a&p semester 1 (ch 1-16)
steps of saltatory conduction
1. Na+ enters axon at a node and diffuses for a short distance along the inner membrane 2. the leaking of Na+ out of the axon and the resistance from the axoplasm weakens the positive charge signal with distance 3. depolarization of membrane at next node opens Na+ channels, triggering new action potential
process of continuous conduction
1. action potential occurs @ trigger zone 2. Na+ enters axon and diffuses across plasma membrane, depolarizing the membrane 3. depolarization excites voltage-gated channels immediately distal to the action potential 4. Na+ and K+ channels open and close just as in step (2) 5. new action potential produced...continues along the axon == CHAIN REACTION
anatomical subdivisions of nervous system
1. central nervous system 2. peripheral nervous system
name the four major regions and two enlargements of the spinal cord.
1. cervical 2. thoracic 3. lumbar 4. sacral 1. cervical enlargement 2. lumbar enlargement
functions of the spinal cord
1. conduction 2. locomotion 3. reflexes
process of action potential
1. depolarization of membrane to produce rising local potential 2. threshold reached (-55mV) and voltage-gated ion channels open 3. neuron produces action potential by opening voltage-gated Na+ channels quickly and K+ channels slower 4. a positive feedback loop of depolarization via Na+ influx into the cell causes membrane voltage to rise even more rapidly 5. as rising potential passes 0 mV, Na+ channels begin closing and voltage peaks at about +35 mV = membrane is now positive on the inside and negative on the outside (opposite of RMP) 6. slow K+ channels are fully open, flowing out of the cell and thus repolarizing the membrane (back to negative #s) 7. more K+ leaves cell than Na+ enters --> negative overshoot produces hyperpolarization
what factors contribute to resting membrane potential?
1. diffusion of ions down their concentration gradients through the membrane 2. selective permeability of the membrane, allowing some ions to pass more easily than others 3. electrical attraction of cations and anions
nucleotides
1. nitrogenous base (single or double carbon-nitrogen ring) 2. sugar (monosaccharide) 3. one or more phosphate groups Ex.: ATP
three components of a negative feedback loop
1. receptor to direct change 2. integrator to understand change and decide what to do 3. effector to create the opposite change
properties of reflexes
1. require stimulation - not spontaneous actions like muscle tics but responses to sensory input 2. quick - involve only a few interneurons 3. involuntary - occur without intent 4. stereotyped - occur in the same way every time, predictable response
how does myelin speed up signal conduction?
1. seals nerve fiber and increases resistance to Na+ leakage out of the axon 2. greater separation between the ICF and ECF = less attraction between anions and cations of the ICF and ECF = faster movement of Na+
what does spinal cord ability to conduct allow it to do?
1. sensory info to reach the brain 2. motor commands to reach the effectors 3. input received at one level of the cord to affect output from another level
steps of the nervous system
1. sensory input 2. integration 3. motor output
steps of hearing
1. sound waves enter external auditory meatus 2. tympanic membrane vibrates 3. auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) amplify vibrations 4. stapes hits oval window and transmits vibrations to cochlea 5. organs of corti contain receptor cells (hair cells) that deform from vibrations 6. impulses sent to the vestibulocochlear nerve 7. auditory cortex of the temporal lobe interprets sensory impulses 8. round window dissipates vibrations within the cochlea
why is the term spinal reflexes not accurate for somatic reflexes?
1. spinal reflexes are not exclusively somatic -- visceral reflexes also involve the spinal cord 2. some somatic reflexes are mediated more by the brain than spinal cord
4 bursa associated with the shoulder joint
1. subdeltoid 2. subacrimonial 3. subcoracoid 4. subscapular
Ratio of muscles to nerves in gastrocnemius
1000:1 for more strength
how many facial bones are there?
14
Steroids
17 carbon atoms in 4 rings
Multiunit Smooth Muscle
1:1, terminal branches of nerve fibres synapse with individual myocytes to form a motor unit (like a skeletal muscle motor unit), each motor unit contracts independently (ex. large arteries and respiratory passages)
Myokinase
2 ADP -> 1 ATP + 1 AMP (transfer of one P1)
what are the 14 facial bones?
2 maxillae, 2 palatine bones, 2 zygomatic bones, 2 lacrimal bones, 2 nasal bones, 2 inferior nasal conchae, 1 vomer, 1 mandible
sister chromatids
2 parallel filaments which make up chromosomes
Other Factors
20 or more hormones, vitamins & growth factors not well understood
Cholesterol
200g in avg adult body -85% endogenous -15% dietary -synthesized only by animal cells
how many bones are in the typical adult body? child?
206, 270
how fast do nerve signals travel via continuous conduction?
2m/sec
how many conchae are in the nasal cavity
3
SEM: Scanning electron microscope
3 D images at high magnification and resolution only view surface features
5 ligaments that support the humeroscapular joint
3 glenohumeral ligaments (relatively weak), Coracohumeral ligament- extends from coracoid process to greater tubercle Transverse humeral ligament- extends from greater to lesser tubercle and forms a tunnel through which a biceps tendon passes
stratum granulosum
3-5 layers of keratinocytes that contain coarse, dark-staining granules
how many nerves in the spinal cord
31 pairs
the vertebral column is a flexible chain of how many vertebrae with _______
33, intervertebral discs
Ratio of muscles to nerves in eye
3:1 for better control
fatty acids
A Chain of 4 to 24 carbon atoms, with a carboxyl (acid) group on one end, a methyl group on the other. H is bonded along the sides 4 types (SUPE): - Saturated - carbon atoms saturated with hydrogen (palmatic acid and stearic acid) - Unsaturated - contains C=C bonds without hydrogen (linoleic acid) - Polyunsaturated - contains many C=C bonds - Essential fatty acids - obtained from diet, body can not synthesize
glycolipids
A carb that coats the external surface of cell membrane
Conjugated carbohydrate
A carb that is covalently bound to a lipid or protein
Ligand-gated ion channels open when
A chemical messenger binds (acetylcholine)
Second Messengers
A chemical that is produced within a cell (such as cAMP) or that enters a cell (such as calcium ions) in response to the binding of a messenger to a membrane receptor, and that triggers a metabolic reaction in the cell
Axons of the motor neurons travel to the muscle. There are 200x branches on average. Each branch leads to
A different muscle fibre
Somatic Motor Pathway
A motor neuron from the brainstem or spinal cord issues a myelinated axon that reaches all the way to a skeletal muscle.
I-bands (light) are composed of
A portion of thin filament, adjacent to the Z disc
Endochondral Ossification
A process by which a bone develops from a pre-existing model composed of hyaline cartilage. Begins at the 6th week of fetal development and continues into the early 20's.
This is an extension of the sarcolemma, it stimulates the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
A transverse tubule
colloids
A type of with-water mixture besides a solution defined by the following physical properties: - particles too large to pass through semipermeable membrane - range: 1 - 100 nm - scatter light and are usually cloudy - particles remain permanently mixed with the solvent when mixture stands Most common colloids in the body are mixtures of protein and water.
Suspension
A type of with-water mixture besides a solution defined by the following physical properties: - particles too large to penetrate selectively permeable membranes - in excess of 100nm - cloudy or opaque in appearance - separates on standing
Acetylcholine (ACh)
ACh is secreted by the preganglionic fibers in both divisions and the postganglionic fibers of the parasympathetic division -called cholinergic fibers -any receptor that binds it is called cholinergic receptor NOTE: A few sympathetic postganglionics also secrete ACh - those that innervate sweat glands and some blood vessels.
The immediate source of energy for muscle
ATP
ATP
ATP consumed within 60 seconds of formation entire amount of ATP in the body would support live for less than 1 minute if it were not continually replenished cyanide halts ATP synthesis
start codon
AUG starts synthesizing protein
Calcitriol (Activated Vitamin D)
Abnormal softness of the bones is called rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults
A chemical neurotransmitter in muscles
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Second step of muscle excitation by nerve
Acetylcholine is released
What enzyme is released to break down Acetylcholine and stop the stimulation of a muscle fibre.
Acetylcholinesterase
When ACh is released, it travels
Across the synaptic cleft
Two contractile proteins that overlap creating striations.
Actin and myosin
Thin filaments are beads of
Actin strands
First step of excitation-contraction coupling
Action potentials propagated
Actin strands have these for myosin attachment
Active sites
Sympathetic Division
Adapts the body in many ways for physical activity - exercise, trauma, arousal, competition, anger, or fear -it increases alertness, heart rate, blood pressure, pulmonary airflow, blood glucose concentration, and blood flow to cardiac and skeletal muscle. But at the same time, it reduces blood flow to the skin and digestive tract. NOTE: 'Fight-or-Flight' reaction.
Phosphorylation
Addition of free phosphate group (as released by ATP hydrolysis) to another molecule. - Carried out by enzymes called kinases (phosphokinases)
In the absence of oxygen, glucose is degraded in
Aerobic fermentation to produce a little ATP and lactic acid (glycolysis (2 ATP) -> 2 pyruvic acid + NADH -> 2 lactic acid + 2 NAD)
In the presence of oxygen, fatty acids and glucose are degraded in
Aerobic respiration to produce lots of ATP
State of hydration of muscle
Affects overlap between thick and thin filaments and ability of myosin to form cross bridges with thin filament
Breaking cross-bridges ATP and ATP is no longer produced
After death
metabolism
All the chemical reactions of the body. [2 types: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism and Anabolism are inextricably linked.]
Selectively Permeable
Allows some things to cross but not others; i.e. the plasma membrane
No length-tension limitations like skeletal muscle
Allows stomach to fill (greatly stretch) and then have the force to expel contents into intestine.
A quick up and down voltage shift creates
An action potential (AP)
Long Term Energy
Anaerobic energy needed for prolonged exercise. After 40 seconds of exercise, respiratory and cardiovascular systems must deliver oxygen for electron transport chain. Oxygen consumption rate increases for the first 3-4 minutes and then levels off to a steady state.
ankle ligaments
Anterior and posterior tibiofibular ligaments anchor tibia and fibular Deltoid ligament anchors tibia to foot (calcaneus, talus, and navicular) on medial side Lateral collateral ligament that anchors fibular to lateral side of the foot
Cholinergic Receptor
Any receptor that binds a cholinergic fibers. NOTE: There are 2 categories of cholinergic receptors, the muscarinic and the nicotinic receptors.
Pelvic Splanchnic Nerves
Are formed from the remaining parasympathetic fibers that arise from levels S2 to S4 of the spinal cord; they travel a short distance in the anterior rami of the spinal nerves before forming the pelvic splanchnic nerves.
Carotid Plexus
Are the nerves of the sympathetic nerve route that form together around each carotid artery of the neck and issue fibers from there to effectors in the head.
Pelvic Nerves
Are the parasympathetic fibers that do not synapse in the inferior hypogastric plexus, they pass through it and travel by way of the pelvic nerve to the terminal ganglia in their target organs: the distal half of the colon, the rectum, urinary bladder, and reproductive organs.
Adrenergic Receptors
Are the receptors for the adrenergic fibers.
First step of muscle excitation by nerve
Arrival of nerve signal
The neuromuscular junction is located
At the synaptic knob
How is an ion formed (ionization)
Atoms want 8 valence electrons. Elements with 1-3 valence electrons tend to give them up, and those with 4-7 electrons tend to gain more. If an atom of the first kind is exposed to the second, atoms may transfer from one to the other, turning both of them into ions.
Sympathetic Chain (Paravertebral Ganglia)
Axons exit by way of spinal nerves T1 to L2 and lead to the nearby sympathetic chain of ganglia. This longitudinal series of ganglia that lie adjacent to both sides of the vertebral column from the cervical to the coccygeal level. NOTE: They are interconnected by longitudinal nerve cords.
Sodium-Potassium Pump (4 functions)
Basal part of cell, constantly removes Na from cell 3 Na out of cell, 2 K in the cell keeps potential (-70mv) across membrane. 1. Regulation of cell volume- anion (proteins and phosphates) attract and retain cations retntion of these would cause swelling. so cellular swelling increase Na Ka ATP pump, feedback loop reduces intracellular ion concentration, controls osmolarity, and prevents cellular swelling. 2. Secondary Active Transport maintains steep Na concentration gradient across the membrane 3. Heat Production-Thyroid stimulates synthesis of Na K Pumps consuming ATP releases heat. 4. Maintenance of a membrane potential- resting membrane potential, inside negative outside positive.
Secondary Ossification Center
Begin to form in the epiphyses near time of birth Same stages occur as in primary ossification center result is center of epiphyseal cartilage being transformed into spongy bone Hyaline cartilage remains on joint surface as articular cartilage and at junction of diaphysis & epiphysis (epiphyseal plate) each side of epiphyseal plate has a metaphysis
Third step of muscle excitation by nerve
Binding of acetylcholine to receptor
Third step of excitation-contraction coupling
Binding of calcium to troponin
Forth step of contraction
Binding of new ATP; breaking of cross-bridge
Healing of fractures notes
Blood vessels are broken at the fracture site. Blood clots. Blood vessels grow into the clot and a soft callus of fibrocartilage forms. Mineral deposition hardens the soft callus and converts it to a hard callus of spongy bone. Osteoclasts remove excess tissue from the had callus and the bone eventually resembles its original appearance.
Structure of a Flat Bone
Blow to the skull may fracture outer layer and crush diploe, but not harm inner compact bone.
Puberty Bone Growth
Bone growth especially rapid at puberty hormones stimulate proliferation of osteogenic cells and chondrocytes in growth plate adolescent girls grow faster than boys & reach their full height earlier (estrogen has stronger effect) males grow for a longer time
Bone and Bone Tissue
Bone/osseous tissue - connective tissue with a matrix hardened by minerals (calcium Phosphate)
ATP Synthesis: Immediate Energy (10s) = Phosphagen System
Borrowing P1 and transferring them to ADP. Supply ATP for short burst of intense activity. Two enzyme systems are responsible (myokinase and creatine kinase).
how is myelin produced? how does myelin production in the CNS differ from that in the PNS?
CNS myelin is produced by special cells called oligodendrocytes PNS myelin is produced by Schwann cells the two types of myelin are chemically different, but they both perform the same function to promote efficient transmission of a nerve impulse along the axon
Calcitriol (Activated Vitamin D)
Calcitriol behaves as a hormone (blood-borne messenger) Calcitrol is a form of Vit. D. produced by the sequential action of the skin, liver and kidneys. It is called a vitamin as it is added to the diet in fortified milk for people who do not get enough sunlight to initiate Vit. D. synthesis in the skin.
Smooth muscle contraction is the different from skeletal muscle
Calcium (comes from extracellular fluid through calcium channels, not SR like in skeletal muscle; binds to calmodulin, not troponin like in skeletal muscle) Myofilaments (actin myofilaments are anchored to dense bodies in the sarcoplasm and on the sarcolemma, not to the Z-discs)
During rigor mortis, deteriorating sarcoplasmic reticulum releases
Calcium into the cytosol
Functions of Calcium
Calcium is needed for communication between neurons, muscle contraction, blood clotting & exocytosis 99% of calcium is in the bones. Calcium and phospate is also found in the blood
Ion Imbalances
Calcium phosphate homeostasis depends on calcitriol, calcitonin & Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Second step of excitation-contraction coupling
Calcium released from terminal cisternae
Clinical Application: Calcium Channel Blockers
Calcium- normal function to contract smooth muscle, ex arteries...vasoconstriction High blood pressure- treatment block these calcium channels so that there is more vasodilation, therefore lowering blood pressure
reversible reactions
Can go in either direction under different circumstances symbolized with double-headed arrow Most common equation discussed in this book is: CO2 + H2O <> H2CO3 (Carbonic acid) <> HCO3- (Bicarbonate ion) + H+
metabolic pathways
Chain of reactions, with each step usually catalyzed by a different enzyme A B C D A is initial reactant, B+C are intermediates and D is the end product Regulation of metabolic pathways activation or deactivation of the enzymes cells can turn on or off pathways when end products are needed and shut them down when the end products are not needed
Ion Imbalances
Changes in phosphate concentration have little effect Changes in calcium can be serious hypocalcemia is deficiency of blood calcium causes excessive excitability of nervous system leading to muscle spasms, tremors or tetany hypercalcemia excessive calcium binding to cell surface makes sodium channels less likely to open, depressing nervous system
Stimulation of Smooth Muscle due to
Chemical stimuli (CO2, hormones, pH), autonomic nervous system (different neurotransmitters may cause relaxation or contraction; depends on type of receptor present), stretch, presence of pacemaker cells (single unit smooth muscle in intestines and stomach have pacemaker cells that spontaneously depolarize and set off waves of contraction -> autorhythmic)
Endochondral Ossification
Chondrocytes at the primary ossification center die and blood vessels penetrate the bony collar and invade. The primary ossification center then becomes the primary marrow cavity as various stem cells and blood fills the central cavity.
