the neuron does not fire at all

local potentials are reversible, meaning...

if stimulation ceases, cation diffusion out of the cell quickly returns the membrane voltage to its resting potential

basal cells of taste buds

immature cells that replace old/damaged cells every 7-10 days.

macrophages

in connective tissue, phagocytize foreign substances and help activate T cells

leukocytes

in connective tissue, white blood cells, fight infection

what makes skin dark?

in dark skin, melanocytes produce greater quantities of melanin and the melanin granules in the keratinocytes are more spread out than tightly clumped, and the melanin breaks down more slowly

what makes skin light?

in light skin, the melanin is clumped near the keratinocyte nucleus, so it imparts less color to the cells, it also breaks down more rapidly so little of it is seen beyond the stratum basale

what causes K+ to diffuse out of a resting cell? what attracts it into the cell?

in order to maintain the cell membrane potential, cells keep a low concentration of sodium ions and high levels of potassium ions within the cell (intracellular) the sodium-potassium pump moves 3 sodium ions out and moves 2 potassium ions in, thus in total removing one positive charge carrier from the intracellular space

tendon reflex

in response to excessive tension on the tendon - inhibits muscle from contracting strongly - moderates muscle contraction before it tears a tendon or pulls it loose from the muscle or bone

in the atlas, the ___, which are comparatively flat or only slightly concave, articulate w c2

inferior articular facets

which conchae is the largest of the three conchae in the nasal cavity

inferior nasal concha

a deeper ridge on occipital protuberance that provides attachment for some of the deep neck muscles

inferior nuchal line

a gash exhibited on the floor of the orbit that angles downward and medially formed by the maxilla that is a passage for blood vessels and sensory nerves from the face

inferior orbital fissure

muscles that move the eye

inferior rectus, medial rectus, superior rectus, inferior oblique (oculomotor), lateral rectus (abducens), superior oblique (trochlear)

each intervertebral foramen is formed by an _______ in the pedicle of the upper vertebrae and a _______ in the pedicle of the lower one

inferior vertebral notch, superior vertebral notch

bursitis

inflammation of the bursa

spinal meningitis

inflammation of the spinal meninges due to viral, bacterial, or other infection

acne

inflammatory disease of the skin involving the sebaceous glands and hair follicles

gene

information containing segment of dna that codes for the production of a molecule of RNA, which in most cases go on to play a role in the synthesis of one or more proteins.

just below the orbit, a maxilla exhibits an _______, which provides passage for a blood vessel to the face and a nerve that receives sensations from the nasal region and cheek

infraorbital foramen

what nerve emerges through the foramen rotundum into the cranial cavity?

infraorbital foramen

inner vs outer hair cells

inner cells connect to afferent neurons, outer cells connect to efferent neurons (efferent neurons are the output that help control the gain of the input)

Mineral

inorganic elements that are extracted from the soil and move up the food chain (through plants) into humans and other organisms

intersegmental reflex arc

input and output occur at different levels of the spinal cord

a cartilaginous pad located between the bodies of two adjacent vertebrae

intervertebral disc

when two vertebrae are joined, they exhibit an opening called _______ between their pedicles that allows passage for spinal nerves that connect with thee spinal cord at regular intervals

intervertebral foramen

radioisotopes

isotopes that are unstable ad decay to a more stable form [every element has at least one radioisotope]

how does the skin protect the body?

it acts as a physical barrier, prevents fluid loss, prevents the invasion of microorganisms and protects against UV damage

the spinal nerve is a mixed nerve, meaning that...

it carries sensory signals to the spinal cord by way of the posterior root and ganglion, and motor signals out to more distant parts of the body by way of the anterior root

how does the spinal cord conduct signals?

it contains bundles of nerve fibers that conduct information up and down the cord, connecting different levels of the trunk with each other and the brain

stand with your right shoulder, hip, and foot firmly against a wall. raise your left foot from the floor without losing contact with the wall at any point. what happens? why? what principle of this chapter does this demonstrate?

it is virtually impossible to raise the left foot without losing contact with the wall. Keeping the hip and shoulder against the wall thwarts the crossed extension reflex and the normal tendency of the body to shift its weight over the right leg.

what does it mean to say a local potential is graded, decremental, and reversible?

it means it is proportional to the stimulus length, it returns to its resting membrane potential if stimulation ceases before threshold is reached and the signal grows weaker with distance

polymerization

joining monomers to form a polymer

foramen of CNIX

jugular foramen

foramen of CNX

jugular foramen

foramen of CNXI

jugular foramen

large, irregular opening just medial to the styloid process, between the temporal and occipital bones. blood from the brain drains through this into internal jugular vein of the neck

jugular foramen

ACh receptors are found in

junctional folds

cells of the epidermis

keratinocytes, stem cells, melanocytes, tactile cells, dendritic cells

Anthony gets into a fight between rival gangs. As an attacker comes at him with a knife, he turns to flee, but stumbles. The attacker stabs him on the medial side of the right gluteal fold and Anthony collapses. He loses all use of his right limb, being unable to extend his hip, flex his knee, or move his foot. He never fully recovers these lost functions. Explain what nerve injury Anthony has most likely suffered.

knife and gunshot wounds in this area often damage the sciatic nerve, which passes through this region and provides motor innervation to the hamstring, gastrocnemius, and other major muscles of hip, knee, ankle, and foot movements.

varicosities

knoblike swellings of certain autonomic axons containing mitochondria and synaptic vesicles

locus

location of a particular gene

apocrine vs eccrine sweat glands

location: apocrine found in axillae, genitalia, around anus, and beard region eccrine found everywhere else in body ducts: apocrine duct leads to hair follicle, eccrine duct leads to body surface consistency: apocrine is more oily, and stinks, eccrine is less stinky and is water with small amounts of salt

skeletal muscle

long, threadlike, unbranched cells (fibers), relatively parallel in longitudinal tissue sections, striations, multiple nuclei per cell near plasma membrane FUNCTION: body movements, facial expression, posture, breathing, speech, swallowing LOCATION: skeletal muscles, mostly attached to bones but also in the tongue, esophagus, encircling the lips, eyelids, urethra, and anus

areolar tissue

loose arrangement of collagenous and elastic fibers, scattered cell types and abundant ground substance FUNCTION: loosely binds epithelia to deeper tissues, allows passage of nerves and blood vessels through other tissues, provides arena for immune defense LOCATION: underlying nearly all epithelia, surrounding blood vessels, nerves, esophagus, and trachea

lamina propia

loose connective tissue that underlies a mucous epithelium and forms part of a mucous membrane

reticular tissue

loose network of reticular fibers and cells, infiltrated with numerous leukocytes FUNCTION: forms supportive storm (framework) for lymphatic organs LOCATION: lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, bone marrow

the mandible supports _______ and provides attachment for muscles of _______ and _______

lower teeth, mastication, facial expression

Depression

lowers a body part in the same plane

hair bulb

lowest part of a hair strand; the thickened, club-shaped structure that forms the lower part of the hair root

auditory ossicles

malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), stapes (saddle)

the auditory ossicles are made up of what three ossicles

malleus, incus, stapes

what bone is the strongest bone of the skull and the only one that can move significantly?

mandible

an oval knob that articular with the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone that the condylar process bears

mandibular condyle

the medial surface of the ramus just below the mandibular notch

mandibular foramen

depression where the mandible articulates with the cranium (squamous part of temporal lobe)

mandibular fossa

what passes through the foramen ovale

mandibular n. (V3)

the U-shaped arch between the coronoid process and condylar process

mandibular notch

anaxonic neuron

many dendrites but no axon - help in visual processes - no action potentials

a muscle of mastication that inserts into the angle of the mandible

masseter

pituitary

master gland, primary link between nervous and endocrine system

a groove that lies medial to the mastoid process that is the origin of the digastric muscle

mastoid notch

part of temporal bone that lies posterior to the tympanic part

mastoid part

can palpate as a prominent lump behind the earlobe

mastoid process

condrocytes

mature cartilage cells

oval window

membrane at the entrance to the cochlea through which the ossicles transmit vibrations

stimulation of a neuron causes local disturbances in...

membrane potential dendrite --> soma --> axon --> axon terminal

hyperpolarization

membrane potential becomes more negative due to K+ channels remaining open longer than Na+ channels (more K+ leaving than Na+ entering)

mucous membrane

membrane that secretes mucus that lubricates the surface of organs and keeps them moist

anterograde transport

movement down the axon away from soma - proteins, enzymes, signaling molecules produced in nucleus and needed in the axon

Adduction

movement in the frontal plane back toward the midline

first function of muscle

movement such as speaking

urothelium

multilayered epithelium with surface cells that change from round to flat when stretched FUNCTION: stretches to allow filling of urinary tract, protects underlying tissues from osmotic damage by urine LOCATION: urinary tract (part of kidney, ureter, bladder, part of urethra)

stratified keratinized squamous epithelium

multiple cell layers with cells becoming increasingly flat and scaly toward surface FUNCTION: resists abrasion and penetration by pathogenic organisms, retards water loss through skin LOCATION: epidermis, palms, and soles

visceral muscle

muscle connected to internal organs; involuntary or smooth muscle

electrolyte imbalance

muscle cramps, brittle bones, coma, cardiac arrest

Direct attachment

muscle ending directly onto bone

Indirect attachment

muscle ends short of the bone and onto a tendon

intrinsic muscle

muscles contained in a particular region

explain why myelinated fibers conduct signals much faster than unmyelinated fibers

myelin is an insulating layer, which helps to actually conduct signals through the axon at a much faster speed than unmyelinated axons. Therefore, myelinated axons transmit action potentials faster than unmyelinated axons

facial n.

name the structure

foramen magnum

name the structure

foramen ovale

name the structure

foramen rotundum

name the structure

frontal lobe

name the structure

general and sensory components of vagus n.

name the structure

general sensory component of glossopharyngeal n.

name the structure

glossopharyngeal n.

name the structure

hypoglassal canal

name the structure

hypoglossal n.

name the structure

hypothalamus

name the structure

infraorbital foramen

name the structure

internal acoustic meatus

name the structure

jugular foramen

name the structure

longitudinal fissure

name the structure

mammilary body

name the structure

mandible

name the structure

mandibular foramen

name the structure

mandibular n.

name the structure

maxilla

name the structure

oculomotor n.

name the structure

olfactory bulb

name the structure

olfactory n.

name the structure

olfactory tract

name the structure

ophthalmic n.

name the structure

optic canal

name the structure

optic chiasm

name the structure

optic chiasma

name the structure

optic disk

name the structure

optic n.

name the structure

optic tract

name the structure

orbital part of lesser wing of sphenoid bone

name the structure

osmolarity

number of osmoles per liter of solution 1 osmole= 1 mole of dissolved articles 1 molar (M) glucose= 1 osm/L 1 M NaCl=2 osm/L (two ions) 1M CaCl2=3 osm/L (3 ions) Physiologically milliosmoles =10^-3

phenotype

observable trait expressed from genotype

what bone forms the rear of the skull and much of its base

occipital bone

smooth knobs on either side of the foramen magnum where the skull rests on the vertebral column

occipital condyle

CNIII

oculomotor, motor

nerves that innervate eye muscles

oculomotor, trochlear, abducens n.

what rests in the cribriform foramina

olfactory bulbs

what structure detects smells?

olfactory mucosa, in the roof of the nasal cavity

pathway of olfactory nerve

olfactory receptor cells, cribriform plate, olfactory bulb, hypothalamus/amygdala to initate autonomic reflexes OR thalamus to orbitofrontal cortex in frontal lobe

how does smell work?

olfactory receptors are neurons, which receive odorants with olfactory hairs that have binding sites for odor molecules. the basal end of each receptive cell tapers to become an axon, which all eventually connect into small fascicles that leave the nasal cavity through the cribriform foramina in the ethmoid bone to form the olfactory bulb and eventually olfactory nerve (CNI)

CNI

olfactory, sensory

CNS neuroglia cells

oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells, microglia, astrocytes

foliate papillae

on side walls of tongue, no taste buds after 3 y/o (A)

contralateral

on the opposite side of the body from another structure

ipsilateral

on the same side of the body as another structure

Circumduction

one end of an appendage remains fairly stationary while the other end makes a circular motion

integrating center

one or more regions within the CNS that relay impulses from sensory to motor neurons, often interneurons

the unity of form and function is an important concept in understanding synapses. give two structural reasons why nerve signals cannot travel backward across a chemical synapse. what could be the consequences if signals did travel freely in both directions?

one reason for unidirectional transmission across synapses is that only the presynaptic neuron has synaptic vesicles and releases neurotransmitters, and another is that only the postsynaptic neuron has neurotransmitter receptors that can produce cellular excitation (discounting receptors in the presynaptic cell for neurotransmitter re-uptake). if these structural differences did not exist and signals traveled in both directions, as happens in some simple animals such as hydras, the behavioral responses to stimuli would be much less specific or precise. signals would spread randomly through the nervous system and effectors everywhere would respond to a sufficiently strong stimulus anywhere.