12 trace elements of human body (.7%)
Chromium, Cobalt, Copper, Fluorine, Iodine, Manganese, Molybdenum, Selenium, Silicon, Tin, Vanadium, Zinc
Treatment of Fractures
Closed reduction, open reduction internal fixation (ORIF), traction, eletrical stimulation, orthopedics
~glycocalyx: definition
Coats the surface of a cell and serves as ID tag Composition: carbohydrate moieties of membrane glycolipids and glycoproteins
Histology of Compact Bone
Collagen fibers corkscrew down the matrix of a given lamella in a helical arrrangement like the threads of a screw. They alternate between right and left handed helices from lamella to lamella. This enhances the strength of bone. The perforating canals or volkmann canals cross the matrix and feed into the central canals. The innermost osteocytes around each central canal receive nutrients from these blood vessels. They also receive waste from their neighbors and convey them to the central canal for removal by the bloodstream.
Matrix of Osseous Tissue
Combination provides for strength & resilience minerals resist compression; collagen resists tension bone adapts to tension and compression by varying proportions of minerals and collagen fibers
Why are there no striations on smooth muscle?
Contractile proteins are not lined up perfectly
External tension develops as muscle shortens
Contraction
The shortening of muscle fibre
Contraction
After ACh reaches the ACh receptors in the sarcolemma, muscle
Contracts
Smooth muscle is unlike skeletal muscle which
Contracts only in response to nervous stimulation
cAMP
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate nucleotide formed by removal of both second and third phosphate groups from ATP formation triggered by hormone binding to cell surface cAMP becomes "second messenger" within cell activates metabolic effects inside cell
Mineral Resorption Braces
Dental braces reposition teeth, creating greater pressure on the bone on one side of the tooth and less on the other side increased pressure stimulates osteoclasts; decreased pressure stimulates osteoblasts to remodel jaw bone
Limits to endurance are set by
Depletion of glycogen and blood glucose, loss of fluid and electrolytes.
Matrix of Osseous Tissue
Dry weight is 1/3 organic & 2/3 inorganic matter.
This protein links actin to the cell membrane (endomysium)
Dystrophin
Estrogen Replacement Theories
ERT slows bone resorption, but best treatment is prevention -- exercise & calcium intake (1000 mg/day) between ages 25 and 40 Therapies to stimulate bone deposition are still under investigation
The *endomysium* surrounds
Each muscle fibre (muscle cell)
Tension while lengthening
Eccentric
These are made of titin
Elastic filaments
Electrical Stimulation
Electrical stimulation is used on fractures that take longer than 2 months to heal
Importance of electrolytes
Electrolytes are important for their chemical, physical, and electrical effects on the body. electrical effects determine nerve, heart, and muscle actions
The *epimysium*
Encloses the entire muscle.
Endosteum
Endosteum is the internal surface of the bone, while the periosteum is the external surface covering of the bone.
General Features of Bones
Enlarged ends (epiphyses) are spongy bone covered with a layer of compact bone enlarged to strengthen joint & provide for attachment of tendons and ligaments
General Features of Bones
Epiphyseal plate or line depends on age.
Epiphyseal plate:
Epiphyseal plate: in children and adolescents and epiphyseal plate of hyaline cartilage separates the marrow spaces of the epiphysis and diaphysis. The epiphyseal plate is a zone where the bones elongate by a growth process. There are no ephiphyseal plates in adults.
Physiology of Osseous Tissue
Even after a bone is fully formed, it remains a metabolically active organ with many rolls to play including its own maintenance, growth, and remodeling. It also exchanges minerals with the tissue fluid and helps to maintain calcium homeostasis.
Nerve action potentials lead to action potentials in muscle fibre
Excitation
Four actions of muscle fibre movement:
Excitation, Excitation-contraction coupling, Contraction, Relaxation
Action potentials on the sarcolemma activate
Excitation-contraction coupling
Structure of a Flat Bone
External/internal surfaces of flat bone are composed of compact bone.
T/F: signal conduction occurs deep within a fiber's axoplasm, not along the surface of a fiber
FALSE - signal conduction occurs along the surface of a fiber, not deep within its axoplasm
T/F: the spinal cord is a component of the peripheral nervous system while the spinal nerves are part of the central nervous system
FALSE - the spinal cord is a component of the central nervous system while the spinal nerves are part of the peripheral nervous system
T/F: EPSPs and IPSPs are the only thing that determine whether or not a neuron fires
FALSE -- ion leakage through membranes causes all neurons to fire at a certain background rate even when unstimulated. EPSPs and IPSPs only change the rate of firing by stimulating or inhibiting the production or more action potential.
T/F: an unmyelinated fiber has voltage-gated channels only near the cell body
FALSE, an unmyelinated fiber has voltage-gated channels along its entire length
T/F: a stretch reflex is mediated by the spinal cord
FALSE, it is mediated primarily by the brain, so these reflexes can occur even if the spinal cord is severed from the brain - only one synapse between afferent and efferent neuron - little synaptic delay and very prompt response
T/F: the more synapses involved in a reflex arc, the shorter the delay between the input and output
FALSE, the more synapses, there is a longer delay between input and output
Progressive weakness from use
Fatigue
Smooth muscle is very resistant to
Fatigue (low ATP requirement)
Fast Twitch, White, Type II
Few mitochondria, lots of blood capillaries, little myoglobin, phosphagen system (glycogen-lactic acid system), fast twitch duration, example is the gastrocnemius (muscles of eye movement), sport is sprinting
Pulmonary Plexus
Fibers accompany the bronchi and blood vessels into the lungs.
Esophageal Plexus
Fibers regulate swallowing.
Fracture Types - Colles
Fracture of the distal end of the radius and ulna; common in osteoporosis
anatomy of the nail
Free edge, body, lunula, eponychism, root, matrix, dead keratinized epithelia cells
cell cycle
G1 phase growth and normal metabolic roles, S phase DNA replication, G2 growth and preparation for mitosis, Mitotic phase
Bone Marrow - Gelatinous
Gelatinous marrow of old age yellow marrow replaced with reddish jelly
Short Term Energy (1 minute)
Glucose from the break down of glycogen (also obtained from the blood). Requires no oxygen. Provides energy for 30-40 seconds of activity.
Functions of membrane protein 6:7 Cell identity markers
Glycoproteins contribute to glycocalix "identification tag" which cells are ok in the body which cells are foreign.
The recoil of connective tissue
Helps return muscle to resting length
ionizing radiation
High energy radiation ejects electrons from atoms converting atoms to ions -some forms are given off by radioisotopes [[deadly in high doses, in low doses, mutagenic and carcinogenic]]
Eicosanoids
Hormone-like chemical signals between cells - includes prostaglandins - produced in all tissues - role in inflammation, blood clotting, hormone action, labor contractions, blood vessel diameter
First step of contraction
Hydrolysis of ATP; activation and cocking of myosin head
Carpopedal Spasm
Hypocalcemia causing overexcitability of nervous system and muscle spasm of hands and feet
nerves of the lumbar plexus
I - iliohypogastric I - ilioinguinal G - genitofemoral L - lateral femoral cutaneous O - orburator F - femoral
how are IPSPs produced?
IPSPs are produced by opening Cl- channels -The membrane potential is driven toward the Cl- equilibrium potential (approximately -90 mV)
Visceral Motor System
Is distinguished from the somatic motor system that controls the skeletal muscles. NOTE: Is also known as the autonomic nervous systems.
Vagal Trunks
Is located at the lower end of the esophagus, the cardiac, pulmonary, and esophageal plexuses give off anterior and posterior vagal trunks; each of which contains fibers from both the right and left vagus nerves. NOTE: These trunks penetrate the diaphragm, enter the abdominal cavity, and contribute to the extensive abdominal aortic plexus.
Sympathoadrenal System
Is the collective name for the sympathetic nervous system and adrenal medulla are so closely related in development and function.
Adrenal Medulla
Is the inner core essentially a sympathetic ganglion -It consists of modified postganglionic neurons without dendrites or axons -stimulated by preganglionic sympathetic neurons that terminate on these cells -secretes a mixture of hormones into bloodstream -catecholamines - 85% epinephrine (adrenaline) and 15% norepinephrine (noradrenaline) -also function as neurotransmitters
Collateral (Prevertebral) Ganglia
Is the second set of ganglia that comes after the splanchnic nerves; here the preganglionic fibers synapse with the postganglionics.
Inferior Hypogastric Plexus
Is what comes after the pelvic splanchnic nerves. NOTE: Some parasympathetic fibers synapse here, but most pass through this plexus and travel by way of pelvic nerves to the terminal ganglia in their target organs.
Splanchnic Nerves
Is what continues on after the splanchnic nerve route, which leads to a second set of ganglia called collateral (prevertebral) ganglia. Here the preganglionic fibers synapse with the postganglionics.
The Metaphysis Zones
It exhibits 5 histological zones of transformation from cartilage to bone (We begin with farthest from the marrow cavity). Zone of reserve cartilage Hyaline cartilage, no transformation into bone. Zone of cell proliferation Chondrocytes multiply and line up. Zone of cell hypertrophy Enlargement of chondrocytes. Zone of calcification Temporary calcification of cartilage. Zone of bone deposition Death of chondrocytes; bone deposition; trabeculae forming
Calcitriol (Activated Vitamin D) Function
Its function is to raise the blood calcium concentration. Increases small intestine to absorb calcium weakly promotes urinary reabsorption of calcium ions so less calcium is lost in the urine promotes osteoclast activity to raise blood calcium concentration to the level needed for bone deposition
General Features of Bones
Joint surface covered with articular cartilage (lubrication)
Sympathetic Tone
Keeps most blood vessels partially constricted and thus maintains blood pressure. A loss of sympathetic tone can cause such a rapid drop in blood pressure that a person goes into shock.
decomposition reactions
Large molecule breaks down into two or more smaller ones AB --> A + B
Delay between onset of stimulus and onset of twitch
Latent period
Three phases of a twitch
Latent period, contraction, relaxation
Isotonic muscle contraction
Length changes, tension does not. Tension while shortening = concentric. Tension while lengthening = eccentric.
Muscle returns to resting length when contraction of antagonist
Lengthens it (ex. contraction of triceps brachii lengthens the biceps brachii)
polysaccharides
Long chains of monosaccharides. 3 polysaccharides of interest in humans: Glycogen, Starch, and Cellulose. 1. Glycogen: energy storage polysaccharide in animals - made by cells of liver, muscles, brain, uterus, and vagina - liver produces glycogen after a meal when glucose level is high, then breaks it down between meals to maintain blood glucose levels - muscles store glycogen for own energy needs uterus uses glycogen to nourish embryo 2. Starch: energy storage polysaccharide in plants - only significant digestible polysaccharide in the human diet 3. Cellulose: structural molecule of plant cell walls - fiber in our diet
Forth step of relaxation
Loss of calcium ions from troponin
Slow Twitch, Red, Type I
Lots of mitochondria, lots of blood capillaries, lots of myoglobin, ATP from aerobic respiration (don't fatigue easily), long twitch duration, example is the soleus, sport is marathon running
Twitch
Low frequency (up to 10 stimuli/sec). Each stimulus produces an identical twitch response, muscle relaxes completely between stimuli.
pH of muscle
Low pH (acidic) = fatigue = weak twitch
Causes of fatigue
Lowered ATP synthesis as glycogen is consumed, lowered pH due to increased lactic acid (enzymes don't work well), lower activity of Na/K pump (can't maintain RMP and less excitability of muscle fibres), less ACh in motor nerve fibres depleted and less capable of stimulating muscle fibres, central nervous system fatigue and less signal output to skeletal muscles
nerves of the brachial plexus
M - musculocutaneous A - axillary R - radial M - median U - ulnar
monomers & polymers
Macromolecules - very large organic molecules very high molecular weights proteins, DNA
Thick filament
Made of myosin, have myosin heads which pull on actin
Complete Tetanus
Maximum frequency stimulation (40-50 stimuli/sec). Muscle has no time to relax at all. Twitches fuse into smooth, prolonged contraction called complete tetanus. Rarely occurs in the body.
The electrical charge inside a cell relative to outside of a cell is the
Membrane potential
Intramembranous Ossification Process
Mesenchyme (embryonic connective tissue) condenses into a sheet of soft tissue transforms into a network of soft trabeculae osteoblasts gather on the trabeculae to form osteoid tissue (uncalcified bone) calcium phosphate is deposited in the matrix transforming the osteoblasts into osteocytes osteoclasts remodel the center to contain marrow spaces & osteoblasts remodel the surface to form compact bone mesenchyme at the surface gives rise to periosteum
Intramembranous Ossification Notes
Mesenchyme is embryonic connective tissue. When this tissue condenses into a sheet the cells of this sheet enlarge and differentiate into osteogenic cells Osteoblasts deposit an organic matrix called osteoid tissue, calcium phosphate is deposited in the matrix and some osteoblasts get trapped in the lacunae and differentiate into osteocytes. This process gives rise to a sandwich-like arrangement of spongy bone between two surface layers of compact bone.
Metaphysis & Secondary Ossification Center
Metaphysis is cartilagenous material that remains as growth plate between medullary cavity & secondary ossification centers in the epiphyses.
Structure of a Flat Bone
Middle layer is spongy bone (diploe). No marrow cavity.
Mineral Deposition
Mineralization is crystallization process in which ions (calcium, phosphate & others) are removed from blood plasma & deposited in bone tissue
Treppe
Moderate frequency (between 10-20 stimuli/sec). Each twitch has time to recover but develops more tension than the one before -> stronger twitches (staircase phenomenon)
dehydration synthesis
Monomers covalently bond together to form a polymer with the removal of a water molecule A hydroxyl group is removed from one monomer and a hydrogen from the next
Well-conditioned muscles will have
More blood vessels (for O2 delivery), more mitochondria (for endurance activities) and more enzymes for the phosphagen system (for burst type activity)
Single-unit Smooth Muscle
Most common (ex. blood vessels, digestive tract). Forms circular and longitudinal muscle layers. Autonomic nerve fibres have beadlike swellings called varicosities which release neurotransmitters. Muscle fibres connected by gap junctions, not all fibres receive direct input from a nerve fibre (they stimulate each other and large number of cells contract as a unit)
Osteoporosis
Most common bone disease. Bone lose mass and become brittle due to loss of both organic matrix and minerals. risk of fracture of hip, wrist & vertebral column lead to fatal complications such as pneumonia widow's (dowager's) hump is deformed spine
Knee injuries
Most knee injuries are to the meniscus or to ACL; Arthroscopic surgery has greatly improved repair, recovery time and levels of pain associated with knee surgery; Damaged ACLs can be replaced with a graft from either a patellar ligament or a hamstring tendon by drilling holes through the femur and the tibia and attaching the ligament to the bone with a screw
Muscle fibres originates from multiple myoblasts, so it is
Multinucleated
How do muscles resist fatigue
Multiple units work in shifts
Characteristics of Muscle: Responsiveness
Muscle and nerve cells respond to stimuli.
Skeletal muscle cells are called
Muscle fibers or myofibers
Smooth muscle contraction is the same as skeletal muscle
Muscle fibres shorten due to overlap in actin and myosin.
The central nervous system monitors and adjusts length of resting muscles to maintain a state of partial contraction
Muscle tone maintains optimum length and makes muscles ideally ready for action
Characteristics of Muscle: Elasticity
Muscles can stretch and recoil.
Characteristics of Muscle: Extensibility
Muscles can stretch up to 3x of their contracted length.
Muscle fibres are composed of long protein bundles called
Myofibrils
Each myofibril is a bundle of protein microfilaments called
Myofilaments
Fibers remain cross-linked until
Myofilaments decay (48-60 hours)
Thick filaments are made of hundreds of these molecules
Myosin
During rigor mortis calcium activates
Myosin-actin cross-bridging (causes stiff, rigid muscles)
coenzyme NAD+
NAD+ transports electrons from one metabolic pathway to another
Skeletal Muscle: structure of T tubules and calcium source?
Narrow T tubules; calcium from sarcoplasmic reticulum
Smooth muscle tone
Need to maintain muscle tone in arteries (vasomotor tone) or blood pressure will drop. SMT keeps intestines partially contracted (much longer in cadaver)
Most cells' membrane potentials have this charge
Negative
Potassium leaving a cell create a _________________ membrane potential, or _________________________.
Negative; repolarization
Te inside of a cell has an overall negative charge due to
Negatively charged proteins and nucleic acids. Positively charged potassium is also inside a cell.
Mineral Deposition Notes
Now we are going to talk about the physiology of mature osseous tissue. Most tissues have inhibitors to prevent calcification. Calcium phosphate crystals do not form unless the product of calcium and phosphate concentration in the tissue fluids reaches a critical value called the solubility product.
ACh receptors here accept the ACh
On the sarcolemma
The distance of the sarcomere is
One Z-disc to the next
The motor unit is composed of
One nerve fibre and all the muscle fibres it innervates
Flagella
Only one functioning one in human body: Sperm. they are longer than cilium and has a identical axoneme. movement snakelike corkscrew "undulating"
Forth step of muscle excitation by nerve
Opening of ligand-gated ion channel
Fifth step of muscle excitation by nerve
Opening of voltage-gated ion channel
The formation of bone is called
Ossification or osteogenesis
Osteoblasts
Osteoblasts form and help mineralize organic matter of matrix
Osteocytes
Osteocytes (mature bone cells) are osteoblasts that have become trapped in the matrix they formed cells in lacunae connected by gap junctions inside canaliculi signal osteoclasts & osteoblasts about mechanical stresses
Cells of Osseous Tissue Proccess
Osteocytes are strain sensors , when they detect a strain in the bone they communicate this information to osteoblasts; they are a mature bone cell. Osteblasts then deposit bone where needed Osteoclasts remove bone.
Osteogenic Cells
Osteogenic cells reside in endosteum, periosteum or central canals arise from embryonic fibroblasts and become only source for new osteoblasts multiply continuously & differentiate into osteoblasts in response to stress or fractures
Cells of Osseous Tissue
Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, and osteocytes
buffer
Our body uses buffers to resist changes in pH slight pH disturbances can disrupt physiological functions and alter drug actions pH of blood ranges from 7.35 to 7.45 deviations from this range cause tremors, paralysis or even death
oxidation
Oxidation any chemical reaction in which a molecule gives up (electrons and releases energy molecule oxidized in this process electron acceptor molecule is the oxidizing agent oxygen is often involved as the electron acceptor)
Myoglobin is a protein in muscles that carries
Oxygen
percentage vs molar concentration
Percentage # of molecules unequal weight of solute equal Molar # of molecules equal weight of solute unequal
Compact Bone
Perforating canals or Volkmann canals vascular canals perpendicularly joining central canals Circumferential or outer lamellae
A fasicle is bound and defined by
Perimysium
Long Bone
Periosteum and articular cartilage. Compact and spongy bone. endosteum. Yellow Marrow.
Functions of Phosphate
Phosphate is a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, phospholipids, & acid-base buffers 85% - 95% of phosphate is in the bones. Calcium and phospate is also found in the blood
Sodium entering a cell creates a ___________________ membrane potential, or _____________________________.
Positive; depolarization
The outside of a cell as an overall positive charge due to
Positively charged sodium ions. There is also negatively charged chloride ions.
Varicosities
Postganglionic fibers of the ANS do not end by synapsing with a specific target cell, but with a chain of varicosities that diffusely release neurotransmitter into the tissue and stimulate many cells simultaneously.
Third step of contraction
Power stroke; sliding of thin filament over thick filament
Endochondral Ossification Process
Primary ossification center forms in cartilage model chondrocytes near the center swell to form primary ossification center matrix is reduced & model becomes weak at that point Some cells of the perichondrium become osteoblasts, which produce a bony collar The bony collar acts like a splint it also cuts off diffusion of nutrients and hastens their death (becomes periosteum
Triglycerides
Primary: energy storage. Also insulation and shock absorption (adipose tissue)
Mineral Resorption Process
Process of dissolving bone & releasing minerals into the blood performed by osteoclasts "ruffled border" hydrogen pumps in the cell membrane secrete hydrogen ions into the space between the osteoclast & the bone chloride ions follow by electrical attraction hydrochloric acid with a pH of 4 dissolves bone minerals an enzyme (acid phosphatase) digests the collagen
Intramembranous Ossification
Produces flat bones of skull & clavicle
Endochondral Ossification
Produces most other bones. i.e. vertebrae, pelvic bones and bones of the limbs
conjugatied proteins
Proteins that contain a non-amino acid moiety called a prosthetic group Hemoglobin contains four complex iron containing rings called a heme moieties
Peripheral proteins
Proteins that do not protrude into the phospholipid layer but rather adhere to one face of the membrane, often times associated with a transmembrane protein and tethered to the cytoskeleton
many drugs also act on neurotransmitters in CNS
Prozac blocks reuptake of serotonin to prolong its mood-elevating effect
RNA
RNA (ribonucleic acid) - 3 types messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA 70 to 10,000 nucleotides long carries out genetic instruction for synthesizing proteins assembles amino acids in the right order to produce proteins
Bone Marrow - Red
Red marrow looks like thick blood mesh of reticular fibers and immature blood cells hemopoietic means produces blood cells found in vertebrae, ribs, sternum, pelvic girdle and proximal heads of femur and humerus in adults
Reduction
Reduction any chemical reaction in which a molecule gains {electrons and energy molecule is reduced when it accepts electrons molecule that donates electrons is the reducing agent oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions oxidation of one molecule is always accompanied by the reduction of another Electrons are often transferred as hydrogen atoms}
Return to resting length
Relaxation
General Features of Bones
Remainder of bone covered with periosteum outer fibrous layer of collagen fibers continuous with tendons or perforating(Sharpey's) fibers that penetrate into bone matrix inner osteogenic layer important for growth & healing
Purposes for extra oxygen
Replace oxygen reserves (myoglobin, blood hemoglobin, in air in the lungs and dissolved in plasma), replenish phosphagen system, oxidize lactic acid to glucose (in the liver) and serve elevated metabolic rate
Fast twitch
Respond quickly, but fatigue quickly
Fast twitch fibers
Respond quickly, fatigue easily
Slow twitch
Respond slowly, but resistant to fatigue
The difference in charge across the muscle's cell membrane is called the
Resting membrane potential
Fifth step of relaxation
Return of tropomyosin to position blocking active sites of actin
The plasma membrane of a muscle is called the
Sarcolemma
The cytoplasm of a muscle is called
Sarcoplasm
The smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum of a muscle is
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
These allow some limited mitosis, they are unspecialized myoblasts.
Satellite cells
5 properties water has that supports life
Savvy Chefs Adorn Carpeted Tacos Solvency, Cohesion, Adhesion, Chemical reactivity, Thermal stability
myelin sheath is produced by...
Schwann cells (PNS) and oligodendrocytes (CNS)
Calcitonin
Secreted by C cells of the thyroid gland when blood calcium concentration rises too high Important role in children, but little effect in adults calcitonin deficiency is not known to cause any disease in adults may be useful in reducing bone loss in osteoporosis
Parathyroid Hormone
Secreted by the parathyroid glands found on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland Released when calcium blood level is too low Injection of low levels of PTH can cause bone deposition Calcitrol: and as discussed calcitrol raises the level of calcium in the blood.
Describe Smooth Muscle
Short and fusiform cell shape, no striations, few mitochondria, one central nuclei, no T tubules, gap junctions, autorhhythmicity, calcium from extracellular fluid, involuntary control, excitatory or inhibitory effect of nervous stimulation, good regeneration
The contractile proteins, actin and myosin do this to muscle fibres.
Shorten them
wallace is the victim of a hunting accident. a bullet grazed his vertebral column, and bone fragments severed the left half of his spinal cord at segments T8 through T10. since the accident, wallace has had a condition called dissociated sensory loss, in which he feels no sensations of deep touch or limb position on the left side of his body below the injury and no sensations of pain or heat from the right side. explain what spinal tract(s) the injury has affected and why these sensory losses are on opposite sides of the body.
Signals for deep touch and limb position below that level ascend the ipsilateral side of the spinal cord in the gracile fasciculus and do not decussate until they get to the medulla oblongata. therefore, an injury to the left gracile fasciculus would block the transmission of these types of signals from the left (ipsilateral) side of the body below the injury. Signals for pain and heat, however, decussate in the spinal cord near the point of entry and travel up the contralateral side of the cord in the spinothalamic tract. an injury to the left spinothalamic tract would thus block the transmission of these signals from the right (contralateral) side of the body.
Biological classes of muscle fibres
Slow twitch, fast twitch (both types are in 1 muscle but the proportion varies related to type and level)
Stress Relaxation Response
Smooth muscle contracts and then reflexively relaxes in response to stretch (ex. bladder, stretches then relaxes or it would expel contents -> allows bladder to fill)
Bone Marrow
Soft tissue that occupies the medullary cavity of a long bone or the spaces amid the trabeculae of spongy bone
Spheroid
Spherically shaped cells (egg and fat cells)
~Hydrolysis
Splitting a polymer (lysis) by the addition of a water molecule (hydro) - A covalent bond is broken - All digestion reactions consists of hydrolysis reactions - The opposite of dehydration synthesis. Specifics: 1. A water molecule ionizes into -OH and H+ 2. the covalent bond linking one monomer to the other is broken 3. the -OH is added to one monomer, the H+ is added to the other
Spongy Bone
Spongelike appearance formed by rods and plates of bone called trabeculae spaces filled with red bone marrow Trabeculae have few osteons or central canals no osteocyte is far from blood of bone marrow Provides strength with little weight trabeculae develop along bone's lines of stress
Cubodial
Squarish cells and approx. as tall as they are wide (liver cells)
Cells of Osseous Tissue
Stem cells, osteoclast. Osteoclasts develop in bone marrow ; each osteoclast is formed by the fusion of several stem cells, so they are unusually large. They break down bone.
What opens ion gates in the plasma membrane
Stimulation
Stimulus Frequency
Stimuli arriving close together = stronger twitches
Strength of a twitch varies with:
Stimulus Frequency, Amount of Calcium in Sarcoplasmic Reticulum, Degree of Stretch of Muscle, Temperature of Muscle, pH of Muscle, State of Hydration of Muscle and Recruitment
Twitch strength varies with
Stimulus frequency. Intensity remains constant. (high frequency = stronger twitches, low frequency = weak twitches)
Muscle returns to resting length when connective tissue components
Stretch it out to resting length
Smooth muscle response to stretch
Stretch opens mechanically-gated calcium channels in sarcolemma, causing muscle response (ex. food enters the esophagus brings on peristalsis).
Cardiac Muscle
Striated, 25% mitochondria, one nucleus, wide T tubules, gap junctions, autorhythmicity, calcium from SR and extracellular fluid, involuntary control, limited regeneration
Protein Functions
Structural Proteins metabolic proteins
Substrate
Substrate - substance an enzyme acts upon
~enzyme structure & action
Substrate approaches active site on enzyme molecule Substrate binds to active site forming enzyme-substrate complex highly specific fit -'lock and key' enzyme-substrate specificity Enzyme breaks covalent bonds between monomers in substrate adding H+ and OH- from water - Hydrolysis Reaction products released - glucose and fructose Enzyme remains unchanged and is ready to repeat the process
hyperkalemia is an excess of potassium in the extracellular fluid. what effect would this have on the resting membrane potentials of the nervous system and on neural excitability?
Such a change in the K+ gradient across the plasma membrane results in less net diffusion of K+ out of neurons. the K+ concentration in the cytoplasm increases, partially depolarizing the membrane and making neurons more excitable.
disaccharides
Sugar molecule composed of 2 monosaccharides 3 important disaccharides: sucrose, lactose, and maltose 1. glucose + fructose = sucrose (table sugar) 2. glucose + galactose = lactose (milk sugar) 3. glucose + glucose = maltose (malt sugar)
6 lesser elements of human body (.8%)
Sulfur, Potassium, Sodium, Chlorine, Magnesium, Iron
Functions of skeletal system
Support, protection, movement, blood formation, mineral reservoir, pH balance and detoxification.
each zygomatic bone has an inverted _______ shape and usually a small _______ near the intersection of the stem and crossbar of the T
T, zygomaticofacial foramen
T/F: somatic reflexes are responses of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles
TRUE
T/F: temporal summation can occur even if one presynaptic neuron stimulates the postsynaptic neuron at a fast enough rate
TRUE
T/F: somatic reflexes can occur even if the spinal cord has been severed
TRUE, the stimuli simply does not reach the brain
Factors that increase speed of diffusion
Temperature (the hotter the faster) Molecular weight (the heavier the slower) Steepness of concentration gradient (the greater the concentration the more rapid the diffusion) Surface Area (the more surface area the faster the diffusion) Membrane permeability (the more permeable the easier the diffusion)
knee tendons
Tendons, of the muscles of the thigh, m. quadriceps, femoris and m. semimembranous, act to stabilize the knee; strengthening these muscles reduces the risk of injury
Isometric muscle contration
Tension changes, length does not. Important in postural muscle function.
Isometric and isotonic phases of lifting
Tension rises but length remains the same (object is not moved). Tension levels off, muscle begins to shorten (object is moved).
Extensions of the sarcoplasmic reticulum that release calcium ions
Terminal cisternae
Ion Imbalances Notes
Tetany is the inability of a muscle to relax. Tetany begins as calcium concentration falls to 6mg/dL. At 4mg/dL the muscles of the larynx contract. Hypercalcemia: at 12mg/dL and higher hypercalcemia causes depression of the nervous system, emotional disturbances, muscle weakness, sluggish reflexes and sometimes cardiac arrest.
Characteristics of Muscle: Contractility
The ability to contract is unique to muscle. They shorten and pull on bones, causing movement.
A-bands (dark) are composed of
The entire thick filament and a portion of the thin filament
Facial Nerve (VII)
The facial nerve carries parasympathetic fibers that regulate the tear glands, salivary glands, and nasal glands. Soon after the facial nerve emerges from the pons, its parasympathetic fibers split away and form two smaller branches.
Primary Ossification Center
The first sign of Endochondral ossification is the multiplication and swelling of chondrocytes near the center of the model which is called the primary ossification center. There is the formation of the supportive bony collar.
White Communicating Ramus
The preganglionic fibers are small myelinated fibers that travel from the spinal nerve to the ganglion by way of the white communicating ramus, which gets its color and name from the myelin.
Catalysis
The process by which proteins called enzymes speed up reactions (catalysts)
how do proteins and other chemicals synthesized in the soma get to the axon terminals? by what process can a virus that invades a peripheral nerve fiber get to the soma of that neuron?
The process that moves proteins and other chemicals from soma towards the synaptic knobs is called anterograde axonal transport. All proteins in the neuron are synthesized in the soma using the somatic organelles such as the nucleus, ribosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum. These proteins need to be delivered to the branches of the neuron. The two-way transport along the axon is divided into anterograde transport, which delivers the protein away from the soma and towards the synapses.
The contractile unit of a muscle fibre is
The sarcomere
calcaneal tendon
The tendon formed by union of the tendons of the calf muscles, the soleus and gastrocnemius, and inserted into the heel bone.
Fractures are classified by
Their structural characteristics -- causing a break in the skin, breaking into multiple pieces, etc or after a physician who first described it
3 Major Collateral Ganglia
There are three major collateral ganglia in the abdominal aortic plexus: -- The Celiac Ganglia -- The Superior Mesenteric Ganglia -- The Inferior Mesenteric Ganglia Located at points where arteries of the same names branch off the aorta. The postganglionic fibers accompany these arteries and their branches to the target organs.
Elbow joints
There are two articulating points with the humerus form the hinge joint of the elbow: humeroulnar and humeroradial joints; both are enclosed in a single capsule (fig. 9.25 a-d) Side-to-side movement is restricted by pairs of ligaments: radial collateral ligament (lateral) and ulnar collateral ligament (medial) An olecrannon bursa easies the movement of tendons over the posterior surface of the elebow Proximal radioulnar joint is another articulation in the region of the elbow and is held in place
beta-adrenergic Receptors
These are usually inhibitory. Example, NE relaxes and dilates the bronchioles (thus enhancing respiratory airflow) when it binds to b-adrenergic receptors of the smooth muscle. NOTE: However, when it binds to the b-adrenergic receptors of cardiac muscle, its has an excitatory effect.