A band (7)

only in thick filaments

I band (2)

only in thin filaments

cervical plexus injury

open injury to the cervical plexus most commonly occurs during procedures such as radical neck dissections and carotid endarterectomies closed lesions to the plexus can occur from radiation treatment, usually for breast cancer, or from surgical positioning and surgical rolls damage to the cervical plexus can cause sensory disturbances to the posterior head, neck, submandibular region, and the superior back, in a cape-like distribution

pupil

opening in the center of the iris

DNA helicase

opens up one short segment of the helix at a time

Coenzymes

organic cofactors derived from water-soluble vitamins (niacin, riboflavin) they accept electrons from an enzyme in one metabolic pathway and transfer them to an enzyme in another

hierarchy of complexity

organism, organ systems, organs, tissues, cells, organelles, molecules, atoms

Mineralization Process

osteoblasts produce collagen fibers that spiral along the length of the osteon in alternating directions fibers become encrusted with minerals hardening matrix ion concentration must reach the solubility product for crystal formation to occur & then positive feedback forms more

cerebral cortex

outer region of the cerebrum, containing sheets of nerve cells; gray matter of the brain

neuropathic pain

pain that results as a direct consequence of a lesion or disease affecting abnormal functioning of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) or central nervous system (CNS)

strain

painful overstretching of a tendon or muscle without serious tissue damage

genotype

paired alleles that an individual possesses for a particular trait (CCyy)

what forms the roof of the mouth and floor of the nasal cavity

palate

what bones are located in the posterior nasal cavity?

palatine bones

horizontal extensions of the maxilla that forms the hard palate

palatine processes

layers of the dermis

papillary and reticular layer

fibrocartilage

parallel collagen fibers similar to those of a tendon, rows of chondrocytes in lacunae between collagen fibers, never has a perichondrium FUNCTION: resists compression and absorbs shock in some joints, also a transitional tissue between dense connective tissue and hyaline cartilage LOCATION: pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, menisci, knee joint

what foramen sometimes occurs near the corner of the lambdid and sagittal sutures

parietal foramen

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

partial depolarization of a postsynaptic neuron or muscle cell in response to a neurotransmitter, making it more likely to reach threshold and produce an action potential

Passive diffusion

passive mechanisms no ATP is required; filtration, simple diffusion, and osmosis

Knee ligaments

patella and patellar ligaments form an associated gliding joint which covers the anterior surface of the knee fibular and tibial ligaments prevent the knee from lateral rotation ACL- anterior cruciate ligament PCL- posterior cruciate ligament

polysynaptic reflex arc

pathway in which signals travel over many synapses on their way back to the muscle

the vertebral arch is composed of what?

pedicle, lamina

Transverse tubules

penetrate through the cell and emerge on other side

Penetrance

percentage of the population with a given genotype that actually exhibits the predicted phenotype

vision

perception of objects in the environment by means of light they emit or reflect

spinal shock

physiologic response that occurs between 30 and 60 minutes after trauma to the spinal cord and can last up to several weeks. spinal shock presents with total flaccid paralysis and loss of all reflexes below the level of injury.

hair is also known as

pilus

Sarcolemma

plasma membrane of skeletal muscle fiber

why are plexuses important?

plexuses bring various nerves together, sort them, and then send them to their respective muscle or anatomical structure to communicate signals to and from your brain. this has a protective effect; an injury to one nerve may only affect specific parts of a muscle while leaving other parts intact that are innervated by a different nerve in the same plexus.

gap junctions

points that provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to another with special membrane proteins - ions, glucose, amino acids, and other small solutes can pass through - NOT found in skeletal muscle

nucleic acids: definition

polymers of nucleotides

proton

postively charged particle of an atom - weight = 1 AMU (atomic mass unit)

neural integration is based on...

postsynaptic potentials produced by neurotransmitters

what chemical has the greatest influence on RMP and why?

potassium ions have the greatest influence on the RMP because the plasma membrane is more permeable to potassium than any other ion

free energy

potential energy available in a system to do useful work

chemical energy

potential energy stored in the bonds of molecules

what does sour taste indicate?

potentially toxic acid

optic disc

region at the back of the eye where the optic nerve meets the retina

holocrine secretion

release of a substance caused by the rupture of a gland cell, which becomes part of the secretion - secretion is thick and oily, composed of cell fragments

eccrine secretion

release product (sweat, tears, saliva) by exocytosis

Alternative Splicing

removes introns (nonsense portion) splice exons together (important)

Functions of membrane protein 2 of 7: Second-messenger systems

resides in the cytoplasm, triggered by a messenger binding to a surface receptor. requires both transmembrane and peripheral proteins

second-class levers

resistance in the middle

somatic motor association area

responsible for coordinating learned movements

resting membrane potential in living cells

resting membrane potential is -70mV with a negative charge on the inside of the membrane (excess of sodium in ECF attracts negative charges to the inside surface of the membrane)

repolarization

return of the cell to resting state, caused by reentry of potassium into the cell while sodium exits the cell

Extension

returning the joints back to zero position; e.g. standing up, straightening leg, etc.

abdominal regions

right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar, right iliac, hypogastric, left iliac

glenoid labrum

ring of fibrocartilage around glenoid cavity that acts to deepen cavity

acetabular labrum

ring of fibrocartilage that deepens of the depth of the hip bone socket

ciliary body

ring of tissue behind the peripheral iris that is composed of ciliary muscle and ciliary processes

pivot joint

rotational movement at a single point; Monaxial

nissl bodies

rough endoplasmic reticulum in neuron

Ovoid

round or ovally shaped cells white blood cells

fungiform papillae

rounded with taste buds (D)

saccule vs utricle

saccule: fluid in ear moves in response to vertical acceleration utricle: fluid in ear moves in response to horizontal acceleration

saddle joint

saddle-shaped; Both articulating surfaces are concave

the parietal bones are bordered by what four sutures

sagittal, coronal, lambdoid, squamous

electrolytes

salts that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting an electric current

stratified nonkeratinized squamous epithelium

same as keratinized epithelium but without surface layer of dead cells FUNCTION: resists abrasion and penetration by pathogenic organisms LOCATION: tongue, oral mucosa, esophagus, anal canal, vagina

neuroglia of PNS

satellite cells and schwann cells

scala vestibuli vs scala tympani

scala vestibuli: superior chamber of cochlea scala tympani: inferior chamber of cochlea

sebaceous glands

secrete sebum (oil) through holocrine secretion into the hair follicles where the hair shafts pass through the dermis - secretion consists of broken-down cells that are replaced by mitosis at the base of the gland

pineal gland

secretes melatonin, controls circadian rhythms

secretion vs excretion

secretion is when a useful substance is being released excretion is when a waste product is being released

unicellular glands

secretory cells found in an epithelium that is predominantly nonsecretory (goblet cell)

saddlelike surface feature of the sphenoid bone that consists of the hypophyseal fossa, tuberculum sellae, and dorsum sellae

sella turcica

motor neurons

send signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and gland cells (the effectors) "efferent"

olfaction

sense of smell

gustation

sense of taste

functional subdivisions of PNS

sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent)

functional types of neurons

sensory (afferent), interneurons (association), motor (efferent)

monosynaptic reflex arc

sensory neuron fires directly onto the motor neuron

explain the differences between a sensory neuron, motor neuron, and interneuron

sensory neuron: afferent, neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord motor neuron: efferent, a neuron that sends an impulse to a muscle or gland, causing the muscle or gland to react interneuron: association neurons, neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

proprioreceptors

sensory neurons that deliver information about the position and activity of your limbs

exteroreceptors

sensory receptors that detect stimuli from outside the body, such as light/heat/pressure/chemicals

longitudinal fissure

separates cerebral hemispheres

the vomer and perpendicular plate support a wall of _______ that forms most of the anterior part of the septum

septal cartilage

the _____ divides the nasal cavity into right and left air spaces called ______

septum, nasal fossae

types of secretions

serous glands, mucous glands, mixed exocrine glands

bones that form within some tendons in response to straight

sesamoid bone

single covalent

sharing of one electron pair

covalent bond

sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between nuclei

double covalent

sharing of two electron pairs. Often occurs between carbon atoms, between carbon & oxygen, and between carbon & nitrogen

filiform papillae

sharp with no taste buds

Fascia

sheet of connective tissue that separates muscles or muscle groups

cardiac muscle

short cells (cardiomyocytes) with notched or slightly branched ends, less parallel appearance in tissue sections, striations, intercalated discs, one nucleus per cell, centrally located FUNCTION: pumping of blood, involuntary control LOCATION: heart

smooth muscle

short fusiform cells overlapping each other, non striated, one nucleus per cell, centrally located FUNCTION: swallowing, contractions of the stomach and intestines, labor contractions, control of blood pressure and flow, involuntary control LOCATION: usually found in sheets of tissue in walls of blood vessels and viscera like the digestive tract

auditory canal

short tunnel that runs from the pinna to the eardrum (external acoustic meatus)

ball-and-socket joint

shoulder and hip joints; only multiaxial

humeroscapular joint

shoulder joint; Most freely moveable joint (shallow glenoid cavity and loose joint capsule) in the body and frequently injured

how to test CNXI

shrugging shoulders

do signals travel faster along axons that are myelinated or unmyelinated?

signals travel faster along myelinated axons

types of simple epithelium

simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified columnar

Element

simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties

how do schwann cells form the myelin sheath?

single cell will continuously wrap around the axon until all the schwann cell cytoplasm (including nucleus) are only in the layer on top of the sheath - thick outermost coil called neurilemma - external to neurilemma is a basal lamina and then a thin sleeve of connective tissue called the endoneurium

pseudo stratified columnar epithelium

single layer of cells varying in height and the position of their nuclei FUNCTION: secretes and propels mucus LOCATION: respiratory tract from nasal cavity to bronchi, portions of male urethra

simple cuboidal epithelium

single layer of cube shaped cells FUNCTION: absorption and secretion, production of protective mucous coat LOCATION: liver, thyroid, mammary, salivary, and other glands, kidney tubules, bronchioles

stratum basale

single layer of cuboidal stem cells and keratinocytes resting on the basement membrane

simple columnar epithelium

single layer of tall, narrow cells FUNCTION: absorption, secretion of mucus and other products, movement of egg and embryo to uterine tube LOCATION: inner lining of stomach, intestines, gallbladder, uterus, and uterine tubes

simple squamous epithelium

single layer of thin cells, flattened cells FUNCTION: allows rapid diffusion or transport of substances through membrane LOCATION: alveoli of lungs, kidney tubules, inner lining of blood vessels, serous membranes of stomach, intestines, and other viscera

primary sensory cortex

sites where sensory input is first received and one becomes conscious of the stimulus --> postcentral gyrus

types of muscular tissue

skeletal, cardiac, smooth

melanoma

skin cancer that arises from the melanocytes, accounts for no more than 5% of skin cancers

continuous conduction

slow conduction that occurs in nonmyelinated axons

the mastoid part of the temporal lobe is filled with _____ that communicate with the middle-ear cavity

small air sinuses

functional groups

small clusters of atoms attached to carbon backbone determines many of the properties of organic molecules

beta particle/ray

small, somewhat more penetrating, also of most importance when ingested -1e-

atom

smallest unit of an element

muscularis mucosae

smooth muscle that produces local movements of mucosa

where are sodium and potassium concentrated on both sides of a cell membrane?

sodium concentrated in ECF potassium concentrated in ICF

what ions dominate EPSPs and IPSPs?

sodium dominates EPSPs potassium dominates IPSPs

what does salty taste indicate?

sodium essential to physiological processes

the stratum corner of the skin is made of ________, but the hair and nails are composed mostly of ________

soft keratin, hard keratin

posterior chamber

space between the back of the iris and the front of the vitreous chamber; filled with aqueous humor

epidural space

space between the dura mater and the wall of the vertebral canal, filled with blood vessels, adipose tissue, and loose connective tissue

lacunae of cartilage

spaces in the cartilage occupied by chondrocytes

intercalated discs

specialized connections between myocardial cells containing gap junctions and desmosomes

sensory neurons

specialized to detect stimuli (light, heat, pressure, chemicals) and transmit info to the CNS "afferent"

dendritic cells

specialized white blood cells that patrol the body searching for antigens that produce infections

germ cells

sperm and egg cells on their way to becoming sperm and egg cells

how does the spinal cord relate to reflexes?

spinal reflexes play vital roles in posture, motor coordination, and protective responses to pain or injury

Nerve fibers leave the sympathetic chain by

spinal, sympathetic, and splanchnic nerves

a projection extending from the apex of the vertebral arch that is directed posteriorly and downward

spinous process

myelin sheath

spiral layer of insulation around a nerve fiber

part of temporal bone that is relatively flat and vertical and bears the zygomatic process and mandibular fossa

squamous part

second function of muscle

stability, maintain posture by preventing unwanted movements, stabilize joints by maintaining tension on tendons and bones

reflex arc

stimulus, receptor, sensory neuron (afferent), interneuron, motor neuron (efferent), response

what is the most widespread epithelium in the body?

stratified squamous epithelium

types of stratified epithelium

stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal, stratified columnar, transitional

layers of the epidermis

stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum

what reflexes smooth out muscle action (make them less jerky)?

stretch reflex

what type of reflex is valuable in stabilizing joints and why?

stretch, because it balances the tension between extensors and flexors - stretch reflexes send feedback to a set of synergists and antagonists (i.e. turning off flexors and turning on extensors)

collagenous fibers

strong and flexible connective tissue fibers that contain the protein collagen

cartilage

strong connective tissue with rubbery matrix that supports the body and is softer and more flexible than bone