Functions of membrane protein 4 of 7: Ion channels
Transmembrane proteins, or protein clusters with pores that allow water and dissolved ions to pass through the membrane. some always open some consist of GATES (ligand-regulated gates, voltage-regulated gates, mechanically regulated gates)
This binds tropomyosin and calcium ions and shifts the tropomyosin off of binding sites.
Troponin
These are the regulatory proteins that act like a switch
Troponin and tropomyosin
Blood Vessels of Compact Bone
You can see the concentric lamellae that encircle a haversian canal. An osteon or haversian system is the central canal and its lamellae. The skeleton receives half a liter of blood per minute.
codon
a 3 base sequence in mRNA
cyanosis
a bluish discoloration of the skin resulting from poor circulation or inadequate oxygenation of the blood
Pathological Fracture
a break in a bone weakened by some other disease bone cancer or osteoporosis
corpus callosum
a broad band of nerve fibers joining the two hemispheres of the brain
olfactory tracts
a bundle of axons connecting the cells of the olfactory bulb to several target regions in the brain
nerve
a bundle of nerve fibers (axons) wrapped in fibrous connective tissue
arrestor muscle
a bundle of smooth muscle cells extending from dermal collagen fibers to the connective tissue root sheath of the follicle
third degree burn
a burn involving all layers of the skin; characterized by the destruction of the epidermis and dermis, with damage or destruction of subcutaneous tissue
second degree burn
a burn marked by pain, blistering, and superficial destruction of dermis with edema and hyperemia of the tissues beneath the burn
sodium potassium pump
a carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell 3 sodium for every 2 potassium
Cytosol or intracellular fluid
a clear gel (intacellular fluid [ICF]) containing the organelles and cytoskeleton
nerve
a cordlike organ composed of numerous nerve fibers (axons) bound together by connective tissue
periosteum
a dense fibrous membrane covering the surface of bones (except at their extremities) and serving as an attachment for tendons and muscles
electrical potential
a difference in the concentration of charged particles between one point and another - a form of potential energy that, under the right conditions, can produce a current
endocrine gland
a ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream
myelin
a fatty substance that helps insulate neurons and speeds the transmission of nerve impulses
positive feedback loop
a feedback loop in which change in a system is amplified - childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, and generation of nerve signals
bursa
a fibrous sac filled with synovial fluid; it is located between adjacent muscles where a tendon passes over a bone, or between bone and skin
dermal papillae
a fingerlike projection of the dermis that may contain blood capillaries or Meissner corpuscles (of touch)
electrical current
a flow of charged particles from one point to another
cochlear duct
a fluid filled cavity within the cochlea that vibrates when sound waves strike it
node of ranvier
a gap in the myelin sheath of a nerve, between adjacent Schwann cells
exocrine gland
a gland (as a sweat gland, a salivary gland, or a kidney) that releases a secretion external to or at the surface of an organ by means of a canal or duct - contain septa dividing structure into lobules - simple: unbranched duct - compound: branched duct - tubular: uniform diameter - acinar: forms dilated sac
stratum lucidum
a layer of clear epidermis found only in the thick skin of the fingers, palms, and soles
Hypotonic
a lower concentration of nonpermeating solutes than the intracellular fliud (ICF) If a cell is in a hypotonic solution...a cell then is considered hypertonic (more solutes than the outside) then water will move from hypotonic (outside) solution to hypertonic (inside cell)...diluting the solute inside cell .....Balloon water goes into cell, bursts=lysis occurs
melanocytes
a mature melanin-forming cell, typically in the skin
Carrier-Mediated Transport
a method of transportation where ATP is needed, active transport facilitated diffusion and vesicular
first degree burn
a mild burn characterized by heat, pain, and reddening of the burned surface but not exhibiting blistering or charring of tissues
ANS can be defined as
a motor nervous system that controls glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle
Elevation
a movement that raises a body part vertically in the frontal plane; e.g. when lifting an object your scapula moves up
Supination
a movement that turns the palm to face anteriorly or upword
Rotation ( def, specifically for joint movements)
a movement which a bone spins on a its longitudinal axis
multipolar neuron
a nerve cell that has many dendrites and a single axon - most common, brain and spinal cord
bipolar neuron
a neuron with one axon and one dendrite attached to its soma - nose, eyes, ears
unipolar neuron
a neuron with one process extending from its cell body - carry signals to spinal cord for sensing touch and pain - axon defined by presence of myelin and ability to generate action potential
dorsal root ganglion
a nodule on a dorsal root that contains cell bodies of afferent spinal nerve neurons
peripheral neuropathy
a painful condition of the nerves of the hands and feet due to damage to the peripheral nerves; also known as peripheral neuritis
refractory period
a period of time after a nerve or muscle cell has responded to a stimulus in which it cannot be reexcited by a threshold stimulus
Retraction
a posterior movement
Chemical reaction
a process in which a covalent or ionic bond is formed or broken
chemical reaction
a process in which a covalent or ionic bond is formed or broken
Plasma (cell) membrane
a protein/lipid layer formed around the cell phospholipids and proteins, different composition from one region to another (basal, lateral, upper)
what is a receptor? give two examples of effectors
a receptor is sense organs and simple sensory nerve endings that go to the CNS two examples of effectors would be cells and organs
reciprocal inhibition
a reflex that prevents muscles from working against each other by inhibiting antagonists
muscle spindle
a sensory receptor located in a muscle that senses its tension and inform the brain of muscle length and body movements
Base triplet
a sequence of 3 DNA nucleotides that stands for 1 amino acid
epithelial tissue
a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity
depolarization
a shift in the electrical potential across a plasma membrane to a value less negative than the resting membrane potential
reflex arc
a simple neural pathway that mediates a reflex
reflex
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
hematoma
a solid swelling of clotted blood within the tissues
Hypertonic
a solution with a higher concentration of nonpermeating solutes than the ICF. Outside cell hypertonic inside cell compared to outside would be hypotonic so water will go to the outside of cell cell will lose water and shrivel up (crenate)
resting membrane potential
a stable voltage across the plasma membrane of an unstimulated nerve or muscle cell
Cytoskeleton
a supportive framework to the cell
Rotator cuff injury
a tear in the tendon of any of the SITS muscles, common in baseball pitchers, third basemen, bowlers and swimmers
gray commissure
a thin strip of gray matter that surrounds the central canal of the spinal cord and, along with the anterior white commissure, connects the two halves of the cord
basement membrane
a thin, delicate membrane of protein fibers and glycosaminoglycans separating an epithelium from underlying tissue
CNXI
accessory, motor
when a patient needs a tendon graft, surgeons sometimes use the tendon of the palmaris longus, a relatively dispensable muscle of the forearm. the median nerve lies nearby and looks very similar to this tendon. there have been cases in which a surgeon mistakenly removed a section of this nerve instead of the tendon. what effects do you think such a mistake would have on the patient?
accidental removal of a part of the median nerve denervates the thenar muscle group and the first and second lumbricals (see table 13.4). The results include inability to flex the fingers (inability to grip objects), loss of many thumb functions (abduction, flexion, and opposition), and extension of the interphalangeal joints
is connective tissue cellular or acellular?
acellular -- some cells but mostly matrix (ground substance and protein)
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
acidic phosphorus rich substance hereditary matter found in our genes, consists of polymers of nucleotides, double helix structure
ear canal
acoustic meatus
Kinase
activated my cAMP, add phosphate groups to other cellular enzymes
extrinsic muscle
acts on a region, but its origin is elsewhere
how to test CNVI
adduct the eyeballs
tight junctions
adjacent cells are bound together by fusion of the outer phospholipid layer of their plasma membranes through transmembrane cell-adhesion proteins - ensure that nutrients pass through the epithelial cell and not between them - prevent bacteria from invading tissue - prevent leakage of substances between the cells (water-proof)
afferent vs efferent
afferent carries impulses toward the region of interest - any input coming into the brain is considered to be afferent. (sensory) efferent carries impulses away from the region of interest - any output from the brain will be efferent (motor)
spinal tracts
aggregations of axons running up and down the spinal cord that allow reflex arcs to communicate with higher centers and higher centers to communicate with the reflex arc - white matter
auditory tube
air passage between the middle ear and throat that equalizes air pressure on either side of the eardrum also called the Eustachian tube
odorants
airborne chemicals that are detected as odors
what does bitter taste indicate?
alkaloids (potential poison or spoiled food)
Somatic cells
all other cells except sperm and egg
autosomes
all other chromosomes except X and Y
codominant
alleles that are equally dominant
node of ranvier function
allows for faster signal transmission; 30x faster than non-myelinated nerves
fibrous joint
also called synarthrosis, when adjacent bones are joined by collagen fiber, ex. sutures, gomphoses, and syndesmoses
bony joint
also called synostosis, an immovable joint, caused when the gap between two bones ossifies and they become, in effect, a single bone, ex. Some cranial sutures and the attachment of the first rib to the sternum
the root of each tooth is inserted into a deep socker called what?
alveolus
local potential
an electrical potential that is initiated by stimulation at a specific site, which is a graded response that spreads passively across the cell membrane, decreasing in strength with time and distance
G protein
an intracellular side to a peripheral protein that a receptor is linked onto, named for the ATP-like chemical guanosine triphosphate (GTP) from which they get their energy. 60% of drugs work by altering the activity of this protein.
gland
an organ that produces and releases chemicals either through ducts or into the bloodstream
apical surface
an upper free surface exposed to the body exterior or the cavity of an internal organ
Elastic filament
anchor the thick filaments to the Z disc and M line
desmosomes
anchoring junctions that prevents cells subjected to mechanical stress from being pulled apart - found in epithelium of the uterine cervix, other epithelia, and cardiac muscle - each cell contributes half of the desmosome
Basal Body
anchors the cilium, a continuation of the peripheral microtubules extending into the cell.
what is required to produce a total loss of sensation from a singular dermatome?
anesthetizing or severing three sequential spinal nerves
the body and ramus of the mandible meet at a corner called what?
angle
an irreversible loss of the sense of smell and a great reduction in the sense of taste? injury to what bone?
anosmia, ethmoid
nerves of the cervical plexus
ansa cervicalis, supraclavicular, phrenic
facial bones lie _______ to the cranial cavity
anterior
the lateral masses of the atlas are connected by an ___ and ___, which bear slight protuberances called the ___ and ___
anterior arch, posterior arch, anterior and posterior tubercle
a pair of bony spines of the lesser wing of the sphenoid bone that appear to guard the optic foramina
anterior clinoid processes
cranial fossae that is relatively shallow, crescent-shaped and accommodates frontal lobes of the brain
anterior cranial fossa
what muscles does the cervical plexus innervate?
anterior neck muscles and diaphragm - supplies neck and phrenic nerve to the diaphragm, plays important role in breathing
what muscles does the lumbar plexus innervate?
anterior, medial, and lateral thigh
the four sites of fontanels that are especially prominent and regular
anterior, posterior, sphenoid (anterolateral), mastoid (posterolateral)
the frontal bone forms what wall and about 1/3 of the _____ of the cranial cavity. it turns inward to form nearly all of the _____ cranial fossa and the _____ of the orbit.
anterior, roof, anterior, roof
Hip ligaments
anteriorly: iliofemoral and pubofemoral posteriorly: ischiofemoral ligaments hold the femur into the acetabulum; Round ligament (ligamentum teres) is a distinctive ligament from the head of the femur to the lower margin of the acetabulum; Transverse acetabular ligament spans the gap on the inferior margin of the acetabulum
sound
any audible vibration of molecules -- the collision of millions of air molecules against each other allow some to collide with the eardrum and make it vibrate
diploid
any cell with 23 pairs of chromosomes
hilton's law
any nerve serving a muscle that produces movement at a joint also innervates the joint and the skin over the joint
Joint or an articulation
any point where two bones meet; self-lubricating, frictionless, weight bearing, movable structures, which enables vertebrates and animals, in general, to do work Other types of joints are immovable for strength of uniting two or more bones Joints are typically named after the bones involved in articula
what gland secretes pheromones?
apocrine sweat glands
skeleton which includes the bones of the upper limb and pectoral girdle and the bones of the lower limb and pelvic girdle
appendicular skeleton
autonomic effects on glandular secretion
are often an indirect result of their effect on blood vessels -vasodilation - increased blood flow - increased secretion -vasoconstriction - decreased blood flow - decreased secretion
Preganglionic Fiber
are small myelinated fibers that travel form spinal nerve to the ganglion by way of the white communicating ramus (myelinated)
fovea centralis
area consisting of a small depression in the retina containing cones and where vision is most acute
types of loose connective tissue
areolar, reticular
dried bones held together by wires and rods to show their spatial relationships to each other
articulated skeletons
gullian-barre syndrome
ascending muscle weakness and tingling in your extremities. immune system attacks the nerves
frontal lobe
associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving
quaternary
associations of two or more separate polypeptide chains functional conformation - three dimensional shape
___ allows for 'yes' and ___ allows for 'no'
atlas, axis
anion
atom that gains electrons during ionization (net negative charge)
cation
atom that lost an electron during ionization (net positive charge)
isotopes
atoms with different numbers of neutrons -(give the atoms different atomic weights) [[same chemical behavior, differ in physical behavior breakdown (decay) to more stable isotope by giving off radiation]]
ligament
attach a bone to a bone; holds skeleton together
hemidesmosomes
attach epithelial cells to the basement membrane
suspensory ligament
attaches the lens to the ciliary body
Insertion
attachment site at mobile end
Origin
attachment site at stationary end
what is another name of the visceral motor nervous system? what are its two subdivisions? what are their functions?
autonomic nervous system (ANS) two subdivisions are sympathetic division and parasympathetic division sympathetic division tends to arouse the body for action, accelerating the heartbeat and increasing respiratory airflow, but inhibits digestion parasympathetic division tends to have a calming effect, slowing the heartbeat, but stimulates digestion
anterior/posterior rami lead (to/away from) the vertebral column and spinal cord
away from
skeleton which forms the central supporting axis of the body, includes the skull, auditory ossicles, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and thoracic cage (ribs and sternum)
axial skeleton
two different skeletons in human body
axial, appendicular
identify which plexus gives rise to each of the following nerves: axillary, orburator, phrenic, radial, and sciatic.
axillary - brachial orbutator - lumbar phrenic - cervical radial - brachial sciatic - sacral
vertebra c2 is called what?
axis
what is the first vertebra that exhibits a spinous process
axis
where is the first voltage gated channel on a neuron?
axon hillock (react to a membrane reaching threshold and produce action potential)
types of skin cancer
basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, malignant melanoma
floor of the cranial cavity
base
a thick median plate anterior to the foramen magnum
basilar part
suppose a poison were to slow down the Na+/K+ pumps of nerve cells. how would this affect the resting membrane potentials of neurons? would it make neurons more excitable than normal, or make them more difficult to stimulate? explain.
because the Na+-K+ pump removes three positive charges from the cell for every two it brings in, it contributes to the negative membrane potential. if the activity of the Na+/K+ pumps was reduced, ion leakage would make the plasma membrane less polarized and more excitable.
why does referred pain occur?
because the sensory information from the two places synapses in the same spinal interneuron
suderiferous glands are found (above/below) sebaceous glands
below
tertiary
bending, folding into a globular or a fibrous form ~ie Globular - enzymes, anitibodies, blood albumin Fibrous - collagen, keratin , fibrin
in vertebrae c1-c6, the process is forked, or ___, at its tip
bifid
functions of connective tissue
binding and support, immune protection, insulation, transportation, movement, heat production
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
binds a free amino acid in the cytosol and delivers it to the ribosome to be added to a growing protein chain, carries anticodons
Parathyroid Hormone Functions
binds to osteoblasts causing them to release osteoclast-stimulating factor that stimulates osteoclast multiplication & activity promotes calcium resorption by the kidneys promotes calcitriol synthesis in the kidneys inhibits collagen synthesis and bone deposition by osteoblasts
RNA Polymerase
binds to the DNA and assembles the RNA, starts at the TATATA box, opens up DNA's helix 17 base pairs at a time and makes corresponding base pairs, makes premature mRNA
Tropomysoin
blocks the active sites of actin when muscle is relaxed
how does the skin regulate body temperature?