Axoneme

structural basis from for ciliary movement, consisting of microtubules, two central tubules and nine microtubule pairs (9pairs+2 inside "structure")

neurons are classified by

structure and function

arthrology

study of anatomy, function, and dysfunction, and treatment of joints

a pointed spine on inferior surface of tympanic part that provides attachment for muscles of the tongue, pharynx, and hyoid bone

styloid process

the hyoid bone is suspended from what processes of the skull, by the small _______ and _______

styloid processes, stylohyoid muscles, stylohyoid ligaments

the mastoid notch is perforated by _____ at its anterior end and the _____ at its posterior end

stylomastoid foramen, mastoid foramen

Hydrophilic

substances that dissolve in water molecules must be polarized or charged

Hydrophobic

substances that do not dissolve in water molecules are non-polar or neutral (fat)

molecular weight

sum of atomic weights of atoms - add up the AMUs

temporal summation

summation by a postsynaptic cell of input (EPSPs or IPSPs) from a single source over time

the medial surface of the labyrinth gives rise to two curled, scroll-like plates of bone that project into the nasal fossa from its lateral wall toward the septum called the _______

superior and middle nasal conchae

a pair of _______ projects upward from one vertebra and meets a similar pair of inferior articular processes that projects downward from the vertebra abova

superior articular processes

nerves of the sacral plexus

superior gluteal, inferior gluteal, orbutator internus, sciatic (tibial + common/fibular)

a ridge that can be traced horizontally from the external occipital protuberance toward the mastoid process

superior nuchal line

a gash in the posterior wall of the orbit that angles upward lateral to the optic canal and serves as a passage for three nerves that supply the muscles of eye movement

superior orbital fissure

foramen of CNIII

superior orbital fissure

foramen of CNIV

superior orbital fissure

foramen of CNVI

superior orbital fissure

foramen of CNV1

superior orbital fissure + supraorbital notch

cervical enlargement

supplies nerves to the shoulder and upper limbs

mucous glands

supply a lubricant that keeps the skin moist in the air; allows for respiration

cerebrospinal fluid

supports brain and transports nutrients, chemical messengers, and wastes

sympatholytics

suppress sympathetic activity -block receptors or inhibit norepinephrine release -beta blockers reduce high BP interfering with effects of epinephrine/norepinephrine on heart and blood vessels

each supraorbital margin is perforated by a single _____ which provides passage for a nerve, artery, and veins

supraorbital foramen

a ridge deep to the eyebrows

supraorbital margin

when the edge of a supraorbital foramen breaks through the margin of the orbit, what is formed?

supraorbital notch

Open Reduction Internal Fixation

surgical exposure & repair with plates & screws

satellite cells

surround somas of neurons in the ganglia; provide electrical insulation and regulate chemical environment of neurons

Emulsion

suspension of one liquid in another fat in breast milk

what bones are often seen along the sagittal and lambdoid sutures lie like islands of bone

sutural (wormian) bones

extra bones in the skull

sutural or wormian bones

immovable joints visible as seams on the surface that connect skull bones

sutures

primary taste sensations

sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami

chemical equation

symbolizes the course of a chemical reaction reactants (on left) products (on right)

divisions of visceral motor division

sympathetic and parasympathetic

ACh is released from

synaptic vesicles

genetic code

system that enables these 4 nucleotides to code for amino acid sequences of all proteins

part of temporal lobe that is a small ring of bone that borders the opening of the external acoustic meatus

tampanic part

pathway of neurons involved in taste

taste buds, medulla oblongata, nuclei in hypothalamus + amygdala to activate autonomic reflexes OR thalamus to primary gustatory cortex in insula

how does taste work?

taste is a chemical sense. inside each little bump on the top and sides of your tongue are 200 or more taste buds, each containing a pore that catches food chemicals. in each taste bud pore, 50 to 100 taste receptor cells project taste hairs (that serve as receptor surfaces for tastants dissolved in saliva) into the taste pore

each maxilla extends from the _______ to the _______ of the orbit

teeth, inferomedial wall

general senses

temperature, pain, touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception

types of summation

temporal and spatial

what bone forms the lower wall and part of the floor of the cranial cavity

temporal bone

a pair of slight thickenings that form an arc across the parietal and frontal bones

temporal lines

muscle which pulls the mandible upward when you bite

temporalis muscle

temporal lines mark the attachment of the large- fan-shaped _____, a chewing muscle that inserts on the mandible

temporalis muscle

a hinge that the meeting of the mandibular condyle with the temporal bone forms

temporomandibular joint (TMJ)

Cohesion

tendency of like molecules to cling to each other water is very cohesive due to its hydrogen bonds surface film on surface of water is due to molecules being held together by a force called surface tension

Adhesion

tendency of one substance to cling to another

Aponeurosis

tendinous expansion that connects a muscle with the part it moves

rotator cuff

tendons of four muscles that also stabalize the shoulder; m. supraspinatus, m. infraspinatus, m. teres minor, and m. subscapularis (SITS)

sympathetic division

tends to arouse the body for action

parasympathetic division

tends to have a calming effect

eponyms

terms coined from the names of people

sympathetic effects tend to last longer

than parasympathetic effects -ACh released by parasympathetics is broken down quickly at synapse -NE by sympathetics is reabsorbed by nerve, diffuses to adjacent tissues, and much passes into bloodstream

distinguish between the central and peripheral nervous systems, and between visceral and somatic divisions of the sensory and motor systems

the CNS consists of your brain and spinal cord which are enclosed and protected by the cranium and vertebral column the PNS consists of all the rest, nerves and ganglia somatic sensory division carries signals from receptors in the skin, muscles, bones, and joints visceral sensory division carries signals mainly from the viscera of the thoracic and abdominal cavities, such as the heart, lungs, stomach, and urinary bladder somatic motor division carries signals to the skeletal muscles visceral motor division (autonomic nervous system ANS) carries signals to glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle

Tonicity

the ability of a solution to affect the fluid volume and pressure in a cell

neural integration

the ability of your neurons to process information, store and recall it, and make decisions

two-point touch discrimination

the ability to discern that two nearby objects touching the skin are truly two distinct points, not one (if two touches at skin goes to only one neuron = feels like only one touch)

what is homeostasis

the ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in an ever-changing outside world - fluctuates within limited range around a set point

chemical reactivity of water

the ability to participate in chemical reactions water ionizes into H+ and OH- water ionizes other chemicals (acids and salts) water involved in hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis reactions

proprioception

the ability to tell where one's body is in space

how does the trigger zone resemble the membrane at the node of Ranvier?

the action potentials can occur at nodes of Ranvier so the nerve signal appears as if it was jumping from node to node and at the trigger zone if an excitatory local potential arrives and is still strong enough it can open channels and generate action potential which is a rapid up-and-down shift in voltage

why is depolarization associated with excitation of a nerve or muscle cell?

the binding of a ligand opens ligand-gated sodium channels that allows Na to flow into the cell, which cancels some of the ICF negative charge, so the voltage across the membrane at any point drifts toward zero = local potential --> wave of excitation that spreads out from the point of stimulation

why does gray matter appear gray?

the cells and dendrites are unmyelinated

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

pattern baldness

the condition in which hair loss from specific regions of the scalp rather than thinning uniformly

stretch reflex

the contraction of a muscle in response to stretch of that muscle - helps to maintain equilibrium and posture

optic chiasma

the crossing of the optic nerves from the two eyes at the base of the brain

how can neurons be identified in a tissue section?

the cytoskeleton of neurons consist of a dense mesh of microtubules and neurofibrils, which compartmentalize the rough ER into dark-staining regions called chromatophilic substance = nissl bodies

epidermal ridges

the downward waves are extensions of the epidermis

tympanic membrane

the eardrum -- a structure that separates the outer ear from the middle ear and vibrates in response to sound waves

radioactivity

the emission of ionizing readiation by a radioisotope [we are all mildly radioactive]

axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands cytoplasm = axoplasm membrane = axolemma

olfactory bulb

the first brain structure to pick up smell information from the nose

Cytoplasm

the fluid between the nucleus and surface membrane, contains cytoskeleton, organelles, inclusions

Hydrostatic Pressure

the force exerted on a membrane by water. water going from Side B --> to Side A (which has proteins) until side A produces a pressure so some filtrations goes back to B. Therefore the rate of filtration=rate of forward osmosis. water will be equal. Net osmosis would slow down and stop. The hydrostatic pressure required on side A to stop osmosis is called osmotic pressure. The more nonpermeating solute (proteins) there is in A the greater the osmotic pressure.

myelination

the formation of a fatty sheath around the axons of a neuron

receptor potential

the initial effect of a stimulus on a sensory cell is a small local electrical change

Jillian is thrown from a horse. She strikes the ground with her chin, causing severe hyperextension of the neck. Emergency medical technicians properly immobilize her neck and transport her to a hospital, but she dies 5 minutes after arrival. An autopsy shows multiple fractures of vertebrae C1, C6, and C7 and extensive damage to the spinal cord. Explain why she died rather than being left quadriplegic.

the injury at C1 probably caused so much spinal cord damage there as to interrupt signals to the phrenic nerves of the diaphragm, thus causing respiratory paralysis

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs bony + membranous labyrinths

viscera

the internal organs of the body

what is the functional difference between a dendrite and an axon?

the key difference between axon and dendrites is the function of these two types of cytoplasmic extensions of the neuron. axon passes nerve impulses away from the cell body while dendrites pass nerve impulses towards the cell body

hypodermis

the layer of skin beneath the dermis, composed mainly of areolar and adipose tissue - pads the body and binds the skin to the underlying tissues

what does decussation mean?

the left side of the brain receives sensory information from the right side of the body and sends motor commands to that side, while the right sides of the brain senses and controls the left side of the body

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

friction ridges

the markings on the fingertips that leave oily fingerprints on surfaces we touch

replication fork

the meet point of the separated helix

what characteristics does an increased number of dendrites give to a neuron?

the more dendrites a neuron has, the more information it can receive can incorporate into its decision making

what does the use of more interneurons say about a signal?

the more interneurons, the more complex the information processing can be

keratinocytes

the most abundant epidermal cells, they function mainly to produce keratin

Abduction

the movement of a body part in the frontal plane away from the midline of the body; e.g. spreading feet apart

Osmosis

the net flow of water from one side of a selectively permeable membrane to the other (nonliving membranes) depends on solutes (hypertonic) water will move toward the place where there is more solutes to dilute it, or less water.

Osmolality

the number of osmoles of a solute per kilogram of water

outer ear

the outermost part of the ear, consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal

nail matrix

the part of the nail beneath the body and root from which the nail is produced

projection pathway

the pathways followed by sensory signals to their ultimate destinations in the CNS (first --> second --> third order neurons)

absolute refractory period

the period immediately following the firing of a nerve fiber when it cannot be stimulated no matter how great a stimulus is applied

relative refractory period

the period of time following an action potential, when it is possible, but difficult, for the neuron to fire a second action potential, due to the fact that the membrane is further from threshold potential (hyperpolarized)

what is meant by the anterior and posterior roots of a spinal nerve? which of these is sensory and which is motor?

the posterior roots passes posteriorly toward the back of the spinal cord and the anterior root passes anteriorly toward the toward the front of the spinal cord the spinal nerve is a mixed nerve carrying sensory information to the spinal cord by way of the posterior root and motor commands away from the cord by way of the anterior root

why are not all of our nerves large, myelinated, and fast to allow for faster signaling?

the presence of ONLY these kinds of fibers would be incredibly bulky, since large fibers require large somas and expenditures of energy to maintain them

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

summation

the process of adding up postsynaptic potentials and responding to their net effect

saltatory conduction

the propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons from one node of Ranvier to the next node, increasing the conduction velocity of action potentials

sense of equilibrium

the proprioceptive sense that provides information about the position of the head and its movements

flexor reflex

the quick contraction of flexor muscles resulting in the withdrawal of a limb from an injurious stimulus

location (receptive field) of stimulus

the region of the sensory surface that, when stimulated, causes a change in the firing rate of that neuron

exfoliation

the removal of excess dead cells from the skin surface

texture of hair is determined by

the shape of the cross section

how does the spinal cord impact locomotion?

the simple and repetitive muscle contractions that put one foot in front of the other are coordinated by neurons in the cord that produce the sequence of outputs to the extensor and flexor muscles of the lower limbs

spinal cord injuries commonly result from fractures of vertebra C5 to C6, but never from fractures of L3 and L5. explain both observations.

the spinal cord does not exist in the L3 to L5 vertebrae, so injuries to this region can not cause spinal cord injury. the C5 and C6 vertebrae are the site of the cervical enlargement.

complete transection of the cord

the spinal cord is completely severed, immediate loss of motor control at/below the level of injury - superior to C4 presents threat of respiratory failure

medulla of the hair

the spongy anterior core of hair that gives it flexibilty; appears as a canal in the middle of the shaft

kinesiology

the study of musculoskeletal movement

Biomechanics

the study of the mechanical structure of a living organism using physics to describe structures and the analogy of machines to understand movement (work) Long bones act as levers (resistance arm Lr; effort arm, Le) and joints act as a fulcrum (F) Resistance (R) equals load and effort (E): energy needed to overcome resistance (fig. 9.7) Mechanical advantage to do work (MA = Le/Lr) (fig. 9.8) MA > 1 or <1

what makes an action potential rise to +35mV? what makes it drop again after this peak?

the threshold for an action potential is typically -55mV) when a neuron fires the voltage-gated Na+ channels open quickly and K+ open more slowly, this depolarizes the membrane which stimulates still more voltage gated Na+ creating a positive feedback look that makes the membrane voltage rise rapidly once the rising potential passes 0mV, Na+ channels are inactivated and begin closing. by the time they all close the Na+ flow ceases, the voltage peaks around +35mV it then starts to drop because the Na+ gate has closed and the K+ channels are fully open. The K+ exit the cell and their outflow repolarizes the membrane and shifts the voltage back to negative numbers

sensory projection

the transmission of information from a receptor, or a receptive field, to a specific locality in the cerebral cortex, enabling the brain to identify the origin of stimulation

cornea

the transparent layer forming the front of the eye

hair follicle

the tube-like depression or pocket in the skin or scalp that contains the hair root

how does the tympanic membrane work?