blood vessels in the skin release or hold in heat, depending upon what the body needs at the time
the horizontal portion bearing the teeth of a mandible is the ____
body
a mass of spongy bone and red bone marrow covered with a thin shell of compact bone that is the weight-bearing portion of the vertebra
body (centrum)
negative feedback loop
body senses a change and activates mechanisms to reverse it "alter" "reverse"
the median _____ of the hyoid is flanked on either side by hornlike projections called what?
body, greater and lesser horns (cornua)
the atlas has no ____ and ___ like the typical vertebra does
body, spinous process
Fracture Types - Greenstick
bone is bent on one side and has incomplete fracture on opposite side.
variety of ridges, spines, bumps, decompressions, canals, pores, slits, cavities, and articular surfaces on the bone
bone markings
the horizontal plates from the palatine bones form a poasterior one-third of what?
bony palate
Four major classes of joints
bony, fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial
gray matter
brain and spinal cord tissue that appears gray with the naked eye, consists mainly of neuronal cell bodies (nuclei) and lacks myelinated axons
how is a crossed extension reflex produced?
branches of efferent nerve fibers cross from the stimulated side of the body to the contralateral side of the spinal cord to synapse with interneurons, which, in turn, excite or inhibit motor neurons to the muscles of the contralateral limb
How is the crossed extensor reflex tied in with the withdrawal reflex? Is the crossed extensor reflex an ipsilateral or contralateral reflex?
branches of the afferent nerve fibers nerve fibers cross from the stimulated side of the body to the contralateral side of the spinal cord there they synapse with interneurons, which in turn excite or inhibit alpha motor neurons to the muscles of the contralateral limb
arthritis
broad term embracing more than 100 types of joint rheumatism
bone
calcified matrix arranged in concentric lamellae around central canals FUNCTION: physical support of body, leverage leverage for muscle action, protective enclosure of viscera, reservoir of calcium and phosphorus LOCATION: skeleton
Troponin complex
calcium binding protein
Stages of healing 3
callus formation (3) soft callus of fibrocartilage replaced by hard callus of bone in 6 weeks
Parasympathetic Division
calms many body functions reducing energy expenditure and assists in bodily maintenance digestion and waste elimination NOTE: 'Resting-and-Digesting' state.
dome of the top of the skull that is composed of parts of multiple bones that form the roof and walls
calvaria
two major parts of cranium
calvaria and base
Multiaxial
can move in three anatomical planes, ex. ball-and-socket joints
Biaxial
can move in two anatomical planes ex. condylar and saddle joints
Energy
capacity to do work to do work means to move something all body activities are a form of work
Cardiac muscle cells are called
cardiocytes or myocytes
passage for the internal carotid artery, a major blood supply to the brain
carotid canal
two prominent foramina on the inferior surface of the petrous part of the temporal lobe
carotid canal and jugular foramen
sex.linked traits
carried on the X and Y chromosomes, inheritance of by one sex more than the other (colorblindness or hemophilia)
Secondary Active Transport
carrier mediated transport of a solute through a membrane (glucose)UP its concentration gradient, but Na DOWN. (its like facilitated diffusion but, uses ATP indirectly from NaK ATP pump has to get Na out) ex kidney Na glucose transporters that bind both of them and transport them into tubular cells but use NaK Pump to get Na out.
Primary Active Transport
carrier mediated transport of a solute through a membrane UP its concentration gradient, using energy provided by ATP. Pi attaches to protein, (this protein carrier is like an enzyme, selective, however the carrier does not change substrate or ligand) ex NaK ATP pump.
Facilitated Diffusion
carrier-mediated transport of a solute through a membrane DOWN its concentration gradient (hypertonic "more"-->to "less" hypotonic)via passive transport (no ATP necessary) ex glucose.
Uniport Carrier
carries one solute at a time (Ca++ takes it out of the cell so it doesn't crystallize cell) Uniport takes Ca out.
visceral motor division
carries signals to glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle, INVOLUNTARY
somatic motor division
carries signals to skeletal muscles
third order neuron of ascending tract
carries the signal the rest of the way to the cerebral cortex
Antiport
carries two or more solutes in oppposite directions. NaK Pump
Symport Carrier
carries two or more solutes through a membrane simultaneously in the SAME direction (Na and glucose)
Purpose of transverse tubules
carry electrical signals from cell surface to interior, lets SR gates of calcium ions to open and create muscle contraction
descending tracts
carry motor commands away from brain towards the spinal cord
Functions of membrane protein 3 of 7: Enzymes
carry out the final stages of starch and protein digestion in the small intestine, help produce second messengers, break down hormones and other signaling molecules whose job is done, stopping the cell from being over stimulated
ascending tracts
carry sensory information up the spinal cord towards the brain
chondroblasts
cartilage-forming cells that produce the matrix
Menisci (-us)
cartilaginous pads that grow inward from the joint capsule, acts as shock absorbers and holds the articulating bones in position to avoid dislocations, and distributes pressures evenly during work
Pronation
causing the palm to face posteriorly or downward
structure of a neuron
cell body myelin sheath dendrites Schwann's cells axon axon terminal
Mitosis
cell division, growth of tissues, organs, replaces dead cells, repair
Osmolarity does not = tonicity
cell placed in solution of 300 miliosm/L of urea (urea penetrates cell easily) Urea +water (osmosis) go into the cell and it bursts so 300mosm/L of urea is not isotonic 300 miliosm/L of NaCl (NaCl does not penetrate cells easily) NaCl solution little change in cell volume.
effectors
cells and organs that respond to signals from the CNS
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
Polygonal
cells with irregularly angular shapes and with four, five, or more sides
is epithelial tissue cellular or acellular?
cellular -- mostly cells, not much extracellular matrix
central canal of spinal cord
center of spinal cord which contains cerebrospinal fluid
spinal cord regions
cervical (8) thoracic (12) lumbar (5) sacral (5) coccygeal (1)
list the five plexuses of spinal nerves and state where each one is located.
cervical plexus- in the neck brachial plexus - near the shoulders lumbar plexus - of the lower back sacral plexus - immediately inferior to this coccygeal plexus - adjacent to the lower sacrum and coccyx
what vertebrae's function is to support the head and allow for its movements
cervical vertabrae
secondary cruvatures in spin
cervical, lumbar
the four bends in the vertebral column
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, pelvic curvatures
mutations
changes in DNA structure , results from replication errors, or from environmental factors
thermoreceptors respond to
changes in temperature
Gates
channels in the membrane that open and close under different circumstances. Three types of stimuli that would open gates 1) Ligand-gated channels-chemical messengers 2) Voltage gated channels- difference in voltage 3) mechanically gated channels (stretching & pressure of membrane)
Aquaporins
channels of transmembrane proteins through which water diffuses easily. the more aquaporins the more water can be transported. In red blood cell amount of water passing through a membrane every 1 sec=100times the volume of the cell.
ions
charged particles formed when an atom gains or loses an electron
Karyotype
chart of 23 pairs of chromosomes laid out in order by size.
why are chemical synapses so important?
chemical synapses are the decision-making devices of the system -- the more synapses a neuron has, the greater its information-processing capability
chemoreceptors respond to
chemicals in aqueous solution
the hyoid bone is beneath what
chin
sex chromosomes
chromosomes X and Y, determine individuals sex
hyaline cartilage
clear, glassy appearance because of fineness of collagen fibers, chondrocytes enclosed in lacunae FUNCTION: eases joint movement, holds airways open during respiration, moves vocal cords during speech LOCATION: a thin articular cartilage, lacking perichondrium, over the ends of bones at moveable joints, costal cartialge attaches to the end of a rib to the breastbone
what makes it difficult for an infant to generate the suction needed for nursing
cleft palate
when the palatine processes fail to join
cleft palate, cleft lip
pathway of vestibulocochlear nerve
cochlear/vestibular branch, medulla oblongata, pons, primary auditory cortex in temporal lobe
intensity of stimulus
coded by number of receptors activated and frequency of action potentials
secondary
coiled or folded shape held together by hydrogen bonds hydrogen bonds between slightly negative C=O and slightly positive N-H groups most common secondary structure are: alpha helix - springlike shape beta helix - pleated, ribbonlike shape
secondary
coiling into a springlike alpha helix or folding into a pleated beta sheet
Matrix of Osseous Tissue Organic Matter
collagen, glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans & glycoproteins
fibrous connective tissue fibers
collagenous fibers, reticular fibers, elastic fibers
ganglion
collection of nerve cell bodies (neurosomas) in the peripheral nervous system - enveloped in an epineruium continuous with that of the derve
ganglion
collection of nerve cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system
gene pool
collective genetic makeup
Solar Plexus
collective name for the celiac and superior mesenteric ganglia -comes from the nerves radiating from the ganglion like rays of the sun.
what basic physiological properties do a nerve cell and a muscle cell have in common? name a physiological property of each that the other one lacks
common: excitability and conductivity difference: nerve cell has secretion and muscle cell does not. muscle cell has contractility, extensibility, and elasticity and nerve cell does not
motor functions
complex muscle-and-nerve acts that produce movement (walking, writing, typing running etc.)
tastants
compounds that stimulate the gustatory hairs to send nerve impulses to the brain
genomics
comprehensive study of the whole genome ad how its genes and noncoding DNA interact to affect the structure and function of the whole organism
concave vs convex lens
concave lens disperses light convex lens focuses light
Reaction Rates affected by:
concentration reaction rates increase when the reactants are more concentrated temperature reaction rates increase when the temperature rises catalysts -substances that temporarily bond to reactants, hold them in favorable position to react with each other, and may change the shapes of reactants in ways that make them more likely to react. speed up reactions without permanent change to itself holds reactant molecules in correct orientation catalyst not permanently consumed or changed by the reaction Enzymes - most important biological catalysts
canal found posterior to each occipital condyle
condylar canal
posterior branch of the ramus of the mandible
condylar process
types of connective tissue
connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, blood
blood
connective tissue with a fluid matrix called plasma in which red blood cells, white blood cells, and cell fragments called platelets are suspended FUNCTION: transports gases, nutrients, wastes, chemical signals, and heat throughout the body; contains defensive leukocytes, clotting agents, platelets LOCATION: heart and blood vessels
centromere
consists of 2 genetically identical, rodlike sister chromatids joined together at a pinched spot
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
consists of Adenine Guanine Cytocine and Uracil instead of thymine. Single nucleotide chain, transcribed from DNA
semiconservative replication
consists of new helix synthesized by from free nucleotides and old helix conserved as parental DNA
nucleotides
consists of sugar, a phosphate group, sing or double ringed nitrogenous base,
central nervous system
consists of the brain and spinal cord, which are enclosed and protected by the cranium and vertebral column
mixed exocrine glands
contain both serous and mucous secretions
Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla Oblongata
contain: -nuclei for cardiac and vasomotor control, salivation, swallowing, sweating, bladder control, and pupillary changes
anterior (ventral) horns
contains large neurosomas of motor neurons whose axons lead out to the skeletal muscles - extend toward the anterolateral surfaces
thoracic cavity
contains mediastinum, pericardial cavity, and pleural cavities
Sarcoplasm components
contains myofibrils (protein bundles), glycogen (gives energy to cell) and myoglobin (stores oxygen until needed)
dorsal body cavity
contains the cranial cavity and spinal column
second order neuron of ascending tract
continues as far as a "gateway" called the thalamus at the upper end of the brainstem
myoepithelial cells
contract in response to stimulation by sympathetic nervous system and squeeze perspiration up the duct in eccrine gland
crossed extension reflex
contraction of extensor muscles in the limb opposite from the one that is withdrawn
what happens when the ciliary muscles contract?
contraction of this ring-like muscle, narrows the circumference of the ring and relaxes the suspensory ligaments attached to the lens. this allows the lens to return to its normal, resting shape which is rounder, a shape conducive to greater refraction and closer vision.
the primary somatosensory cortex in each cerebral hemisphere receives signals from the (ipsilateral/contralateral) side of the body
contralateral, pathways of sensory neurons below the head decussate either at or near the point of entry into the brainstem
third function of muscle
control of body openings and passages,
medulla oblongata
controls vital life-sustaining functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and digestion
transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret
Translation
converts nucleotides to amino acid , like a language, tRNA binds to A site (aminoacyl) which accepts amino acids then shifts to the P site (peptidyl) that carries the growing protein then shifts to E the exit site, 3 steps Initiation, Elongation, Termination
hinge joint
convex surface fits into a concave surface and is monaxial; Limiting lateral movement
medullary cone
cord tapers to a point inferior to lumbar enlargement - vertebral canal from L2 to S5
crosses the crown of the head from right to left and joins the frontal bone to the parietal bones
coronal suture
the anterior branch of the ramus of the mandible is a blade called _______ that is the point insertion point of the temporalis muscle
coronoid process
nonpolar covalent
covalent bond in which electrons are equally attracted to both nuclei. May be single or double. Strongest type of chemical bond.
astrocytes
cover brain surface and non synaptic regions of neurons to form supportive framework in CNS - most abundant - contribute to BBB - induce formation of blood-brain barrier - communicate with neurons and may influence synaptic signaling - regulate composition of ECF
thin skin
covers most of the body, has four layers of keratinocytes, thin stratum corneum
thick skin
covers the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, has five layers of keratinocytes, thick stratum corner
what are the cavities in the skull
cranial cavity, orbits, nasal cavity, oral (buccal) cavity, middle-ear cavity, inner-ear cavity, paranasal sinuses
three paired depressions on base of cranial cavity
cranial fossae
braincase
cranium
on each side of the crista galli in the cribriform plate, there is an elongated depressed area perforated with numerous holes called what?
cribriform (olfactory) foramina
foramen of CNI
cribriform foramen
forms the roof of the nasal cavity (horizontal)
cribriform plate
the cribriform plate has a median blade that is an attachment point for the dura mater called what?
crista galli
Terminal cisternae
cross muscle fiber from one side to another
decussation
crossing of the midline that occurs in many tracts so that brain senses and controls contralateral side of body
Sarcoplasm
cytoskeleton of skeletal muscle fiber
give an anatomical explanation of why a stroke in the right cerebral hemisphere can paralyze the limbs on the left side of the body.
decussation: as tracts pass up or down the brainstem and spinal cord, they cross over from the left side of the body to the right side, or vice versa
reticular layer
deeper layer of the dermis that consists of dense irregular connective tissue, is much more fibrous than cellular (thus tougher than the papillary layer), and supplies the skin with oxygen and nutrients - less room for ground substance, small clusters of adipocytes
Hypocalemia
deficiency of blood calcium causes excessive excitability of nervous system leading to muscle spasms, tremors or tetany
depressed fontanels indicate what
dehydration
pia mater
delicate, transparent membrane composed of one or two layers of squamous to cuboidal cells and delicate collagenous and elastic fibers
axon vs dendrite
dendrites are processes that conduct impulses toward the neuron cell body axon is a process that leads away from the cell body
the axis' most distinctive feature is a prominent anterior knob called the ___, or ___, on its anterosuperior side
dens, odontoid process
perichondrium
dense irregular connective tissue membrane covering cartilage
dense irregular tissue
densely packed collagen fibers running in random directions, scanty open space, few visible cells, scarcity of blood vessels FUNCTION: withstands stresses applied in unpredictable directions, imparts durability to tissues LOCATION: deeper portion of dermis of the skin, capsules around viscera, fibrous sheaths around cartilages and bones
dense regular tissue
densely packed, parallel, often wavy collagen fibers, slender fibroblast nuclei, scanty open space, scarcity of blood vessels FUNCTION: ligaments tightly bind bones together and resist stress, tendons attach muscle to bone and transfer muscular tension to bones LOCATION: tendons and ligaments
each spinal nerve except C1 receives sensory input from a specific area of skin called a...
dermatome
first order neuron of ascending tract
detects a stimulus and transmits a signal to the spinal cord or brainstem
Law of mass action
determines direction proceeds from the side of equation with greater quantity of reactants to the side with the lesser quantity
alleles
different forms of a gene , produce alternative forms of a particular trait
what muscle opens the mouth
digsatric muscle
along the cut edge of the calvaria, a layer of spongy bone in the middle of the cranial bones
diploe
primary motor cortex
directs voluntary movements to motor neurons --> precentral gyrus
bones taken apart so their surface features can be studied in more detail
disarticulated skeletons
Discoid
discly shaped cells (red blood cells)
dislocation
displacement of a bone from its normal position at a joint, common in the fingers, thumb, shoulder and knee
describe the distal (inferior) end of the spinal cord and the contents of the vertebral canal from level L2 to S5.