the tympanic membrane receives sound vibrations from the outer air and transmits them to the auditory ossicles, which continue to vibrate to transfer the sensory stimulus into the inner ear

sense of hearing

the vibration of sound waves on the eardrums and the firing of electrochemical impulses in the brain

why is the overlap of dermatomes important?

their edges overlap by as much as 50%, so severance of one sensory nerve root does not entirely deaden sensation from a dermatome

how does the plasma membrane at the trigger zone differ from that on the soma? how does it resemble the membrane at a myelin sheath gap?

there are less voltage-gated channels (50-70 per square micrometer) and cannot generate action potentials and there are 350-500 channels per square micrometer at the trigger zone

why are muscle spindles important?

these structures enable the brain to send motor commands back to the muscles that control muscle tone, posture, coordinated movement, and corrective reflexes

how do neurons display excitability?

they are able to respond to environmental changes (stimuli)

why must myelinated fibers conduct electrical signals via saltatory conduction?

they cannot conduct a signal in a continuous mode because voltage-gated ion channels re too scarce in the myelin-covered internodal segments = no action potential possible there

action potentials are non decremental, meaning...

they do not get weaker with distance, the last action potential at the end of a nerve fiber is just as strong as the first one

local potentials are decremental, meaning...

they get weaker as they spread from the point of origin

local potentials are graded, meaning...

they vary in magnitude (voltage) according to the strength of the stimulus

Perimysium

thick connective tissue that wraps muscle fibers together in bundles (fascicles)

spiral organ

thick epithelium of sensory and supporting cells and associated membranes that converts vibrations into nerve impulses

Fusiform

thick in the middle and tapered toward the end (smooth muscle)

dura mater

thick, outermost layer of the meninges surrounding and protecting the brain and spinal cord

Endomysium

thin sleeve of connective tissue that surrounds each muscle fiber

papillary layer

thin zone of loose areolar tissue in and near the dermal papillae, upper layer of the dermis - allows for mobility of leukocytes - especially rich in small blood vessels

ventral body cavity

thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

what muscles are spindles abundant in?

those that require fine control (i.e. hand and foot muscles)

Fibrous

threadlike cells (skeletal muscle)

semicircular canals

three canals within the inner ear that contain specialized receptor cells that generate nerve impulses with body movement

meninges of the spinal cord

three fibrous membranes that enclose the brain and spinal cord

how to sensory signals enter the spinal cord?

through the posterior root and ganglion

types of cellular junctions

tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions

are epithelial cells tightly packed or loosely spaced?

tightly packed

physical half-life

time needed for a radioisotope to decay into a stable state - nuclear power plants create radioisotopes

biological half-life

time required for 50% of radioisotope to clear from body

synaptic knob

tiny enlargement at the end of an axon that secretes a neurotransmitter

synaptic vesicles

tiny pouches or sacs in the axon terminals that contain the chemicals known as neurotransmitters

impact of free radicals

tissue damage - destroy molecules, cause cancer, death of heart tissue, aging

loose connective tissue

tissue that binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place, contains collagenous, elastic, and recticular fibers

anterior/posterior roots lead (to/away from) the vertebral column and spinal cord

to

sprain

torn ligament or tendon, sometimes with damage to a meniscus or other cartilage

tactile cells

touch receptor cells associated with dermal nerve fibers In basal layer of epidermis

mechanoreceptors respond to

touch, pressure, gravity, stretch, movement

fundamental purpose of any sensory receptor is...

transduction

ionization

transfer of electrons from one atom to another (increases stability of valence shell)

all seven cervical vertebrae have a prominent round ___ in each transverse process

transverse foramen

holds the dens in place in a facet

transverse ligament

a projection extending from the vertebral arch that extends laterally from the point where the pedicle and lamina meet

transverse process

CNV

trigeminal, both

regulatory protein (transcription activator)

triggered by a receptor in the cytoplasm, moves into the nucleus and binds to the DNA near the casein gene

CNIV

trochlear, motor

T/F: a neuron never has more than one axon, and some neurons have none

true

trunk vs abdomen

trunk = above diaphragm abdomen = below diaphragm

raised anterior margin in sella turcica

tuberculum sellae

ACL & PCL

two deep intrascapular ligaments that cross each other (therefore their name) and anterior or posteior according the points of attachment to the tibia; The synovial membrane raps around them in such a way to exclude them from the synovial cavity; ACL prevents hyperextension of the knee, PCL prevents posterior knee displacement;

stratified cuboidal epithelium

two or more layers of cells, surface cells square or round FUNCTION: contributes to sweat secretion, secretes ovarian hormones, produces sperm LOCATION: sweat gland ducts, egg-producing vesicles, sperm-producing ducts

apocrine sweat gland

type of sweat gland that is associated with hair follicles in the armpits and genital regions

examples of ionizing radiation

ultra-violet rays, x-rays, alpha rays, beta rays, gamma rays

stem cells

undifferentiated cells that are able to renew themselves for long periods of time by cell division

conformation

unique three dimensional shape of protein crucial to function ability to reversibly change their conformation enzyme function muscle contraction opening and closing of cell membrane pores

ground substance

unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contains the fibers

the maxillae form the ______ and meet each other at a median _______

upper jaw, intermaxillary suture

what muscles does the brachial plexus innervate?

upper limb and some muscles of the neck and shoulder

what do cones detect?

used for color vision and to sense fine details

mammilary body

used for feeding reflexes and behaviors

TEM: Transmission Electron Microscope

uses a beam of electrons in place of light. Assisted in seeing the cells ultrastructure. Molecular level.

DNA Replication

using law of complementary base pairing to synthesize new DNA

broca's area

usually in the left frontal lobe, directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

CNX

vagus, both

is connective tissue vascular or avascular?

vascular

each vertebral foramen is bordered by a bony _______ composed of pedicles and laminas

vertebral arch

the transverse foramen in all seven cervical vertebrae provide passage and protection for the ___, which supply blood to the brain, and ___, which drain blood from various neck structures (but not from the brain)

vertebral arteries, vertebral veins

the vertebral foramina collectively form a passage for the spinal cord called what?

vertebral canal

inferior and superior articular processes prevent what from twisting?

vertebral column

Primary organs of the ANS

viscera of thoracic and abdominal cavities some structures of the body wall cutaneous blood vessels sweat glands piloerector muscles

special senses

vision, hearing, taste, smell, equilibrium

how to test CNII

visual field test (snellen chart), pupillary light reflex

occipital lobe

visual processing

what bone forms the inferior half of the nasal septum

vomer

epidermal water barrier

water retention is fostered by tight junctions between skin cells and the waterproofing that occurs in the stratum granulosum - helps prevent dehydration - does not prevent the absorption of water by the stratum corneum when we soak in a bath ("prune fingers")

Weight per Volume

weight of solute in given volume of solution IV saline: 8.5 grams NaCl/liter of solution biological purposes - milligrams per deciliter mg/dL (deciliter = 100 ml)

Primary

what order the amino acids come in (specified by genetic code)

messenger RNA (mRNA)

when a gene is activated mRNA is made which is a mirror image of the gene

what happens to Na+ when a neuron is stimulated on its dendrite? why does the movement of Na+ raise the voltage on the plasma membrane?

when an electrical pulse stimulates and destabilizes the membrane, the tiny ion channels open wide and allow positive sodium ions to enter the cell. this, in turn, makes the cell positively charged

Growth Ceases

when epiphyseal plate "closes" anabolic steroids may cause premature closure of growth plate producing short adult stature

explain how nerve fibers in a tendon sense the degree of tension in a muscle.

when muscle contraction pulls on the tendon, the collagen fibers come together like the two side of a stretched rubber band and squeeze the nerve ending between them

transport vesicles

when the ER is finished with a protein it pinches off bubblelike vesicles, then coated with clathrin which selects proteins and transports it threw these vesicles

Concentration gradient

when the concentration of a substance differs from one point to another- up=against gradient, down=with gradient

how do neurons display the ability of secretion?

when the signal reaches the end of a nerve fiber, the neuron secretes a neurotransmitter that crosses the gap and stimulates the next cell

incomplete dominance

when two different alleles are present, the phenotype is intermediate (Red + white = pink)

sclera

white of the eye

white matter

whitish nervous tissue of the CNS consisting of neurons, axons, and their myelin sheaths

cerumen

yellow waxy material that lubricates and protects the ear canal

jaundice

yellowing of the skin and the whites of the eyes caused by an accumulation of bile pigment (bilirubin) in the blood

what bones form the angles of the cheeks at the inferolateral margins of the orbits and part of the lateral wall of each orbit

zygomatic bones

in the squamous part of a temporal bone, extends anteriorly to form part of the zygomatic arch (cheekbone)

zygomatic process

heterozygous

(Cc) express both genes of dominant and recessive

ankle joint

(also know as talocrural joint) has two articulations: medial joint between tibia and talus; lateral joint between fibula and talus; both are enclosed in one capsule; Malleoli of the tibia and fibular overhang the medial and lateral sides, repectively, of the talus; they prevent side-to-side rotation of the ankle

function of CNVI

(m) abduction of the eye (lateral rectus m.)

function of CNVI

(m) adduction of the eye (lateral rectus m.)

function of CNIII

(m) constriction of pupil, opening of eyelid, movement of eye (superior/inferior/medial rectus + inferior oblique)

function of CNIV

(m) diagonal movement of eye (superior oblique m.)

function of CNXI

(m) swallowing, head, neck, and shoulder movement

function of CNXII

(m) tongue movement for speech, food, manipulation, and swallowing

lateral horn

(only in thoracic and lumbar regions) - contains sympathetic neurons

function of CN1

(s) olfaction, smell

how to test CNV

(s) patient closes eyes, tells examiner where they are touching their face (m) clenching the jaw, depressing and elevating the jaw

function of CNIX

(s) sensations from posterior 1/3 of tongue (m) swallowing, salivation, gagging, control of BP and respiration

how to test CNX

(s) sensations of posterior tongue (m) say "ahhh"

function of CNVIII

(s) sense of hearing (cochlear) and balance (vestibular)

function of CNII

(s) sense of vision

function of CNX

(s) sensory of root of tongue, viscera, throat (m) swallowing, speech, regulation of viscera

function of CNV

(s) sensory of skin of the face -- touch, pain, temperature (m) movement of hyoid muscles and mastication

function of CNVII

(s) taste buds anterior 2/3 of tongue (m) movement of facial muscles, salivary/tear/nasal/palatine glands

how to test CNVII

(s) taste test (m) any facial movement like smiling

how to test CNIX

(s) test feeling on tongue (m) testing gag reflex, swallowing

atomic mass/mass number

- # of protons + # of neutrons in the nucleus. - The mass of an atomic particle, sub-atomic particle, or molecule. - It may be expressed in unified atomic mass units (u).

eicosanoids

- 20 carbon compounds derived from a fatty acid called arachidonic acid ~prostaglandins have a 5-carbon ring in the chain *serve as intercellular messengers in inflammation, blood clotting, hormone action, labor contraction, et

pH

- A measure derived from the molarity of H+ - 7.0 = neutral pH (H+ = OH-) - <7 = acidic (H+ > OH-) - >7 = basic (OH- > H+ )

lipids

- Source of energy: more calories per gram than carbs - variable in structure

~atomic mass unit

- The standard unit that is used for denoting atomic mass. Written as "u" or "Da." - It is valued at 1.660538921(73)×10−27 kg. - One unified atomic mass unit is, by International agreement, equivalent to 1/12th mass of a single carbon-12 atom at rest. - 1 g/mol.

Vasomotor Tone

- a baseline firing frequency of sympathetics -keeps vessels in state of partial constriction -increase in firing frequency - vasoconstriction -decrease in firing frequency - vasodilation -can shift blood flow from one organ to another as needed

Cerebral Cortex

- anger, fear, anxiety -powerful emotions influence the ANS because of the connections between our limbic system and the hypothalamus Thus, the limbic system provides a pathway connecting sensory and mental experiences with the autonomic nervous system.

ATP

- best known nucleotide Composition: adenine (nitrogenous base) ribose (sugar) phosphate groups (3) 2nd and 3rd phosphate groups have high energy bonds ~ most energy transfers to and from ATP involve adding or removing the 3rd phosphate Adenosine triphosphatases (ATPases) hydrolyze the 3rd high energy phosphate bond separates into ADP + Pi + energy

somatosensory functions

- carry sensory signals from bones, joints and muscles and the skin, - signals are for touch, heat, cold, stretch, pressure, pain and other sensations

Polymerization

- dehydration synthesis (condensation) is how living cells form polymers

poliomyelitis

- destroys motor neurons in the brainstem and anterior horn of the spinal cord - inflammation of the gray matter of the spinal cord caused by a virus, commonly resulting in spinal and muscle deformity and paralysis - poliovirus spread by fecally-contaminated water

Catabolism

- energy releasing (exergonic) decomposition reactions - breaks covalent bonds - produces smaller molecules - releases useful energy

Anabolism

- energy storing (endergonic) synthesis reactions - requires energy input - production of protein or fat - driven by energy that catabolism releases

Hirschsprung disease

- hereditary defect causing absence of enteric nervous system -no innervation in sigmoid colon and rectum -constricts permanently and will not allow passage of feces -feces becomes impacted above constriction -megacolon - massive dilation of bowel accompanied by abdominal distension and chronic constipation -maybe colonic gangrene, perforation of bowel, and peritonitis -usually evident in newborns who fail to have their first bowel movement

lipids: chemical characteristics

- hydrophobic organic molecule - composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen - high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen (ie - tristearin 18:1) - high energy content thus has more calories/gram

Hypothalamus

- major visceral motor control center -nuclei for primitive functions - hunger, thirst, sex NOTE: Artificial stimulation of different regions of the hypothalamus can activate the fight-or-flight response.

characteristics of life

- organization - cellular composition - metabolism and excretion - responsiveness and movement - homeostasis - development - reproduction - evolution

supine

- palms face forwards or upwards - radius and ulna parallel

prone

- palms face rearward or downward - radius and ulna crossed

carbohydrate functions

- quickly mobilized source of energy - all digested carbohydrates converted to glucose - oxidized to make ATP

functions of the skin

- resistance to trauma and infection - other barrier functions - vitamin D synthesis - sensation - thermoregulation - nonverbal communication

cross section of cochlea

- scala vestibuli (with perilymph) - scala tympanic (with perilymph) - cochlear duct (with endolymph) - vestibular membrane - tectorial membrane - spiral organ - basilar membrane

phospholipids

- similar to neutral fat except that instead of one fatty acid, it has a phosphate group - structural foundation of cell membrane - Amphiphilic: phosphate "head" = hydrophilic, fatty acid "tails" = hydrophobic

neuropharmacology

- study of effects of drugs on the nervous system

cholesterol

- the 'parent' steroid from which the other steroids are synthesized ...including cortisol, progesterone, estrogens, testosterone and bile acids - important component of cell membranes - required for proper nervous system function

Cooperative Effects

- when two divisions act on different effectors to produce a unified effect -parasympathetics increase salivary serous cell secretion -sympathetics increase salivary mucous cell secretion NOTE: The enzymes and mucus are both necessary components of the saliva.

what is threshold potential and what happens when it is reached?

-55mV, voltage-gated ion channels are open once reached

The charge in a resting muscle is

-90 mV

Control of Autonomic Function

-ANS regulated by several levels of CNS -cerebral cortex -hypothalamus -midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata -spinal cord reflexes

Muscarinic Receptors

-All cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and gland cells that receive cholinergic innervation have muscarinic receptors. There are different subclasses of muscarinic receptors with different effects; thus ACh excites intestinal smooth muscle by bindingto one type of muscarinic receptor, and inhibits cardiac muscle by binding to a different type. NOTE: Muscarinic receptors work through a variety of second-messenger systems.

triglycerides (neutral fats): chemical properties

-Glycerol + 3 fatty acids -> triglyceride (fat) + 3H2O 3 fatty acids covalently bonded to 3 carbon alcohols and 1 glycerol molecule via dehydration synthesis. {- Once joined to glycerol, fatty acids can no longer donate protons - neutral fats - Broken down by hydrolysis - At room temperature = triglyceride; liquid = oil; solid = fat}

Enteric Nervous System

-Is the name for the nerve system of the digestive tract -does not arise from the brainstem or spinal cord -does innervate smooth muscle and glands -composed of 100 million neurons found in the walls of the digestive tract -no components in CNS -has its own reflex arcs -regulates motility of esophagus, stomach, and intestines and secretion of digestive enzymes and acid -normal digestive function also requires regulation by sympathetic and parasympathetic systems

Parasympathetic Tone

-Maintains smooth muscle tone in the intestines -holds the resting heart rate down to about 70 to 80 beats/minute. NOTE: If the parasympathetic vagus nerves to the heart are cut, the heart beats at its own intrinsic rate of about 100 beats/minute.

Peptide

-Molecule composed of 2 or more amino acids joined by peptide bonds -oligopeptides - fewer than 10 or 15 amino acids -polypeptides - larger than 15 amino acids

Dual Innervation

-Most of the viscera receive nerve fibers from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions -antagonistic effect - oppose each other -cooperative effects - two divisions act on different effectors to produce a unified overall effect -both divisions do not normally innervate an organ equally digestion, heart rate

Nicotinic Receptors

-On all postganglionic neurons, in the adrenal medulla and at the neuromuscular junctions of skeletal muscle fibers The binding of ACh to a nicotine receptor is always excitatory. Nicotinic receptors work by opening ligand-gated ion channels and producing an excitatory postsynaptic potential in the target cell.

The Sympathetic Nerve Route

-Other postganglionic fibers leave by way of sympathetic nerves that extend to the heart, lungs, esophagus, and thoracic blood vessels -These nerves from a carotid plexus around each carotid artery of the neck -issue fibers from there to effectors in the head -including sweat, salivary, and nasal glands; piloerector muscles; blood vessels; and dilators of the iris -Some fibers from the superior and middle cervical ganglia form the cardiac nerves to the heart. NOTE: The cardiac nerves also contain parasympathetic fibers.

The Splanchnic Nerve Route

-Some of the fibers that arise from spinal nerves T5 to T12 pass through the sympathetic ganglia without synapsing. -Beyond the ganglia, they continue as splanchnic nerves -lead to a second set of ganglia called collateral (prevertebral) ganglia -Here the preganglionic fibers synapse with the postganglionics.

The Spinal Nerve Route

-Some postganglionic fibers exit a ganglion by way of the gray ramus -return to the spinal nerve or its subdivisions, and travel the rest of the way to the target organ. -most sweat glands, piloerector muscles, and muscles, and blood vessels of the skin and skeletal muscles.

Thoracolumbar Division

-The sympathetic division is also called the thoracolumbar division because it arises from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord. -It has relatively short preganglionic and long postganglionic fibers -preganglionic neurosomas in lateral horns and nearby regions of the gray matter of spinal cord -fibers exit spinal cord by way of spinal nerves T1 to L2 -lead to nearby sympathetic chain of ganglia (paravertebral ganglia)

some effectors receive only sympathetic fibers

-adrenal medulla, arrector pili muscles, sweat glands and many blood vessels -control of blood pressure and routes of blood flow -sympathetic vasomotor tone - a baseline firing frequency of sympathetics -sympathetic division acting alone can exert opposite effects on the target organ through control of blood vessels -during stress -blood vessels to muscles and heart dilate -blood vessels to skin constrict

characteristics of action potential

-all or none law -nondecremental -irreversible

Steroids

-cholestorol -estrogen -cortisol -progesterone -testosterone -bile acids

ANS has components in both the central and peripheral nervous systems

-control nucleus in the hypothalamus and other brainstem regions -motor neurons in the spinal cord and peripheral ganglia -nerve fibers that travel through the cranial and spinal nerves

Spinal Cord

-defecation and micturition reflexes are integrated in spinal cord -we control these functions because of our control over skeletal muscle sphincters...if the spinal cord is damaged, the smooth muscle of bowel and bladder is controlled by autonomic reflexes built into the spinal cord

neuronal divergence predominates

-each preganglionic cell branches and synapses on 10 to 20 postganglionic cells -one preganglionic neuron can excite multiple postganglionic fibers leading to different target organs -have relatively widespread effects

Summary of Sympathetic Innervation

-effectors in body wall are innervated by sympathetic fibers in spinal nerves -effectors in head and thoracic cavity are innervated by fibers in sympathetic nerves -effectors in abdominal cavity are innervated by sympathetic fibers in splanchnic nerves

How can different autonomic neurons have different effects? -constricting some vessels but dilating others

-effects determined by types of neurotransmitters released and types of receptors found on target cells -2 fundamental reasons: -sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers secrete different neurotransmitters -target cells respond to the same neurotransmitter differently depending upon the type of receptor they have for it -all autonomic fibers secrete either acetylcholine or norepinephrine -there are 2 classes of receptors for each of these neurotransmitters

Metabolic Proteins

-enzymes that control metabolism -antibodies that defend against pathogens -receptors and channels in the cell membrane -myosin and actin of muscle contraction

epithelium vs epidermis

-epidermis is only applicable to the epithelium of the skin -epithelium is the histological tissue layer of any surface (internal or external)

Fatty Acids and Ketones

-fatty acid catabolism --> ketone bodies - LOOK AT SLIDE -can become elevated in cases of rapid fat catabolism, as in extreme fasting and diabetes mellitus -causes a dangerous PH imbalance (ketoacidosis) that can lead to coma and death

Visceral Reflex to High BP

-high blood pressure detected by arterial stretch receptors (1), afferent neuron (2) carries signal to CNS, efferent (3) signals travel to the heart (4), heart slows reducing blood pressure -example of homeostatic negative feedback loop

Terminal Ganglia

-in or near the target organ -long preganglionic fibers, short postganglionic fibers NOTE: If the terminal ganglia is embedded within the wall of a target organ, it is also called an intramural ganglion.

carbohydrates: chemical characteristics

-includes sugars and starches - hydrophilic organic molecule - general formula: (CH2O)n (where n = number of carbon atoms) - 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen - Ex. glucose: n = 6, so formula is C6H12O6 -Classifications -Monosacharides - disach - polysach

Norepinephrine (NE)

-is secreted by nearly all sympathetic postganglionic fibers -called adrenergic fibers -receptors for it called adrenergic receptors

neuronal divergence

-less than sympathetic division -one preganglionic fiber reaches the target organ and then stimulates fewer than 5 postganglionic cells

list four ways in which action potential is different from a local potential

-local potentials summate -action potentials are all or none -local potentials are due to ligand gated sodium channels -action potentials are voltage gated channels -local are reversible-action are irreversible

proteins

-long chains of amino acids -a polymer of amino acids

Antagonistic Effects

-oppose each other -exerted through dual innervation of same effector cells -heart rate decreases (parasympathetic) -heart rate increases (sympathetic) -exerted because each division innervates different cells -pupillary dilator muscle (sympathetic) dilates pupil -constrictor pupillae (parasympathetic) constricts pupil The sympathetic division speeds up the heart and the parasympathetic division slows it down; the sympathetic division inhibits digestion and the parasympathetic division stimulates it (pg.575).

autonomic nervous system

-portion of the nervous system that operates in comparative secrecy -it manages a multitude of unconscious processes responsible for the body's homeostasis -homeostasis cannot be maintained without the ANS

ANS - two neurons from CNS to effectors

-presynaptic neuron whose cell body is in CNS -postsynaptic neuron cell body in peripheral ganglion

Efferent Pathways

-remaining parasympathetic fibers arise from levels S2 to S4 of the spinal cord -form pelvic splanchnic nerves that lead to the inferior hypogastric plexus -most form pelvic nerves to their terminal ganglion on the target organs distal half of colon, rectum, urinary bladder, and reproductive organs

After entering the sympathetic chain, the postganglionic fibers may follow any of three courses

-some end in ganglia which they enter and synapse immediately with a postganglionic neuron some travel up or down the chain and synapse in ganglia at other levels -these fibers link the paravertebral ganglia into a chain -only route by which ganglia at the cervical, sacral, and coccygeal levels receive input -some pass through the chain without synapsing and continue as splanchnic nerves

Sympathetic and Vasomotor Tone

-sympathetic division prioritizes blood vessels to skeletal muscles and heart in times of emergency blood vessels to skin vasoconstrict to minimize bleeding if injury occurs during stress or exercise

many substances released as neurotransmitters that modulate ACh and NE function

-sympathetic fibers also secrete enkephalin, substance P, neuropeptide Y, somatostatin, neurotensin, or gonadotropin-releasing hormone -parasympathetic fibers stimulate endothelial cells to release the gas, nitric oxide - causes vasodilation by inhibiting smooth muscle tone -function is crucial to penile erection - means of action of Viagra

Autonomic Pathways

-the signal must travel across two nerve fibers to get to the target organ -must cross a synapse where these two neurons meet in an autonomic ganglion -presynaptic neuron - the first neuron has a soma in the brainstem or spinal cord -synapses with a postganglionic neuron whose axon extends the rest of the way to the target cell

Divisions of ANS

-two divisions innervate same target organs -may have cooperative or contrasting effects

Glycolysis - Transition - Citric Acid Cycle - Electron Transport Chain

...

measuring in "equivalents"

1 Equivalent is the amount of electrolyte that will electrically neutralize 1 mole of H+ or OH- ions in the body, expressed as milliequivalents (mEq/L) multiply molar concentration x valence of the ion 1 M Na+ = 1 Eq/L 1 M Ca2+ = 2 Eq/L

8 cranial bones

1 frontal, 2 parietal, 2 temporal, 1 occipital, 1 sphenoid, 1 ethmoid

Overall reaction in Cellular Respiration

1 glucose + 6 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP

molarity: numbers

1 mole of a substance is its molecular weight in grams 1 mole of a substance is equal to Avogadro's number of molecules 6.023 x 10 Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute/ liter of solution MW of glucose is 180 one-molar (1.0M) glucose solution contains 180g/L

a change of one number on the pH scale represents a _______ change in H+ concentration

"10 fold" - a solution with pH of 4.0 is 10 times as acidic as one with pH of 5.0

sensory division

"afferent" carries signals from various receptors to the CNS

motor division

"efferent" carries signals from the CNS mainly to gland and muscle cells that carry out the body's responses

cauda equina

"horse's tail", a fan of nerve fibers below the spinal cord

Ribosomes

"reading machines" composed of small subunit and large subunit, subunits contain rRNA,

funiculi of white matter

"white column" bundles of axons that course up and down the cord and provide avenues of communication between different levels of the CNS - posterior (dorsal) - lateral - anterior (ventral)

the speed at which a nerve signal travels along a nerve fiber depends on...