distal (inferior) end widens at the two enlargements of the spinal cord and tapers into the medullary cone 1. cervical enlargement: gives rise to nerves of the upper limbs 2. lumbar enlargement: gives rise to nerves of the pelvic region and lower limbs 3. medullary cone: inferior to the lumbar enlargement
nucleosomes
divided segments composed of chromatin, (DNA and histones and linker dna)
sagittal plane
divides body into left and right
frontal plane
divides the body into anterior and posterior portions
transverse plane
divides the body into superior and inferior parts
cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasm into two cells
inorganic
does not contain carbon and hydrogen
quaternary
doesnt always occur, but sometimes two or more protein chains associate with eachother ~ie - hemoglobin
adipose tissue
dominated by adipocytes (large, empty-looking cells with thin margins) FUNCTION: energy storage, thermal insulation, heat production, protective cushion, filling space, shaping body LOCATION: subcutaneous fat beneath skin, surrounds organs
thickest and toughest meninges that lies loosely against the inside of the cranium in most places but is firmly attached to it at a few points
dura mater
types of meninges
dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater
how do oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath?
each oligodendrocyte reach out to myelinated several nerve fibers in its immediate vicinity. pushed new layers of myelin under the older ones, so myelination spirals inward toward the nerve fiber - no neurilemma or endoneurium
Action
effect produced by a muscle to produce or prevent movement
third-class levers
effort in the middle
elastic cartilage
elastic fibers form weblike mesh amid lacunae, always covered by perichondrium FUNCTION: provides flexible, elastic support LOCATION: external ear, epiglottis
nervous system employs what kinds of means to send messages quickly from cell to cell?
electrical and chemical
why do cells have resting membrane potential?
electrolytes are unequally distributed between the ECF and ICF
Trace element
elements that are present in tiny amounts in the human body
tendon sheath
elongated cylindrical tubes wrapped around a tendon, seen especially in the hand and foot.
hypothalamus
emotions, hunger, thirst, hormones, homeostasis, connects to pituitary
law of complementary base pairing
enables us to predict the base sequence of one strand if we know the sequence of the complementary strand
axon terminal
endpoint of a neuron where synaptic vesicles are located and neurotransmitters are released
Potential energy
energy contained in an object because of its position or internal state not doing work at the time water behind a dam Types: chemical energy and free energy
electron shells
energy levels of an atom - inner shell = 2 e-, all the rest have 8 e- (the rule of eights)
Kinetic energy
energy of motion; energy that is actively doing work moving water flowing through a dam heat - kinetic energy of molecular motion electromagnetic energy - the kinetic energy of moving 'packets' of radiation called photons
what does a sweet taste indicate?
energy source + caloric value (sugars)
Anabolism
energy-consuming SYNTHESIS reactions
Catabolism
energy-releasing breakdown reactions
parasympathomimetics
enhance activity
DNA ligase
enzyme that joins together segments produced by DNA polymerase
layers of the skin
epidermis, dermis, hypodermis
four types of tissues
epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
anatomical position
erect, feet forward, arms at side with palms facing forward, head facing forward
cranial bone that contributes to the medial wall of the orbit, the roof and walls of the nasal cavity, and the nasal septum
ethmoid bone
the anterior cranial bone located between the eyes
ethmoid bone
the labyrinth is a maze of air spaces called _______
ethmoidal cells
types of melanin
eumelanin (brown) and pheomelanin (yellow)
why does nervous tissue have one of the highest rate of ATP consumption of any tissue in the body?
every signal generated by a neuron slightly upsets the distribution of sodium and potassium, so the Na/K pump must work continually to restore equilibrium
Denervation Hypersensitivity
exaggerated responses cardiac and smooth muscle if autonomic nerves are severed
Hypercalcemia
excessive calcium binding to cell surface makes sodium channels less likely to open, depressing nervous system
hirsutism
excessive hair growth over the body
diaphoresis
excessive sweating
Universal properties of muscle
excitability, conductivity, contraction, extension, elasticity
universal properties of neurons
excitability, conductivity, secretion
local potentials can be either excitatory or inhibitory, meaning...
excitatory: they depolarize a cell and make a neuron more likely to produce an action potential inhibitory: they hyper polarize a cell and make the membrane more negative, inhibiting the neuron and making it less sensitive and less likely to produce an action potential
Equilibrium
exists in reversible reactions when the ratio of products to reactants is stable
what does crossed extension reflex help maintain?
extends and stiffen the limb to enable you to keep your balance
hyperextension
extension of a joint beyond zero position; moving behind the frontal plane
Microvilli
extensions of the plasma membrane that serve primarily to increase a cell's surface area, best developed in cells specialized in absorption. Brush border- "carpet" some have actin filaments inside, anchor microvillus to a protein mesh called terminal web. Actin can shorten microvillus to absorb contents. Cells like taste buds and inside ear serve more for sensory (tiny bumps)
prominent medial bump on occipital bone that is the attachment for the nuchal ligament
external occipital protuberance
glycoproteins
external surface of cell membrane mucus of respiratory and digestive tracts
Protein Denaturation
extreme conformational change that destroys function due to extremes of heat or pH
ethmoid bone is not porous and not delicate at all (t/f)
f
what passes through the stylomastoid foramen
facial n.
what passes through the internal acoustic meatus?
facial n. and vestibulocochlear n.
CNVII
facial, both
what nerves are involved in taste?
facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus
T/F: all sensory signals go to the brain
false
T/F: sensory cells have to be individual epithelial cells
false, neurons can be sensory cells
T/F: dead neurons are replaceable
false, surviving neurons cannot multiply to replace the lost
T/F: rods and cones are neurons
false, they are related to ependymal cells of the brain
5 primary types of lipids
fatty acids triglycerides phospholypids eicosanoids steroids
Bone Marrow - Yellow
fatty marrow of long bones in adults
referred pain
feeling of pain when sensory information from internal and external areas converges on the same nerve cells in the spinal cord
reticular fibers
fibers made of collagen fibers that are very thin and branched, form a tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues
fibrous connective tissue cells
fibroblasts, macrophages, leukocytes, plasma cells, mast cells, adipocytes
joint (articular) capsule
fibrous and encloses the joint cavity and has two layers: fibrous capsule and synovial membrane
the bones of an infant are jointed at fontanels only by _____
fibrous membranes
Epimysium
fibrous sheath that surrounds the entire muscle
types of lingual papillae
filiform, foliate, fungiform, vallate
golgi vesicles
final golgi cisterna, farthest from the ER either buds off new coated vesicles containing the finished protein or may simply break up into vesicles to be replaced by younger cisterna
chromatin
fine filamentous material made of proteins that make up DNA
flaccid vs spastic paralysis
flaccid paralysis → muscles atrophy (waste away) due to lower motor neuron damage, - i.e. no impulses reach muscles spastic paralysis → muscles are stimulated irregularly by reflex activity, damage is to upper motor neurons
gliding joint
flat articular surfaces move (slightly) over an adjacent bone; monaxial
elastic fibers
flexible and "stretchy" connective tissue fibers that add elasticity to tissue
aqueous humor
fluid in the eye, found between the cornea and the lens
anterior chamber
fluid-filled space between the cornea and iris
posttranslational modification
folds back chain of amino acids on itself, three disulfide bridges form and 35 amino acids removed from the middle of the protein
how to test CNIII
following a pen right/left or up/down - test of nystagmus/ pupil dilation
spaces between the unfused cranial bones of an infant
fontanel
what influences taste?
food texture, aroma, temperature, and appearance
an irregular gash that occurs at the junction of the sphenoid, temporal and occipital bones and is filled with cartilage in life and transmits no major vessels of nerves
foramen lacerum
most conspicuous feature of the occipital bone that admits the spinal cord to the cranial cavity and provides a point of attachment for the dura mater
foramen magnum
opening where the spinal cord meets the brain
foramen magnum
foramen of CNV3
foramen ovale, mandibular + mental foramen
foramen of CNV2
foramen rotundum + infraorbital foramen
passages lateral to the sella turcica for two branches of the trigeminal nerve
foramen rotundum and foreman ovale
about the diameter of a pencil lead and provides passage for an artery of the meninges in the sphenoid bone
foramen spinosum
holes that allow passage for nerves and blood vessels
foramina
Flexion
foreward bending movements
oligodendrocytes
form myelin in brain and spinal cord
schwann cells
form neurilemma around all PNS nerve fibers and myelin around most of them; aid in regeneration of damaged nerve fibers
Sacroplasmic reticulum
forms network around each myofibiril
sphenoid bone
forms part of the base of the skull and parts of the floor and sides of the orbit
ethmoid bone
forms part of the posterior portion of the nose, the orbit, and the floor of the cranium
nitrogenous base
found in nucleotides, classified as single or double carbon-nitrogen ring (ATCG)
eccrine sudoriferous gland
found throughout the skin of most regions of the body, especially in skin of forehead, palms, and soles; secretes a less viscous product consisting of water, ions, urea, and ammonia; regulates body temperature and removal of metabolic wastes
Stages of healing 1
fracture hematoma (1) broken vessels form a blood clot
Fracture Types - Linear
fracture parallel to long axis of the bone.
Closed Reduction
fragments are aligned with manipulation & casted
the spinal cord extends through the vertebral canal from.....to.....
from foramen magnum to L1
supporting cells of taste buds
from the capsule surrounding the taste receptors cells, these cells support and protect there receptor cells
bone that extends from the forehead back to a prominent coronal suture
frontal bone
what are the four nasal sinuses
frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillary
first-class levers
fulcrum in the middle
tertiary
further bending and folding of proteins into globular and fibrous shapes globular proteins -compact tertiary structure well suited for proteins embedded in cell membrane and proteins that must move about freely in body fluid fibrous proteins - slender filaments better suited for roles as in muscle contraction and strengthening the skin
proteoglycans
gels that hold cells and tissues together forms gelatinous filler in umbilical cord and eye joint lubrication tough, rubbery texture of cartilage
multiple alleles
genes that exist in more than 2 allelic forms
smooth area of the frontal bone ust above the root of the nose
glabella
lacrimal gland
gland located in the upper outer region above the eyeball that secretes tears
CNIX
glossopharyngeal, both
what passes through the jugular foramen
glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory
fifth function of muscle
glycemic control, stabilize blood concentration of glucose by absorbing, storing and using it
secretory vesicles
golgi vesicles that migrate to the plasma membrane and fuse with it and releasing cell product exocytosis (salivary gland secretes mucus and digestive enzymes
characteristics of local potentials
graded, decremental, reversible, excitatory or inhibitory
Stages of healing 2
granulation tissue (2) fibrous tissue formed by fibroblasts & infiltrated by capillaries
gray and white matter in the brain
gray outside, white inside
which wing of the sphenoid bone forms part of the lateral surface of the cranium just anterior to the temporal bone
greater
a nerve passage to the bony palate that marks the horizontal plates of the palatine bones
greater palatine foramen
Chaperone
guides new protein in folding into the proper shape and helps to prevent improper association between different proteins
accessory organs (appendages) of the skin
hair, nails, and cutaneous glands
Cilia
hairlike processes helping the cell move, nearly all human cells have a primary cilium. Can't move cause it lacks 2 microtubules in middle. other ciliated cells: sensory, sense of balance in ear, retina in eye receptors for light, kidney monitor flow of fluid for urine. respiratory tract, uterine, ventricles in brain, short ducts in testis. Wavelike motion (power strokes) to move mucus or egg.recovery stroke restores it to upright position. If in sticky mucus they can't beat freely, therefore Cl pumps in apical membrane allow it to beat in a saline solution.
the palate consists of a bony _______ anteriorly and a fleshy _______ posteriorly
hard palate, soft palate
keratin
hard protein material found in the epidermis, hair, and nails
cell body of neuron
has centrally located nucleus with large nucleolus and surrounding organelles "soma" or "perikaryon"
"ruptured" or "slipped" disc when excessive stress cracks the anulus and causes the nucleus to ooze out
herniated disc
gamma particle/ray
high energy photons, deadly
free radical
highly reactive, destructive particle with an unpaired electron -superoxide anion, O2- - produced by normal metabolic rxns, radiation, chemicals
each palatine bone has an L shape formed by what two plates?
horizontal plate, perpendicular plate
duration of stimulus
how long the stimulus lasts
measures of concentration
how much solute in a given volume of solution
articular cartilage
hyaline cartilage, approximately 2mm thick in young, healthy joints
types of cartilage
hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
the accumulation of excessive amounts of cerebrospinal fluid, which causes the cranium to swell and newborns have abnormally wide sutures
hydrocephalus
the larynx is suspended from what bone by a broad ligament
hyoid bone
what passes through the hypoglossal canal
hypoglossal n.
CNXII
hypoglossal, motor
deep pit in sella turcica that houses the pituitary gland
hypophyseal fossa
action potentials are irreversible, meaning...
if a neuron reaches threshold, the action potential goes to completion, it cannot be stopped once it begins
action potentials are all or none, meaning...
if a stimulus depolarizes the neuron to threshold, the neuron fires at its maximum voltage, but if threshold is not met, the neuron does not fire at all
local potentials are reversible, meaning...
if stimulation ceases, cation diffusion out of the cell quickly returns the membrane voltage to its resting potential
basal cells of taste buds
immature cells that replace old/damaged cells every 7-10 days.
macrophages
in connective tissue, phagocytize foreign substances and help activate T cells
leukocytes
in connective tissue, white blood cells, fight infection
what makes skin dark?
in dark skin, melanocytes produce greater quantities of melanin and the melanin granules in the keratinocytes are more spread out than tightly clumped, and the melanin breaks down more slowly
what makes skin light?
in light skin, the melanin is clumped near the keratinocyte nucleus, so it imparts less color to the cells, it also breaks down more rapidly so little of it is seen beyond the stratum basale
what causes K+ to diffuse out of a resting cell? what attracts it into the cell?
in order to maintain the cell membrane potential, cells keep a low concentration of sodium ions and high levels of potassium ions within the cell (intracellular) the sodium-potassium pump moves 3 sodium ions out and moves 2 potassium ions in, thus in total removing one positive charge carrier from the intracellular space
tendon reflex
in response to excessive tension on the tendon - inhibits muscle from contracting strongly - moderates muscle contraction before it tears a tendon or pulls it loose from the muscle or bone
in the atlas, the ___, which are comparatively flat or only slightly concave, articulate w c2
inferior articular facets
which conchae is the largest of the three conchae in the nasal cavity
inferior nasal concha
a deeper ridge on occipital protuberance that provides attachment for some of the deep neck muscles
inferior nuchal line
a gash exhibited on the floor of the orbit that angles downward and medially formed by the maxilla that is a passage for blood vessels and sensory nerves from the face
inferior orbital fissure
muscles that move the eye
inferior rectus, medial rectus, superior rectus, inferior oblique (oculomotor), lateral rectus (abducens), superior oblique (trochlear)
each intervertebral foramen is formed by an _______ in the pedicle of the upper vertebrae and a _______ in the pedicle of the lower one
inferior vertebral notch, superior vertebral notch
bursitis
inflammation of the bursa
spinal meningitis
inflammation of the spinal meninges due to viral, bacterial, or other infection
acne
inflammatory disease of the skin involving the sebaceous glands and hair follicles
gene
information containing segment of dna that codes for the production of a molecule of RNA, which in most cases go on to play a role in the synthesis of one or more proteins.
just below the orbit, a maxilla exhibits an _______, which provides passage for a blood vessel to the face and a nerve that receives sensations from the nasal region and cheek
infraorbital foramen
what nerve emerges through the foramen rotundum into the cranial cavity?
infraorbital foramen
inner vs outer hair cells
inner cells connect to afferent neurons, outer cells connect to efferent neurons (efferent neurons are the output that help control the gain of the input)
Mineral
inorganic elements that are extracted from the soil and move up the food chain (through plants) into humans and other organisms
intersegmental reflex arc
input and output occur at different levels of the spinal cord
a cartilaginous pad located between the bodies of two adjacent vertebrae
intervertebral disc
when two vertebrae are joined, they exhibit an opening called _______ between their pedicles that allows passage for spinal nerves that connect with thee spinal cord at regular intervals
intervertebral foramen
radioisotopes
isotopes that are unstable ad decay to a more stable form [every element has at least one radioisotope]
how does the skin protect the body?