(1) the diameter of the fiber (2) the presence or absence of myelin

amino acid

-COOH - C - NH, w variable "R" side chains -20 amino acids --> protein

Visceral Reflexes

-Unconscious, automatic, stereotyped, responses to stimulation, much like the somatic reflexes discussed (pg. 562/Visceral Reflexes)

sympathomimetics

-enhance sympathetic activity -stimulate receptors or increase norepinephrine release -cold medicines that dilate the bronchioles or constrict nasal blood vessels

How much ATP does a human make daily

100 lbs

how many bones are in the skull?

22

how many intervertebral discs are there?

23

haploid

23 unpaired chromosomes for ex sperm and egg

the vertebrae are divided into five groups:

7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, 4 coccygeal

Healing Time

8 - 12 weeks, longer in elderly

Matrix of Osseous Tissue Inorganic Matter

85% hydroxyapatite (crystallized calcium phosphate salt) 10% calcium carbonate other minerals (fluoride, sulfate, potassium, magnesium)

~Dehydration synthesis

A hydroxyl (-OH) group is removed from one monomer, and a hydrogen (H+) from another, producing H2O as a by-product

Glucose used in fermentation produces

A little ATP (2 units) for energy, but also lactic acid.

Bone Growth and Remodeling Notes

A mature bone however, grows only by the appositional mechanism. Because osteocytes have little room as it is and none to spare for the deposition of more matrix. The only way an adult bone can grow is to add more osseous tissue to the surface.

Second step of relaxation

ACh breakdown by AChE

ion

An atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving the atom a net positive or negative electrical charge.

Monomer

An identical or similar subunit of a polymer.

Adrenergic Fibers

Are nerve fibers that secrete nearly all sympathetic postganglionic fibers.

Compact Bone - Osteon (haversian system)

Basic structural unit cylinders of tissue formed from layers (lamellae) of matrix arranged around central canal holding a blood vessel collagen fibers alternate between right- and left-handed helices from lamella to lamella osteocytes connected to each other and their blood supply by tiny cell processes in canaliculi

Two places skeletal muscle attaches.

Bone or skin

Motor neurons have their cell bodies in the

Brain stem or spinal cord

ATP

Briefly stores energy gained from exergonic reactions, releases it within seconds for physiological work. Holds energy in covalent bonds. - Needed for polymerization reactions, muscle contraction and pumping ions through cell membranes.

Purpose of breathing

Bring in oxygen, remove carbon dioxide

Resistance training (weight lifting)

Builds muscle size by stimulation cell enlargement due to synthesis of more myofilaments

The *perimysium*

Bundles muscle fibres into muscle fascicle.

cervical plexus location

C1-C5

brachial plexus location

C5-T1

homozygous

CC or cc ( dominant or recessive)

Functions of membrane protein 7of 7: Cell adhesion molecules CAM

Cells adhere to each other and extracellular material through cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs)

Columnar

Cells taller than they are wide (intestine lining)

First step of relaxation

Cessation of nervous stimulation and ACh release

Tension while shortening

Concentric

polar covalent

Covalent bond in which electrons are more attracted to one nucleus than to the other, resulting in slightly positive and negative regions in one molecule. May be single or double.

Hip joint

Coxal joint is the articulation of the femoral head and the os coxae at the acetabulum; For a bipedal human, it is the primary weight bearing ball-and-socket joint and has a much deeper socket than the shoulder; Like the shoulder, a ring of fibrocartilage, acetabular labrum, acts to deepen the socket; Dislocation of the hip is rare in adults, but may occur in infants with congenital hip dysplasia

DNA

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 100 million to 1 billion nucleotides long constitutes genes instructions for synthesizing all of the body's proteins transfers hereditary information from cell to cell and generation to generation

dipeptide synthesis

Dehydration synthesis creates a peptide bond that joins amino acids

5 classes of chemical reactions

Delinquent Skulls Remember Creative Associations Decomposition, Synthesis, Reversible, Catabolism, Anabolism

Smooth muscle cells have this while skeletal muscles do not

Dense bodies

Slow twitch fibers

Do not fatigue easily, long contraction

Bone as a tissue

Dynamic tissue that continually remolds itself

Extracellular Fluid

ECF- fluid outside of the cell

how are EPSPs produced?

EPSPs are produced by opening Na+ and K+ channels, similar to the nicotinic ACh receptor

Oxygen Debt

Fast breathing after exercise

Second step of contraction

Formation of myosin-actin cross-bridge

Pott

Fracture at the distal end of the tibia, fibula, or both: common sports injury

Ligand-regulated gates

Gates that respond to chemical messengers

Energy source for muscle fibres

Glycogen (broken down into glucose for energy)

Bone Growth and Remodeling

Grow and remodel themselves throughout life growing brain or starting to walk athletes or history of manual labor have greater density & mass of bone Cartilage grows by both appositional & interstitial growth Non-mature bones increase in length by interstitial growth of epiphyseal plate (adding more matrix internally) Bones also increase in width by appositional growth (adding more matrix to the surface) osteoblasts lay down matrix in layers parallel to the outer surface & osteoclasts dissolve bone on inner surface if one process outpaces the other, bone deformities occur(osteitis deformans)

GTP

Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) another nucleotide involved in energy transfer donates phosphate group to other molecules

Incomplete Tetanus

Higher frequency stimulation (20-40 stimuli/sec). Generates gradually more strength of contraction. Each stimuli arrives before last one recovers, muscle doesn't relax completely = sustained fluttering contractions.

5 functional groups carried by carbon backbones

Holy Men Construct Apathetic Policies Hydroxyl, Methyl, Carboxyl, Amino, Phosphate

The amount of tension generated by a muscle (the force of its contraction depends on

How stretched (or contracted) the muscle was before stimulation

Shorter

I band gets ? when contracting

Endurance training (aerobic exercise)

Improves fatigue resistance by producing an increase in mitochondria, glycogen, and density of capillaries, more RBCs, better function of cardio system (better aerobic respiration)

H-bands are located

In the middle of the A-band

Communicating Rami

In the thoracolumbar region, each Paravertebral ganglion is connected to a spinal nerve by two branches called communicating rami.

Bone Marrow notes

In young to middle aged adults most of this red marrow turns to fatty yellow bone marrow. Yellow marrow no longer produces blood. In adults red marrow is limited to the vertebrae... (see line 3 under RBM)

Recruitment

Including more motor neurons to get a larger contraction -> stimulates more motor units

Bones make up skeletal system

Individual bones are made up of bone tissue, marrow, cartilage, and periosteum.

Two methods of ossification (prior to birth)

Intramembranous Endochondral

Craniosacral Division

Is also referred to as the parasympathetic division -it arises from the brain and sacral regions of the spinal cord -its fibers travel in certain cranial and sacral nerves -origin of long preganglionic neurons -midbrain, pons, and medulla -spinal cord segments S2-S4 -pathways of long preganglionic fibers -fibers in cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X -fibers arising from sacral spinal cord -pelvic splanchnic nerves and inferior hypogastric plexus

Cholinergic Fiber

Is any nerve fiber that secretes ACh.

Adrenal Cortex

Is the outer rind secretes steroid hormones.

Isotonic

Iso=equal. A solution where the total concentration of a nonpermeating solutes is the same as in the ICF

Structural Proteins

Keratin of epidermis , hair and nails -collagen of tendons, ligaments, bones, dermis -elastin of dermis, some ligaments

Degree of stretch of muscle before stimulation

L/T relationship

sacral plexus

L4-S4

When a muscle is overly stretched

Little overlap exists between actin and myosin

Overly contracted muscle allows

Little room to build more tension

Long Bone

Long bones include the humerus, ulna, femur, tibia and fibula. Spongy bone is found at the edges of long bone.

Long Bone

Long bones serve as rigid levers that are acted upon by the skeletal muscles to produce body movement.

Polymer

Molecules made of a repetitive series of identical or similar subunits (monomers).

A lack of dystrophin results in

Muscular dystrophy

atomic number/proton number

Number of protons in the nucleus. Uniquely identifies each element.

Parasympathetic Cranial Nerves

Oculomotor nerve (III) Facial nerve (VII) Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) Vagus nerve (X)

6 major elements of human body (98.5%)

Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Calcium, Phosphorus

Creatine Kinase

P1 in transferred from creatine phosphate to ADP -> ATP

K+ ion gates open when

Potassium rushes out of cell

Four levels of protein structure

Primary secondary tertiary quaternary

Third step of relaxation

Reabsorption of calcium ions by sarcoplasmic reticulum; ATP needed

Loss of tension and return to resting length

Relaxation

The stiffening of the body beginning 3 to 4 hours after death

Rigor mortis

the vertebral column is in the shape of what

S

sievert

SI unit of radiation 5 Sv or more is usually fatal

General Features of Bones

Shaft (deaphysis) is cylinder of compact bone containing marrow cavity (medullary cavity) & lined with endosteum (layer of osteogenic cells and reticular connective tissue)

Forth step of excitation-contraction coupling

Shifting of tropomyosin; exposure of active sites on actin

Achondroplastic Dwarfism

Short stature but normal-sized head and trunk long bones of the limbs stop growing in childhood but other bones unaffected

proteins: 7 functions

Simple Comatose Memorization Raises Combined Medical Costs Structure, Communication, Membrane transport, Recognition and protection, Catalysis, Movement, Cell adhesion

monosaccharides

Simple sugars; are the simplest carbs - 3 important monosaccharides: 1)glucose, 2)fructose, 3)GALACTOSE; -are isomers of each other (all are C6H12O6) - produced by digestion of complex carbohydrates

Muscle strength depends on

Size, fatigue

Smooth muscle lasts longer than

Skeletal muscle (slow to contract and relax)

Na+ ion gates open when

Sodium rushes into cell

Stellate

Starlike cell shape (nerve cells)

Plasma membranes of muscle cells exhibit voltage changes in response to

Stimulation

Cardiac Plexus

Supplies fibers to the heart.

Function of membrane protein 1of 7: Receptors

Surface proteins usually specific for a particular messenger that allows for said messenger to communicate with the cell

lumbar plexus location

T12-L4

T/F: both gray and white matter have an abundance of glial cells

TRUE

Elastic filaments anchor thick filaments to

The Z disc

Osmotic Pressure

The amount of pressure that would have to be applied to one side of a selectively permeable membrane to stop osmosis

Wolff's Law of Bone

The architecture of a bone is determined by the mechanical stresses placed upon it, and the bone thereby adapts to withstand those stresses.

Abdominal Aortic Plexus

The collateral ganglia contribute to a network called the abdominal aortic plexus wrapped around the aorta.

valence electrons

The electrons in the outer-most shell of an atom. They determine the reactivity/chemical properties of that element.

Primary Ossification Center & Marrow Space

The first sign of Endochondral ossification is the multiplication and swelling of chondrocytes near the center of the model which is called the primary ossification center. There is the formation of the supportive bony collar. Invasion of the model by blood vessels and creation of a primary marrow space.

The number of muscle fibres innervated by 1 motor neuron depends on

The function of the muscle

Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX)

The glossopharyngeal nerve carries parasympathetic fibers concerned with salivation. The preganglionic fibers leave this nerve soon after its origin and form the tympanic nerve. A continuation of this nerve crosses the middle-ear cavity and ends in the otic ganglion near the foramen ovale. The postganglionic fibers then follow the trigeminal nerve to the parotid salivary gland just in front of the earlobe.

vallate papillae

The largest papillae on the tongue, arranged in the form of a V, contain half of taste buds (B)

The stronger a muscle

The less control we have over it

Lower Branch of the Facial Nerve Parasympathetic Fibers Split

The lower branch crosses the middle-ear cavity and ends at the submandibular ganglion near the angle of the mandible. Postganglionic fibers from here supply salivary glands in the floor of the mouth.

Voltage-gated ion channels open when

The membrane potential reaches a critical level.

The functional connection between a nerve fibre and a muscle cell.

The neuromuscular junction.

Oculomotor Nerve (III)

The oculomotor nerve carries parasympathetic fibers that control the lens and pupil of the eye. The preganglionic fibers enter the orbit and terminate in the ciliary ganglion behind the eyeball. Postganglionic fibers enter the eyeball and innervate the ciliary muscle, which thickness the lens, and the pupillary constrictor, which narrows the pupil.

Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands

The paired adrenal (suprarenal) glands rest like hats on the superior poles of the kidneys. -Each adrenal is actually two glands with different functions and embryonic origins.

The Metaphysis

The region of transition from cartilage to bone at each end of the primary marrow cavity is called a metaphysis. This is where cartilage in converted into bone and it is responsible for bone elongation and a person's increase in height.

The charge in a muscle cell is maintained by

The sodium-potassium pump

Characteristics of Muscle: Conductivity

The stimulation of a muscle cell causes the contraction of a whole muscle.

Upper Branch of the Facial Nerve Parasympathetic Fibers Split

The upper branch ends at the pterygopalatine ganglion near the junction of the maxilla and palatine bone. Postganglionic fibers then continue to the tear glands and glands of the nasal cavity, palate, and other areas of the oral cavity.

Vagus Nerve (X)

The vagus nerve carries about 90% of all parasympathetic preganglionic fibers. It travels down the neck and forms three networks in the mediastinum of the chest (the cardiac plexus, the pulmonary plexus, and the esophageal plexus).

alpha-adrenergic Receptors

These usually have excitatory effects. Example, the binding of NE to a-adrenergic receptors promotes labor contractions, stimulates piloerection, and constricts dermal blood vessels, yet it inhibits intestinal motility.

H-bands are made up of

Thick filament

Three kinds of muscle filaments

Thick, thin, elastic

Elastic filaments stabilize _______________ filaments, _________________ it between thin filaments and prevents _______________________.