it acts as a physical barrier, prevents fluid loss, prevents the invasion of microorganisms and protects against UV damage
the spinal nerve is a mixed nerve, meaning that...
it carries sensory signals to the spinal cord by way of the posterior root and ganglion, and motor signals out to more distant parts of the body by way of the anterior root
how does the spinal cord conduct signals?
it contains bundles of nerve fibers that conduct information up and down the cord, connecting different levels of the trunk with each other and the brain
stand with your right shoulder, hip, and foot firmly against a wall. raise your left foot from the floor without losing contact with the wall at any point. what happens? why? what principle of this chapter does this demonstrate?
it is virtually impossible to raise the left foot without losing contact with the wall. Keeping the hip and shoulder against the wall thwarts the crossed extension reflex and the normal tendency of the body to shift its weight over the right leg.
what does it mean to say a local potential is graded, decremental, and reversible?
it means it is proportional to the stimulus length, it returns to its resting membrane potential if stimulation ceases before threshold is reached and the signal grows weaker with distance
polymerization
joining monomers to form a polymer
foramen of CNIX
jugular foramen
foramen of CNX
jugular foramen
foramen of CNXI
jugular foramen
large, irregular opening just medial to the styloid process, between the temporal and occipital bones. blood from the brain drains through this into internal jugular vein of the neck
jugular foramen
ACh receptors are found in
junctional folds
cells of the epidermis
keratinocytes, stem cells, melanocytes, tactile cells, dendritic cells
Anthony gets into a fight between rival gangs. As an attacker comes at him with a knife, he turns to flee, but stumbles. The attacker stabs him on the medial side of the right gluteal fold and Anthony collapses. He loses all use of his right limb, being unable to extend his hip, flex his knee, or move his foot. He never fully recovers these lost functions. Explain what nerve injury Anthony has most likely suffered.
knife and gunshot wounds in this area often damage the sciatic nerve, which passes through this region and provides motor innervation to the hamstring, gastrocnemius, and other major muscles of hip, knee, ankle, and foot movements.
varicosities
knoblike swellings of certain autonomic axons containing mitochondria and synaptic vesicles
locus
location of a particular gene
apocrine vs eccrine sweat glands
location: apocrine found in axillae, genitalia, around anus, and beard region eccrine found everywhere else in body ducts: apocrine duct leads to hair follicle, eccrine duct leads to body surface consistency: apocrine is more oily, and stinks, eccrine is less stinky and is water with small amounts of salt
skeletal muscle
long, threadlike, unbranched cells (fibers), relatively parallel in longitudinal tissue sections, striations, multiple nuclei per cell near plasma membrane FUNCTION: body movements, facial expression, posture, breathing, speech, swallowing LOCATION: skeletal muscles, mostly attached to bones but also in the tongue, esophagus, encircling the lips, eyelids, urethra, and anus
areolar tissue
loose arrangement of collagenous and elastic fibers, scattered cell types and abundant ground substance FUNCTION: loosely binds epithelia to deeper tissues, allows passage of nerves and blood vessels through other tissues, provides arena for immune defense LOCATION: underlying nearly all epithelia, surrounding blood vessels, nerves, esophagus, and trachea
lamina propia
loose connective tissue that underlies a mucous epithelium and forms part of a mucous membrane
reticular tissue
loose network of reticular fibers and cells, infiltrated with numerous leukocytes FUNCTION: forms supportive storm (framework) for lymphatic organs LOCATION: lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, bone marrow
the mandible supports _______ and provides attachment for muscles of _______ and _______
lower teeth, mastication, facial expression
Depression
lowers a body part in the same plane
hair bulb
lowest part of a hair strand; the thickened, club-shaped structure that forms the lower part of the hair root
auditory ossicles
malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), stapes (saddle)
the auditory ossicles are made up of what three ossicles
malleus, incus, stapes
what bone is the strongest bone of the skull and the only one that can move significantly?
mandible
an oval knob that articular with the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone that the condylar process bears
mandibular condyle
the medial surface of the ramus just below the mandibular notch
mandibular foramen
depression where the mandible articulates with the cranium (squamous part of temporal lobe)
mandibular fossa
what passes through the foramen ovale
mandibular n. (V3)
the U-shaped arch between the coronoid process and condylar process
mandibular notch
anaxonic neuron
many dendrites but no axon - help in visual processes - no action potentials
a muscle of mastication that inserts into the angle of the mandible
masseter
pituitary
master gland, primary link between nervous and endocrine system
a groove that lies medial to the mastoid process that is the origin of the digastric muscle
mastoid notch
part of temporal bone that lies posterior to the tympanic part
mastoid part
can palpate as a prominent lump behind the earlobe
mastoid process
condrocytes
mature cartilage cells
oval window
membrane at the entrance to the cochlea through which the ossicles transmit vibrations
stimulation of a neuron causes local disturbances in...
membrane potential dendrite --> soma --> axon --> axon terminal
hyperpolarization
membrane potential becomes more negative due to K+ channels remaining open longer than Na+ channels (more K+ leaving than Na+ entering)
mucous membrane
membrane that secretes mucus that lubricates the surface of organs and keeps them moist
anterograde transport
movement down the axon away from soma - proteins, enzymes, signaling molecules produced in nucleus and needed in the axon
Adduction
movement in the frontal plane back toward the midline
first function of muscle
movement such as speaking
urothelium
multilayered epithelium with surface cells that change from round to flat when stretched FUNCTION: stretches to allow filling of urinary tract, protects underlying tissues from osmotic damage by urine LOCATION: urinary tract (part of kidney, ureter, bladder, part of urethra)
stratified keratinized squamous epithelium
multiple cell layers with cells becoming increasingly flat and scaly toward surface FUNCTION: resists abrasion and penetration by pathogenic organisms, retards water loss through skin LOCATION: epidermis, palms, and soles
visceral muscle
muscle connected to internal organs; involuntary or smooth muscle
electrolyte imbalance
muscle cramps, brittle bones, coma, cardiac arrest
Direct attachment
muscle ending directly onto bone
Indirect attachment
muscle ends short of the bone and onto a tendon
intrinsic muscle
muscles contained in a particular region
explain why myelinated fibers conduct signals much faster than unmyelinated fibers
myelin is an insulating layer, which helps to actually conduct signals through the axon at a much faster speed than unmyelinated axons. Therefore, myelinated axons transmit action potentials faster than unmyelinated axons
facial n.
name the structure
foramen magnum
name the structure
foramen ovale
name the structure
foramen rotundum
name the structure
frontal lobe
name the structure
general and sensory components of vagus n.
name the structure
general sensory component of glossopharyngeal n.
name the structure
glossopharyngeal n.
name the structure
hypoglassal canal
name the structure
hypoglossal n.
name the structure
hypothalamus
name the structure
infraorbital foramen
name the structure
internal acoustic meatus
name the structure
jugular foramen
name the structure
longitudinal fissure
name the structure
mammilary body
name the structure
mandible
name the structure
mandibular foramen
name the structure
mandibular n.
name the structure
maxilla
name the structure
oculomotor n.
name the structure
olfactory bulb
name the structure
olfactory n.
name the structure
olfactory tract
name the structure
ophthalmic n.
name the structure
optic canal
name the structure
optic chiasm
name the structure
optic chiasma
name the structure
optic disk
name the structure
optic n.
name the structure
optic tract
name the structure
orbital part of lesser wing of sphenoid bone
name the structure
osmolarity
number of osmoles per liter of solution 1 osmole= 1 mole of dissolved articles 1 molar (M) glucose= 1 osm/L 1 M NaCl=2 osm/L (two ions) 1M CaCl2=3 osm/L (3 ions) Physiologically milliosmoles =10^-3
phenotype
observable trait expressed from genotype
what bone forms the rear of the skull and much of its base
occipital bone
smooth knobs on either side of the foramen magnum where the skull rests on the vertebral column
occipital condyle
CNIII
oculomotor, motor
nerves that innervate eye muscles
oculomotor, trochlear, abducens n.
what rests in the cribriform foramina
olfactory bulbs
what structure detects smells?
olfactory mucosa, in the roof of the nasal cavity
pathway of olfactory nerve
olfactory receptor cells, cribriform plate, olfactory bulb, hypothalamus/amygdala to initate autonomic reflexes OR thalamus to orbitofrontal cortex in frontal lobe
how does smell work?
olfactory receptors are neurons, which receive odorants with olfactory hairs that have binding sites for odor molecules. the basal end of each receptive cell tapers to become an axon, which all eventually connect into small fascicles that leave the nasal cavity through the cribriform foramina in the ethmoid bone to form the olfactory bulb and eventually olfactory nerve (CNI)
CNI
olfactory, sensory
CNS neuroglia cells
oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells, microglia, astrocytes
foliate papillae
on side walls of tongue, no taste buds after 3 y/o (A)
contralateral
on the opposite side of the body from another structure
ipsilateral
on the same side of the body as another structure
Circumduction
one end of an appendage remains fairly stationary while the other end makes a circular motion
integrating center
one or more regions within the CNS that relay impulses from sensory to motor neurons, often interneurons
the unity of form and function is an important concept in understanding synapses. give two structural reasons why nerve signals cannot travel backward across a chemical synapse. what could be the consequences if signals did travel freely in both directions?
one reason for unidirectional transmission across synapses is that only the presynaptic neuron has synaptic vesicles and releases neurotransmitters, and another is that only the postsynaptic neuron has neurotransmitter receptors that can produce cellular excitation (discounting receptors in the presynaptic cell for neurotransmitter re-uptake). if these structural differences did not exist and signals traveled in both directions, as happens in some simple animals such as hydras, the behavioral responses to stimuli would be much less specific or precise. signals would spread randomly through the nervous system and effectors everywhere would respond to a sufficiently strong stimulus anywhere.
A band (7)
only in thick filaments
I band (2)
only in thin filaments
cervical plexus injury
open injury to the cervical plexus most commonly occurs during procedures such as radical neck dissections and carotid endarterectomies closed lesions to the plexus can occur from radiation treatment, usually for breast cancer, or from surgical positioning and surgical rolls damage to the cervical plexus can cause sensory disturbances to the posterior head, neck, submandibular region, and the superior back, in a cape-like distribution
pupil
opening in the center of the iris
DNA helicase
opens up one short segment of the helix at a time
Coenzymes
organic cofactors derived from water-soluble vitamins (niacin, riboflavin) they accept electrons from an enzyme in one metabolic pathway and transfer them to an enzyme in another
hierarchy of complexity
organism, organ systems, organs, tissues, cells, organelles, molecules, atoms
Mineralization Process
osteoblasts produce collagen fibers that spiral along the length of the osteon in alternating directions fibers become encrusted with minerals hardening matrix ion concentration must reach the solubility product for crystal formation to occur & then positive feedback forms more
cerebral cortex
outer region of the cerebrum, containing sheets of nerve cells; gray matter of the brain
neuropathic pain
pain that results as a direct consequence of a lesion or disease affecting abnormal functioning of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) or central nervous system (CNS)
strain
painful overstretching of a tendon or muscle without serious tissue damage
genotype
paired alleles that an individual possesses for a particular trait (CCyy)
what forms the roof of the mouth and floor of the nasal cavity
palate
what bones are located in the posterior nasal cavity?
palatine bones
horizontal extensions of the maxilla that forms the hard palate
palatine processes
layers of the dermis
papillary and reticular layer
fibrocartilage
parallel collagen fibers similar to those of a tendon, rows of chondrocytes in lacunae between collagen fibers, never has a perichondrium FUNCTION: resists compression and absorbs shock in some joints, also a transitional tissue between dense connective tissue and hyaline cartilage LOCATION: pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, menisci, knee joint
what foramen sometimes occurs near the corner of the lambdid and sagittal sutures
parietal foramen
excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
partial depolarization of a postsynaptic neuron or muscle cell in response to a neurotransmitter, making it more likely to reach threshold and produce an action potential
Passive diffusion
passive mechanisms no ATP is required; filtration, simple diffusion, and osmosis
Knee ligaments
patella and patellar ligaments form an associated gliding joint which covers the anterior surface of the knee fibular and tibial ligaments prevent the knee from lateral rotation ACL- anterior cruciate ligament PCL- posterior cruciate ligament
polysynaptic reflex arc
pathway in which signals travel over many synapses on their way back to the muscle
the vertebral arch is composed of what?
pedicle, lamina
Transverse tubules
penetrate through the cell and emerge on other side
Penetrance
percentage of the population with a given genotype that actually exhibits the predicted phenotype
vision
perception of objects in the environment by means of light they emit or reflect
spinal shock
physiologic response that occurs between 30 and 60 minutes after trauma to the spinal cord and can last up to several weeks. spinal shock presents with total flaccid paralysis and loss of all reflexes below the level of injury.
hair is also known as
pilus
Sarcolemma
plasma membrane of skeletal muscle fiber
why are plexuses important?
plexuses bring various nerves together, sort them, and then send them to their respective muscle or anatomical structure to communicate signals to and from your brain. this has a protective effect; an injury to one nerve may only affect specific parts of a muscle while leaving other parts intact that are innervated by a different nerve in the same plexus.
gap junctions
points that provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to another with special membrane proteins - ions, glucose, amino acids, and other small solutes can pass through - NOT found in skeletal muscle
nucleic acids: definition
polymers of nucleotides
proton
postively charged particle of an atom - weight = 1 AMU (atomic mass unit)
neural integration is based on...
postsynaptic potentials produced by neurotransmitters
what chemical has the greatest influence on RMP and why?
potassium ions have the greatest influence on the RMP because the plasma membrane is more permeable to potassium than any other ion
free energy
potential energy available in a system to do useful work
chemical energy
potential energy stored in the bonds of molecules
what does sour taste indicate?
potentially toxic acid
optic disc
region at the back of the eye where the optic nerve meets the retina
holocrine secretion
release of a substance caused by the rupture of a gland cell, which becomes part of the secretion - secretion is thick and oily, composed of cell fragments
eccrine secretion
release product (sweat, tears, saliva) by exocytosis
Alternative Splicing
removes introns (nonsense portion) splice exons together (important)
Functions of membrane protein 2 of 7: Second-messenger systems
resides in the cytoplasm, triggered by a messenger binding to a surface receptor. requires both transmembrane and peripheral proteins
second-class levers
resistance in the middle
somatic motor association area
responsible for coordinating learned movements
resting membrane potential in living cells
resting membrane potential is -70mV with a negative charge on the inside of the membrane (excess of sodium in ECF attracts negative charges to the inside surface of the membrane)
repolarization
return of the cell to resting state, caused by reentry of potassium into the cell while sodium exits the cell
Extension
returning the joints back to zero position; e.g. standing up, straightening leg, etc.