Thick; centres; overstretching

Z-discs are anchorage for

Thin filaments and elastic filaments

Squamous

Thin, flat cell, often have a bulge where the nucleus is (like a fried egg, "sunny side up")

The minimum voltage necessary to generate an action potential and produce a contraction in a muscle fibre

Threshold

knee joint

Tibiofemoral joint is the largest and most complex diarthrosis joint of the body; it is a hinge joint; The joint capsule encloses the sides and back of the knee

Purpose of cellular respiration

To make ATP

Traction

Traction is not used in elderly due to risks of long-term confinement to bed hip fractures are pinned & early walking is encouraged

Functions of membrane protein 5 of 7: Carriers

Transmembrane proteins bind to glucose, electrolytes, etc and transfer them to the side of the membrane (those carriers called PUMPS use ATP)

This blocks myosin binding sites on actin beads when the muscle is relaxed

Tropomyosin

A quick cycle of contraction and relaxation

Twitch

exchange reactions

Two molecules exchange atoms or group of atoms AB+CD ABCD AC + BD Stomach acid (HCl) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) from the pancreas combine to form NaCl and H2CO3.

synthesis reactions

Two or more small molecules combine toform a larger one A + B --> AB

stop codons

UAG, UGA, UAA end of synthesizing proteins

Voluntary means

Under conscious control

Gray Communicating Ramus

Unmyelinated postganglionic fibers leave the ganglion by way of the gray communicating ramus, named for its lack of myelin and duller color, and by other routes. This ramus forms a bridge back to the spinal nerve. Postganglionic fibers extend the rest of the way to the target organ.

Is cardiac muscle voluntary or unvoluntary?

Unvoluntary

Is smooth muscle voluntary or unvoluntary?

Unvoluntary

Is skeletal muscle voluntary or unvoluntary?

Voluntary

Temperature of muscle

Warmed muscle contracts more strongly because enzymes in myosin heads work more quickly

Thermal Stability of Water

Water helps stabilize the internal temperature of the body has high heat capacity - the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 degree C. calorie (cal) - the amount of heat that raises the temperature of 1 g of water 1 degree C. hydrogen bonds inhibit temperature increases by inhibiting molecular motion water absorbs heat without changing temperature very much effective coolant 1 ml of perspiration removes 500 calories

unique properties of water (H20)

Water's polar covalent bonds and its V-shaped molecule gives water a set of properties that account for its ability to support life.

hydrogen bond

Weak attraction between polarized molecules or between polarized regions of the same molecule. Important in the three-dimensional folding and coiling of large molecules (proteins, DNA). Easily disrupted by temperature and pH changes - gives water its unique properties

Van der Waals force

Weak, brief attraction due to random disturbance in the electron clouds of adjacent atoms. Weakest of all bonds Only 1% as strong as a covalent bond when two surfaces or large molecules meet, the attraction between large numbers of atoms can create a very strong attraction important in protein folding important with protein binding with hormones association of lipid molecules with each other

Percentages

Weight/volume of solute in solution IV D5W (5% w/v dextrose in distilled water) 5 grams of dextrose and fill to 100 ml water

Adenylate cyclase (enzyme in membrane)

When the G protein is activated by the receptor it relays it to Adenylate Cyclase which removes two phosphate groups from ATP and converts it to cyclic AMP (cAMP)

vitreous body

a transparent jellylike substance filling the interior of the eyeball maintains intraocular pressure and presses the retina against the wall of the eye

macula lutea

a yellowish central area of the retina that is rich in cones and that mediates clear detailed vision

CNVI

abducens, motor

Solvency

ability to dissolve other chemicals; Virtually all metabolic reactions depend on the solvency of water; water = "universal solvent"

Mineral Deposition - Ectopic Ossification

abnormal calcification may occur in lungs, brain, eyes, muscles, tendons or arteries (arteriosclerosis)

paresthesia

abnormal sensation of numbness and tingling without objective cause

Cofactors

about 2/3rds of human enzymes require a nonprotein cofactor -nonprotein partners that activates an enzyme, such as iron, copper, magnesium, zinc or calcium ions

photoreceptor cells

absorb light and generate a chemical or electrical signal

synovial joints

also called a diathrosis, the most movable type of joint, ex. ball-and-socket, condylar, saddle, plane, hinge & pivot

cartilaginous

also called amphiarthrosis, two bones are linked by cartilage, ex. synchrondrosis and symphysis,

small points of maxillary bones that grow into spaces between the teeth

alveolar processes

the articulation between the atlas and the cranium

atlanto-occipital joint

articulation between the atlas and axis

atlantoaxial joint

vertebra c1 is called the _____ because it supports the head

atlas

tendon

attach a muscle to a bone

are epithelial tissues vascular or avascular?

avascular

is cartilage vascular or avascular?

avascular

caffeine competes with adenosine (the presence of which causes sleepiness)

by binding to its receptors

how do nails enhance sensation

by providing a counterforce or resistance from the other side of the finger

Cyclic AMP

cAMP: a second messenger, activates enzymes called Kinases in the cytosol

skullcap

calvaria

4 categories of carbon compounds

carbohydrates lipids proteins nucleotides and nucleic acids

the subarachnoid space is filled with...

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

endocrine system communicates by means of...

chemical messengers (hormones) secreted into the blood

3 reasons electrolytes are important

chemical reactivity osmotic effects (influence water movement) electrical effects on nerve and muscle tissue

Solution

consists of particles of matter called the solute mixed with a more abundant substance (usually water) called the solvent - Can be gas, solid or liquid

Purpose of all types of muscle

convert chemical energy of ATP into motion

bones that enclose the brain

cranial bones

schizophrenia is sometimes treated with drugs such as chlorpromazine that inhibit dopamine receptors. a side effect is that patients begin to develop muscle tremors, speech impairment, and other disorders similar to parkinson disease. explain

dopamine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that suppresses unwanted muscle contractions and contributes to smoother, more coordinated muscular action. parkinson disease involves a dopamine deficiency. by blocking dopamine receptors, chlorpromazine prevents dopamine from acting and sometimes producing the same effects as a dopamine deficiency.

posterior margin in sella turcica

dorsum sellae

how to test CNIV

drawing an x or h with the eyes (diagonal movement)

types of sweat (sudoriferous) glands

eccrine and apocrine

epineurium vs perineurium vs endoneurium

epineurium: covers the entire nerve perineurium: surrounds individual fascicles endoneurium: separates individual nerve fibers

how to test CNI

have patient smell something

cribriform plate

he horizontal plate of the ethmoid bone separating the cranial cavity from the nasal cavity

temporal lobe

hearing, memory of sounds, speech, understanding speech

fourth function of muscle

heat production

why do the dermis and epidermis interlock?

helps resists slippage of the epidermis across the dermis

what bone is a slender U-shaped bone between the chin and larynx

hyoid bone

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

hyperpolarization of a postsynaptic neuron in response to a neurotransmitter, making it less likely to reach threshold and fire - result of Cl- flowing into the cell or K+ leaving the cell

subcutaneous fat

hypodermic predominantly composed of adipose tissue - energy reservoir and thermal insulation

canal at the anterolateral edge of each occipital condyle

hypoglossal canal

foramen of CNXII

hypoglossal canal

rods vs cones

i) shape: rod-shaped vs. cone-shaped ii) population: more rods than cones iii) location: rods are in the periphery while cones are more centrally located iv) function: rods are made for scotopic (nighttime) vision while cones are for photopic (daytime) vision v) function: cones distinguish elements of color and sharpen an image

fibroblasts

in connective tissue, cells that secrete the proteins of the fibers

plasma cells

in connective tissue, produce antibodies

where are the neurosomas of the posterior root located? where are the neurosomas of the anterior root?

in the posterior root ganglion none

just behind the incisors is a pair of _______

incisive foramina

axon hillock (trigger zone)

initial segment of axon where the action potential is initiated

what part of the mandible has a pair of small points, the mental spines, that serve for attachment of certain chine muscles

inner (posterior) surface

spatial summation

integration by a postsynaptic neuron of inputs (EPSPs and IPSPs) from multiple sources

an opening on the petrous' part posteromedial surface that allows the passage of the vestibulocochlear nerve

internal acoustic meatus

foramen of CNVII

internal acoustic meatus

foramen of CNVIII

internal acoustic meatus

bulging fontanels suggest abnormally high _____

intracranial pressure

apocrine secretion

involves the loss of cytoplasm as well as the secretory product

ipsilateral vs contralateral reflex arc

ipsilateral: sensory input and motor output are on the same side of the spinal cord contralateral: input and output are on opposite sides

Stress Fracture

is a break caused by abnormal trauma to a bone car accident, fall, athletics, etc

biceps tendon

is on margin of glenoid cavity, it passes through the joint capsule and extends through the intertubercular sulcus, and is held in the groove by tranverse humeral ligament; Shoulder is stabilized by the tendon; holds humerus in place against the glenoid cavity

Protraction

is the anterior movement of a body part in the transverse plane

Simple Diffusion

is the net movement of particles from a place of higher concentration to a place of lower concentration

Molarity

known number of molecules per volume moles of solute/liter of solution physiologic effects based on number of molecules in solution not on weight

a large mass on each side of the perpendicular plate in the ethmoid bone

labyrinth

Cystic Fibrosis

lack of cilia in apical membranes, so respiratory tract lots of sticky mucus, clogs it up, in pancreas it clogs up ducts so nutrition so digestion nutrition and respiration are compromised. life expectancy 30 yrs.

what bones form part of the medial wall of each orbit and are the smallest bones of the skull?

lacrimal bones

a depression in the lacrimal bones called _______ houses a membranous _______ in life in which tears from the eye collect in and drain into the nasal cavity

lacrimal fossa, lacrimal sac

wernicke's area

language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

do signals travel faster along larger or thinner fibers?

large fibers have more surface area and conduct signals more rapidly than small fibers

alpha particle/ray

large, heavy, do not penetrate, deadly if ingested - 2 protons + 2 neutrons - can't penetrate skin

cerebrum

largest part of the brain; responsible for voluntary muscular activity, vision, speech, taste, hearing, thought, and memory

voice box

larynx

how long does the absolute refractory period last?

lasts from the start of the action potential until the membrane returns to the resting potential

how long does the relative refractory period last?

lasts until hyperpolarization ends

on each side of the atlas there is a ___ with a deeply concave ___ that articulates with the occipital condyle of the skull

lateral mass, superior articular facet

brachial plexus cords

lateral, posterior, medial

arachnoid mater

layer of simple squamous epithelium lining dura mater and loose mesh of collagenous and elastic fibers filled with CSF

stratum spinosum

layer of spiny cells directly above the stratum basale, several layers of keratinocytes

Postganglionic Fiber

leave the ganglion by way of the gray communicating ramus (unmyelinated) -forms a bridge back to the spinal nerve extend the rest of the way to the target organ

which wing of the sphenoid bone forms the posterior wall of the orbit and contains the optic canal

lesser

photoreceptors respond to

light

pathway of optic nerve

light, cornea, pupil, lens, retina, optic canal, optic chiasm, optic tract, optic radiation, visual cortex decussates at optic nerve and ends in area 17 crosses over the visual cortex

ependymal cells

line cavities of the brain and spinal cord; secrete and circulate cerebrospinal fluid

flexion lines

lines on the flexor surfaces of the digits, palms, wrists, elbows

inferior to the medullar cone, the subarachnoid space is called the...

lumbar cistern

Thin filament

made of actin, tropnin complex, and tropomyosin, has an active site where myosin head can bind to

chromosomes

make up chromatin by forming as long as 46 chromosomes

histones

makes up chromatin, disc shaped cluster of 8 proteins

Transcription

making a copy from DNA to RNA,

squamous cell carcinoma

malignant tumor that arises from keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum; raised, reddened, scaly appearance, later forming a concave ulcer with raised edges

what are the largest facial bones

maxillae

what passes through the foramen rotundum

maxillary n. (V2)

what passes through the infraorbital canal

maxillary n. (V2)

pH

measurement of molarity of H+ [H+] on a logarithmic scale

Reverse Osmosis

mechanical pressure applied to one side of the system can override osmotic pressure and drive water through a membrane against its concentration gradient. Sea water desalinated to drinkable freshwater. The Heart drives water out of capillaries "capillary filtration". Blood contains proteins =side A, tissue=side B water leaves capillaries by filtration but comes back by osmosis.

lateral to each aperture, a pair of parallel plates in the sphenoid bone, provides some attachment of the jaw muscles

medial and lateral pterygoid plates

homologous chromosomes

members of each pair of chromosomes

three membranes that separate the brain from the bone

meninges

on the anterolateral surface of the body of the mandible, what permits the passage of nerves and blood vessels of the chin?

mental foramen

the point of the chin itself

mental protuberance

the median cartilaginous joint at the point of the chin that ossifies in early childhood, united the two halves of the mandible into a single bone

mental symphysis

modes of secretion

merocrine, apocrine, holocrine

the petrous part of the temporal lobes houses which cavities

middle and inner ear

cranial fossae that is the second deepest, shaped like a pair of outstretched bird's wings and accommodates the temporal lobes

middle cranial fossa

dermis

middle layer of the skin, composed of fibrous connective tissue

choroid

middle, vascular layer of the eye, between the retina and the sclera (L)

the three auditory ossicles are in what cavity

middle-ear

what organelles do neurons have?

mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi complex, numerous inclusions, extensive rough ER, cytoskeleton

sensory receptors transmit what kinds of information?

modality, location, intensity, duration

ceruminous glands

modified sweat glands, located in external ear canal, secretes cerumen (earwax)

molecular formula vs structural formula

molecular formula = H2O; structual = spatial relationship

molecule vs compound

molecule = chemical particle composed of two or more atoms united by a chemical bond (O2); compound = molecules composed of two or more elements (H20)

isomers

molecules - molecules with identical molecular formulae but different arrangement of their atoms (CH3CH2OH vs CH3OCH3)

basal cell carcinoma

most common and least severe type of skin cancer that arises from the stratum basale and eventually invades the dermis; often characterized by light or pearly nodules

action potential

most dramatic change in membrane produced where high density of voltage-gated channels occur

nervous tissue

most sections show a few large neurons, usually with rounded or stellate cell bodies and fibrous processes FUNCTION: carries electrical messages back and forth between the brain and every other part of the body LOCATION: brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia

the high density of interneurons and motor neurons in the cervical and lumbar enlargements is related to...

motor control and sensation in the upper and lower limbs

pons

motor control and sensory analysis, connects cerebellum to brain stem

DNA polymerase

move along each strand and makes matching base pairs

retrograde transport

movement up the axon toward the soma - substances needed to be disposed of/recycled in lysosomes in the cell body

Monaxial

moves in only one anatomical plane, (hinge and pivot)

Reposition

moving the thumb back to zero position

how to test CNXII

moving tongue side to side, swallowing

infection and inflammation of air sinuses in mastoid part of temporal lobe which can erode the bone and spread to the brain

mstoiditis

conjunctiva

mucous membrane lining the eyelids and covering the anterior portion of the sclera

why can local potentials eventually contribute to an action potential if they are decremental?

multiple local potentials can 'combine' together to create a stronger potential

synergist

muscle that aids prime mover

antagonist

muscle that opposes the prime mover

fixator

muscle that prevents bone from moving, allowing another muscle attached to bone to pull on something else

prime mover/agonist

muscle that produces most of the force during a movement

Smooth muscle cells are called

myocytes

myopia vs hyperopia

myopia: nearsightedness due to eye being too long hyperopia: farsightedness due to eye being too short

parasympathetic innervation of all effectors

name the diagram

abducens n.

name the structure

accessory n.

name the structure

brain stem

name the structure

cerebellum

name the structure

cerebrum

name the structure

corpus callosum

name the structure

cribriform plate

name the structure

cutaneous distribution of mandibular n.

name the structure

cutaneous distribution of maxillary n.

name the structure

cutaneous distribution of ophthalmic n.

name the structure

ethmoid bone

name the structure

maxillary n.

name the structure

medulla oblongata

name the structure

mental foramen

name the structure

midbrain

name the structure

motor component of facial n.

name the structure

motor component of oculomotor n.

name the structure

occipital lobe

name the structure

orbital surface of greater wing of sphenoid bone

name the structure

otic ganglion

name the structure

parietal lobe

name the structure

pineal gland

name the structure

pituitary gland

name the structure

pons

name the structure

primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus)

name the structure

primary sensory cortex (postcentral gyrus)

name the structure

pterygopalatine ganglion

name the structure

somatic motor association area

name the structure

sphenoid bone

name the structure

stylomastoid foramen

name the structure

submandibular ganglion

name the structure

superior orbital fissure

name the structure

supraorbital notch

name the structure

temporal lobe

name the structure

thalamus

name the structure

trigeminal ganglion

name the structure

trigeminal n.

name the structure

trochlear n.

name the structure

vagus n.

name the structure

vestibulocochlear n.

name the structure

bones that form the bridge of the nose and support cartilages that shape its lower portion

nasal bones

the palate's function is to separate what from what?

nasal cavity, oral cavity

the perpendicular plate of the palatine bones form part of the wall between what?

nasal cavity, orbit

electron

negatively-charged particle of an atom - weight = negligible

Innervation

nerve that acts on the muscle

pathway of vestibular part of vestibulocochlear nerve

nerve, vestibular nuclei in pons and medulla to cerebellum, reticular foramen, spinal cord, thalamus, or nuclei of oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens n. (eye control)

how does the structure of a nerve compare to that of a skeletal muscle? which of these descriptive terms have similar counterparts in muscle histology?

nerves are bundled fibers are wrapped skeletal muscle is bundled fibers are wrapped epi-, endo-, peri-

mixed nerves

nerves carrying both sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) fibers

motor nerves

nerves that carry information from the central nervous system to the muscles of the body (efferent)

sensory nerves

nerves that carry information from the sense receptors to the spinal cord and brain (afferent)

spinal plexuses

network of intersecting nerves that serve motor and sensory needs of muscles, skin and limbs - nerve fibers from different spinal nerves are sorted and recombined, so that all fibers going to a specific body part are put together in one nerve - cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral

excitable tissues

neural and muscle tissue that is capable of generating and responding to electrical signals

region where motor nerve fiber meets skeletal muscle fiber

neuromuscular junction

local disturbances in membrane potential occur when...

neuron is stimulated by chemicals, light, heat, or mechanical disturbances

how is a glial cell different from a neuron? list the six types of glial cells and discuss their functions

neurons have TWO "processes" called axons and dendrites....glial cells have only ONE. neurons CAN generate action potentials...glial cells CANNOT. however, glial cells do have a resting potential.

how do neurons display conductivity?

neurons respond to stimuli by producing electrical signals that are quickly conducted to other cells at distant locations

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

antioxidants

neutralize free radicals in body, superoxide dismutase (SOD) in diet (Selenium, vitamin E, vitamin C, carotenoids)

neutron

neutrally-charged particle of an atom - weight = 1 AMU (atomic mass unit)

what do rods detect?

night vision, low light conditions. no color, not much detail

are all nerve fibers myelinated?

no, many nerve fibers in the CNS and PNS are unmyelinated

Autonomic Tone

normal background rate of activity that represents the balance of the two systems according to the body's changing needs

situs solitus vs situs inversus

normal vs. mirror image of normal (heart, liver, spleen, etc all on opposite side)

ligament binds the skull to the vertebral column

nuchal ligament

the bifid fork in c2-c6 provides attachment for what of the back of the neck?

nuchal ligament

an intervertebral disc consists of an inner gelatinous _____ surrounded by a ring of fibrocartilage, the _____

nucleus pulposus, anulus fibrosus

Anticodon

opposite of a codon for ex AUG to UAC

permits passage of the optic nerve and ophthalmic artery

optic canal

foramen of CNII

optic foramen

CNII

optic, sensory

the lateral surface of the labyrinth is a smooth, slightly concave _______ seen on the medial wall of the orbit

orbital plate

cochlea

organ of hearing -- a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube arising from the anterior vestibule in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

epidermis

outermost layer of skin

condyloid (ellipsoid) joint

oval convex surface articulates with a complimentary, concave surface; Really multiaxial but considered biaxial

nociceptors respond to

pain

neuralgia

pain along the course of a nerve

nociceptive pain

pain from a normal process that results in noxious stimuli being perceived as painful

form most of the cranial roof and part of its walls

parietal bones

perilymph vs endolymph

perilymph: between bony and membranous labyrinths, similar to CSF endolymph: within the membranous labyrinth, similar to ICF

the spinal cord connects...

peripheral nervous system and the brain

a thin median plate of bone that forms the superior two-thirds of the nasal septum

perpendicular plate

the superior half of the nasal septum is formed by which plate of the ethmoid bone?

perpendicular plate

three major portions of ethmoid bone

perpendicular plate, cribriform plate, labyrinth

what part of the temporal lobe can be seen in the cranial floor, where it resembles a little mountain range separating the middle cranial fossa from the posterior fossa

petrous part

microglia

phagocytic cells that ingest and break down microorganisms, foreign matter, dead nervous tissue, and pathogens in the CNS

phasic vs tonic receptors

phasic: receptors that adapt rapidly to presence of stimuli (thermo/cuatneous receptors) tonic:adapt slowly or not at all (nociceptors pain)

Polygenic (multiple gene) inheritance

phenomenon in which genes at two or more loci; or even on different chromosomes, contribute to a single phenotypic trait

Pleiotropy

phenomenon in which one gene produces multiple phenotypic effects

Glycolipids

phospholipids +carbohydrates help form the glucocalix

X rays

photons, lower energy than gamma; medically valuable but can cause cancer

UV rays

photons, lower energy than x rays -useful for sterilization -can induce skin cancer

Filtration

physical pressure that forces fluid through a selectively permeable membrane. Blood capilaries, water salts and nutrients and other solutes are transferred from the bloodstream to the tissue fluid.

cranial fossae that is the deepest and houses a large posterior division of the brain called the cerebellum

posterior cranial fossa

internal openings of the nasal cavity

posterior nasal apertures or choanae

guard hairs

prevent foreign particles from entering the nostrils or ear canals

Orthopedics

prevention & correction of injuries and disorders of the bones, joints & muscles

Countertransport

process carrying solutes in opposite directions (the carrier is antiport)

Cotransport

process carrying solutes in the same direction (the carrier is symport)

midbrain

processes visual and auditory info, involuntary muscles, arousal from sleep, awareness, eating, sleeping, attention

brain stem

processing center, relay station for info headed to or from cerebrum/cerebellum

serous glands

produce relatively thin, watery fluids such as perspiration, milk, tears, and digestive juices

tendon organ

proprioceptors located in tendons that detect stretch

functions of epithelial tissue

protection, absorption, filtration, secretion, sensation

functions of hair

protects and insulates, guards openings against particles and insects, is sensitive to very light touch

kinetochore

protein plaque on each side of the centromere

primary

protein's sequence amino acid which is encoded in the genes

enzymes

proteins that function as biological catalysts permit reactions to occur rapidly at normal body temperature Substrate - substance an enzyme acts upon Mechanisms by which they catalyze: Lowers activation energy - energy needed to get reaction started enzymes facilitate molecular interaction

Transmembrane Proteins or Integral proteins

proteins that pass through the membrane, with hydrophilic regions in contact with the cytoplasm and extracellular fluid, and hydrophobic regions that pass back and forth through the lipid of the membrane. Most are glycoproteins (proteins with oligosacharides) Some are like ice cubes they drift freely in the phospholipid membrane, others attached to cytoskeleton.

what does umami taste indicate?

proteins to grow and repair tissue (amino acids)

base

proton acceptor (accepts H+ ions) releases OH- ions in water

acid

proton donor (releases H+ ions in water)

each medial and lateral pterygoid plates in the sphenoid bone has a narrower inferior extension called what, provides attachment for some of the jaw muscles

pterygoid process

what nerves are especially vulnerable to injury and why?

radial: passes through the axilla and can be compressed against the humerus sciatic: due to its position and length, can cause sciatica if damaged

background radiation

radon gas & cosmic rays 3.6 millisieverts/year (background), 0.6 millisieverts/year (artificial), 50 millisieverts/year (acceptable exposure)

how to test CNVIII

raising hand on side that sound is coming from + balancing on one leg

the vertical to oblique posterior portion of the mandible is called the _____

ramus

Hip dislocation

rare, but some infants suffer from it when their acetabulum is not deep enough to hold the head of the femur in place

dendrites

receive messages from other cells

each pair of spinal nerves receives _______ and issues ________ to muscles and glands

receives sensory information and issues motor signals to muscles and glands

parietal lobe

receives sensory input for touch and body position

posterior (dorsal) horns

receives sensory nerve fibers from the spinal nerves, which usually synapse with networks of interneurons in the horn - extend toward the posterolateral surfaces of the cord

what structures make up a reflex arc?

receptor, afferent nerve fiber, often one or more interneurons, efferent nerve fiber, and effector

Visceral reflex arc

receptors - nerve endings that detect stretch, tissue damage, blood chemicals, body temperature, and other internal stimuli afferent neurons - leading to the CNS interneurons - in the CNS efferent neurons - carry motor signals away from the CNS effectors - that make adjustments ANS modifies effector activity

erythema

redness of the skin due to capillary dilation

Calcitonin Functions

reduces osteoclast activity by as much as 70% in 15 minutes - so osteoclasts liberate less calcium from the skeleton. increases the number & activity of osteoblasts

ionic bond

relatively weak attraction between an anion and a cation. Easily disrupted in water, as when salt dissolves

Stages of healing 4

remodeling (4) occurs over next 6 months as spongy bone is replaced with compact bone

interoreceptors

respond to stimuli within the body

divisions of sensory nervous system

somatic sensory and visceral sensory

what passes through the foramen magnum

spinal cord

lumbar enlargement

supplies nerves of pelvis and lower limbs

parasympatholytics

suppress activity

iris

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

vestibule of the ear

the area between cochlea & semicircular canals

thalamus

the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Energy

the capacity to do work

why must the withdrawal reflex, but not the stretch reflex, involve in a polysynaptic reflex arc?

the flexor muscles receives prolonged output from the spinal cord and not just from one sudden stimulus as in the stretch reflex

Cytology

the scientific study of cells

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

primary curvatures in spine

thoracic, pelvic

how do motor signals exit the spinal cord?

through the anterior root

Opposition

to move the thumb to touch the tip of any of the other four fingers

modality of stimulus

type of stimulus or the sensation it produces

stratum corneum

up to 30 layers of dead, scaly, keratinized cells

c7 is sometimes called ___ because of its conspicuous spinous process

vertebra prominens

commonly called the backbone, physically supports the skull and trunk, allows for their movement, protects the spinal cord, absorbs stressed produced by walking, running, and lifting, provides attachment for the limbs, thoracic cage, and postural muscles

vertebral column (spine)

why does the vertebral cord extend only to L1?

vertebral column grows faster than the spinal cord

posterior to the body of each vertebra is a triangular space called what?

vertebral foramen

carries signals for hearing and balance from the inner ear to the brain

vestibulocochlear nerve

CNVIII

vestibulocochlear, sensory