abdominal regions
right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar, right iliac, hypogastric, left iliac
glenoid labrum
ring of fibrocartilage around glenoid cavity that acts to deepen cavity
acetabular labrum
ring of fibrocartilage that deepens of the depth of the hip bone socket
ciliary body
ring of tissue behind the peripheral iris that is composed of ciliary muscle and ciliary processes
pivot joint
rotational movement at a single point; Monaxial
nissl bodies
rough endoplasmic reticulum in neuron
Ovoid
round or ovally shaped cells white blood cells
fungiform papillae
rounded with taste buds (D)
saccule vs utricle
saccule: fluid in ear moves in response to vertical acceleration utricle: fluid in ear moves in response to horizontal acceleration
saddle joint
saddle-shaped; Both articulating surfaces are concave
the parietal bones are bordered by what four sutures
sagittal, coronal, lambdoid, squamous
electrolytes
salts that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting an electric current
stratified nonkeratinized squamous epithelium
same as keratinized epithelium but without surface layer of dead cells FUNCTION: resists abrasion and penetration by pathogenic organisms LOCATION: tongue, oral mucosa, esophagus, anal canal, vagina
neuroglia of PNS
satellite cells and schwann cells
scala vestibuli vs scala tympani
scala vestibuli: superior chamber of cochlea scala tympani: inferior chamber of cochlea
sebaceous glands
secrete sebum (oil) through holocrine secretion into the hair follicles where the hair shafts pass through the dermis - secretion consists of broken-down cells that are replaced by mitosis at the base of the gland
pineal gland
secretes melatonin, controls circadian rhythms
secretion vs excretion
secretion is when a useful substance is being released excretion is when a waste product is being released
unicellular glands
secretory cells found in an epithelium that is predominantly nonsecretory (goblet cell)
saddlelike surface feature of the sphenoid bone that consists of the hypophyseal fossa, tuberculum sellae, and dorsum sellae
sella turcica
motor neurons
send signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and gland cells (the effectors) "efferent"
olfaction
sense of smell
gustation
sense of taste
functional subdivisions of PNS
sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent)
functional types of neurons
sensory (afferent), interneurons (association), motor (efferent)
monosynaptic reflex arc
sensory neuron fires directly onto the motor neuron
explain the differences between a sensory neuron, motor neuron, and interneuron
sensory neuron: afferent, neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord motor neuron: efferent, a neuron that sends an impulse to a muscle or gland, causing the muscle or gland to react interneuron: association neurons, neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
proprioreceptors
sensory neurons that deliver information about the position and activity of your limbs
exteroreceptors
sensory receptors that detect stimuli from outside the body, such as light/heat/pressure/chemicals
longitudinal fissure
separates cerebral hemispheres
the vomer and perpendicular plate support a wall of _______ that forms most of the anterior part of the septum
septal cartilage
the _____ divides the nasal cavity into right and left air spaces called ______
septum, nasal fossae
types of secretions
serous glands, mucous glands, mixed exocrine glands
bones that form within some tendons in response to straight
sesamoid bone
single covalent
sharing of one electron pair
covalent bond
sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between nuclei
double covalent
sharing of two electron pairs. Often occurs between carbon atoms, between carbon & oxygen, and between carbon & nitrogen
filiform papillae
sharp with no taste buds
Fascia
sheet of connective tissue that separates muscles or muscle groups
cardiac muscle
short cells (cardiomyocytes) with notched or slightly branched ends, less parallel appearance in tissue sections, striations, intercalated discs, one nucleus per cell, centrally located FUNCTION: pumping of blood, involuntary control LOCATION: heart
smooth muscle
short fusiform cells overlapping each other, non striated, one nucleus per cell, centrally located FUNCTION: swallowing, contractions of the stomach and intestines, labor contractions, control of blood pressure and flow, involuntary control LOCATION: usually found in sheets of tissue in walls of blood vessels and viscera like the digestive tract
auditory canal
short tunnel that runs from the pinna to the eardrum (external acoustic meatus)
ball-and-socket joint
shoulder and hip joints; only multiaxial
humeroscapular joint
shoulder joint; Most freely moveable joint (shallow glenoid cavity and loose joint capsule) in the body and frequently injured
how to test CNXI
shrugging shoulders
do signals travel faster along axons that are myelinated or unmyelinated?
signals travel faster along myelinated axons
types of simple epithelium
simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified columnar
Element
simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties
how do schwann cells form the myelin sheath?
single cell will continuously wrap around the axon until all the schwann cell cytoplasm (including nucleus) are only in the layer on top of the sheath - thick outermost coil called neurilemma - external to neurilemma is a basal lamina and then a thin sleeve of connective tissue called the endoneurium
pseudo stratified columnar epithelium
single layer of cells varying in height and the position of their nuclei FUNCTION: secretes and propels mucus LOCATION: respiratory tract from nasal cavity to bronchi, portions of male urethra
simple cuboidal epithelium
single layer of cube shaped cells FUNCTION: absorption and secretion, production of protective mucous coat LOCATION: liver, thyroid, mammary, salivary, and other glands, kidney tubules, bronchioles
stratum basale
single layer of cuboidal stem cells and keratinocytes resting on the basement membrane
simple columnar epithelium
single layer of tall, narrow cells FUNCTION: absorption, secretion of mucus and other products, movement of egg and embryo to uterine tube LOCATION: inner lining of stomach, intestines, gallbladder, uterus, and uterine tubes
simple squamous epithelium
single layer of thin cells, flattened cells FUNCTION: allows rapid diffusion or transport of substances through membrane LOCATION: alveoli of lungs, kidney tubules, inner lining of blood vessels, serous membranes of stomach, intestines, and other viscera
primary sensory cortex
sites where sensory input is first received and one becomes conscious of the stimulus --> postcentral gyrus
types of muscular tissue
skeletal, cardiac, smooth
melanoma
skin cancer that arises from the melanocytes, accounts for no more than 5% of skin cancers
continuous conduction
slow conduction that occurs in nonmyelinated axons
the mastoid part of the temporal lobe is filled with _____ that communicate with the middle-ear cavity
small air sinuses
functional groups
small clusters of atoms attached to carbon backbone determines many of the properties of organic molecules
beta particle/ray
small, somewhat more penetrating, also of most importance when ingested -1e-
atom
smallest unit of an element
muscularis mucosae
smooth muscle that produces local movements of mucosa
where are sodium and potassium concentrated on both sides of a cell membrane?
sodium concentrated in ECF potassium concentrated in ICF
what ions dominate EPSPs and IPSPs?
sodium dominates EPSPs potassium dominates IPSPs
what does salty taste indicate?
sodium essential to physiological processes
the stratum corner of the skin is made of ________, but the hair and nails are composed mostly of ________
soft keratin, hard keratin
posterior chamber
space between the back of the iris and the front of the vitreous chamber; filled with aqueous humor
epidural space
space between the dura mater and the wall of the vertebral canal, filled with blood vessels, adipose tissue, and loose connective tissue
lacunae of cartilage
spaces in the cartilage occupied by chondrocytes
intercalated discs
specialized connections between myocardial cells containing gap junctions and desmosomes
sensory neurons
specialized to detect stimuli (light, heat, pressure, chemicals) and transmit info to the CNS "afferent"
dendritic cells
specialized white blood cells that patrol the body searching for antigens that produce infections
germ cells
sperm and egg cells on their way to becoming sperm and egg cells
how does the spinal cord relate to reflexes?
spinal reflexes play vital roles in posture, motor coordination, and protective responses to pain or injury
Nerve fibers leave the sympathetic chain by
spinal, sympathetic, and splanchnic nerves
a projection extending from the apex of the vertebral arch that is directed posteriorly and downward
spinous process
myelin sheath
spiral layer of insulation around a nerve fiber
part of temporal bone that is relatively flat and vertical and bears the zygomatic process and mandibular fossa
squamous part
second function of muscle
stability, maintain posture by preventing unwanted movements, stabilize joints by maintaining tension on tendons and bones
reflex arc
stimulus, receptor, sensory neuron (afferent), interneuron, motor neuron (efferent), response
what is the most widespread epithelium in the body?
stratified squamous epithelium
types of stratified epithelium
stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal, stratified columnar, transitional
layers of the epidermis
stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum
what reflexes smooth out muscle action (make them less jerky)?
stretch reflex
what type of reflex is valuable in stabilizing joints and why?
stretch, because it balances the tension between extensors and flexors - stretch reflexes send feedback to a set of synergists and antagonists (i.e. turning off flexors and turning on extensors)
collagenous fibers
strong and flexible connective tissue fibers that contain the protein collagen
cartilage
strong connective tissue with rubbery matrix that supports the body and is softer and more flexible than bone
Axoneme
structural basis from for ciliary movement, consisting of microtubules, two central tubules and nine microtubule pairs (9pairs+2 inside "structure")
neurons are classified by
structure and function
arthrology
study of anatomy, function, and dysfunction, and treatment of joints
a pointed spine on inferior surface of tympanic part that provides attachment for muscles of the tongue, pharynx, and hyoid bone
styloid process
the hyoid bone is suspended from what processes of the skull, by the small _______ and _______
styloid processes, stylohyoid muscles, stylohyoid ligaments
the mastoid notch is perforated by _____ at its anterior end and the _____ at its posterior end
stylomastoid foramen, mastoid foramen
Hydrophilic
substances that dissolve in water molecules must be polarized or charged
Hydrophobic
substances that do not dissolve in water molecules are non-polar or neutral (fat)
molecular weight
sum of atomic weights of atoms - add up the AMUs
temporal summation
summation by a postsynaptic cell of input (EPSPs or IPSPs) from a single source over time
the medial surface of the labyrinth gives rise to two curled, scroll-like plates of bone that project into the nasal fossa from its lateral wall toward the septum called the _______
superior and middle nasal conchae
a pair of _______ projects upward from one vertebra and meets a similar pair of inferior articular processes that projects downward from the vertebra abova
superior articular processes
nerves of the sacral plexus
superior gluteal, inferior gluteal, orbutator internus, sciatic (tibial + common/fibular)
a ridge that can be traced horizontally from the external occipital protuberance toward the mastoid process
superior nuchal line
a gash in the posterior wall of the orbit that angles upward lateral to the optic canal and serves as a passage for three nerves that supply the muscles of eye movement
superior orbital fissure
foramen of CNIII
superior orbital fissure
foramen of CNIV
superior orbital fissure
foramen of CNVI
superior orbital fissure
foramen of CNV1
superior orbital fissure + supraorbital notch
cervical enlargement
supplies nerves to the shoulder and upper limbs
mucous glands
supply a lubricant that keeps the skin moist in the air; allows for respiration
cerebrospinal fluid
supports brain and transports nutrients, chemical messengers, and wastes
sympatholytics
suppress sympathetic activity -block receptors or inhibit norepinephrine release -beta blockers reduce high BP interfering with effects of epinephrine/norepinephrine on heart and blood vessels
each supraorbital margin is perforated by a single _____ which provides passage for a nerve, artery, and veins
supraorbital foramen
a ridge deep to the eyebrows
supraorbital margin
when the edge of a supraorbital foramen breaks through the margin of the orbit, what is formed?
supraorbital notch
Open Reduction Internal Fixation
surgical exposure & repair with plates & screws
satellite cells
surround somas of neurons in the ganglia; provide electrical insulation and regulate chemical environment of neurons
Emulsion
suspension of one liquid in another fat in breast milk
what bones are often seen along the sagittal and lambdoid sutures lie like islands of bone
sutural (wormian) bones
extra bones in the skull
sutural or wormian bones
immovable joints visible as seams on the surface that connect skull bones
sutures
primary taste sensations
sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami
chemical equation
symbolizes the course of a chemical reaction reactants (on left) products (on right)
divisions of visceral motor division
sympathetic and parasympathetic
ACh is released from
synaptic vesicles
genetic code
system that enables these 4 nucleotides to code for amino acid sequences of all proteins
part of temporal lobe that is a small ring of bone that borders the opening of the external acoustic meatus
tampanic part
pathway of neurons involved in taste
taste buds, medulla oblongata, nuclei in hypothalamus + amygdala to activate autonomic reflexes OR thalamus to primary gustatory cortex in insula
how does taste work?
taste is a chemical sense. inside each little bump on the top and sides of your tongue are 200 or more taste buds, each containing a pore that catches food chemicals. in each taste bud pore, 50 to 100 taste receptor cells project taste hairs (that serve as receptor surfaces for tastants dissolved in saliva) into the taste pore
each maxilla extends from the _______ to the _______ of the orbit
teeth, inferomedial wall
general senses
temperature, pain, touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception
types of summation
temporal and spatial
what bone forms the lower wall and part of the floor of the cranial cavity
temporal bone
a pair of slight thickenings that form an arc across the parietal and frontal bones
temporal lines
muscle which pulls the mandible upward when you bite
temporalis muscle
temporal lines mark the attachment of the large- fan-shaped _____, a chewing muscle that inserts on the mandible
temporalis muscle
a hinge that the meeting of the mandibular condyle with the temporal bone forms
temporomandibular joint (TMJ)
Cohesion
tendency of like molecules to cling to each other water is very cohesive due to its hydrogen bonds surface film on surface of water is due to molecules being held together by a force called surface tension
Adhesion
tendency of one substance to cling to another
Aponeurosis
tendinous expansion that connects a muscle with the part it moves
rotator cuff
tendons of four muscles that also stabalize the shoulder; m. supraspinatus, m. infraspinatus, m. teres minor, and m. subscapularis (SITS)
sympathetic division
tends to arouse the body for action
parasympathetic division
tends to have a calming effect
eponyms
terms coined from the names of people
sympathetic effects tend to last longer
than parasympathetic effects -ACh released by parasympathetics is broken down quickly at synapse -NE by sympathetics is reabsorbed by nerve, diffuses to adjacent tissues, and much passes into bloodstream
distinguish between the central and peripheral nervous systems, and between visceral and somatic divisions of the sensory and motor systems
the CNS consists of your brain and spinal cord which are enclosed and protected by the cranium and vertebral column the PNS consists of all the rest, nerves and ganglia somatic sensory division carries signals from receptors in the skin, muscles, bones, and joints visceral sensory division carries signals mainly from the viscera of the thoracic and abdominal cavities, such as the heart, lungs, stomach, and urinary bladder somatic motor division carries signals to the skeletal muscles visceral motor division (autonomic nervous system ANS) carries signals to glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle
Tonicity
the ability of a solution to affect the fluid volume and pressure in a cell
neural integration
the ability of your neurons to process information, store and recall it, and make decisions
two-point touch discrimination
the ability to discern that two nearby objects touching the skin are truly two distinct points, not one (if two touches at skin goes to only one neuron = feels like only one touch)
what is homeostasis
the ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in an ever-changing outside world - fluctuates within limited range around a set point
chemical reactivity of water
the ability to participate in chemical reactions water ionizes into H+ and OH- water ionizes other chemicals (acids and salts) water involved in hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis reactions
proprioception
the ability to tell where one's body is in space
how does the trigger zone resemble the membrane at the node of Ranvier?
the action potentials can occur at nodes of Ranvier so the nerve signal appears as if it was jumping from node to node and at the trigger zone if an excitatory local potential arrives and is still strong enough it can open channels and generate action potential which is a rapid up-and-down shift in voltage
why is depolarization associated with excitation of a nerve or muscle cell?
the binding of a ligand opens ligand-gated sodium channels that allows Na to flow into the cell, which cancels some of the ICF negative charge, so the voltage across the membrane at any point drifts toward zero = local potential --> wave of excitation that spreads out from the point of stimulation
why does gray matter appear gray?
the cells and dendrites are unmyelinated
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
pattern baldness
the condition in which hair loss from specific regions of the scalp rather than thinning uniformly
stretch reflex
the contraction of a muscle in response to stretch of that muscle - helps to maintain equilibrium and posture
optic chiasma
the crossing of the optic nerves from the two eyes at the base of the brain
how can neurons be identified in a tissue section?
the cytoskeleton of neurons consist of a dense mesh of microtubules and neurofibrils, which compartmentalize the rough ER into dark-staining regions called chromatophilic substance = nissl bodies
epidermal ridges
the downward waves are extensions of the epidermis
tympanic membrane
the eardrum -- a structure that separates the outer ear from the middle ear and vibrates in response to sound waves
radioactivity
the emission of ionizing readiation by a radioisotope [we are all mildly radioactive]
axon
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands cytoplasm = axoplasm membrane = axolemma
olfactory bulb
the first brain structure to pick up smell information from the nose
Cytoplasm
the fluid between the nucleus and surface membrane, contains cytoskeleton, organelles, inclusions
Hydrostatic Pressure
the force exerted on a membrane by water. water going from Side B --> to Side A (which has proteins) until side A produces a pressure so some filtrations goes back to B. Therefore the rate of filtration=rate of forward osmosis. water will be equal. Net osmosis would slow down and stop. The hydrostatic pressure required on side A to stop osmosis is called osmotic pressure. The more nonpermeating solute (proteins) there is in A the greater the osmotic pressure.
myelination
the formation of a fatty sheath around the axons of a neuron
receptor potential
the initial effect of a stimulus on a sensory cell is a small local electrical change
Jillian is thrown from a horse. She strikes the ground with her chin, causing severe hyperextension of the neck. Emergency medical technicians properly immobilize her neck and transport her to a hospital, but she dies 5 minutes after arrival. An autopsy shows multiple fractures of vertebrae C1, C6, and C7 and extensive damage to the spinal cord. Explain why she died rather than being left quadriplegic.
the injury at C1 probably caused so much spinal cord damage there as to interrupt signals to the phrenic nerves of the diaphragm, thus causing respiratory paralysis
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs bony + membranous labyrinths
viscera
the internal organs of the body
what is the functional difference between a dendrite and an axon?
the key difference between axon and dendrites is the function of these two types of cytoplasmic extensions of the neuron. axon passes nerve impulses away from the cell body while dendrites pass nerve impulses towards the cell body
hypodermis
the layer of skin beneath the dermis, composed mainly of areolar and adipose tissue - pads the body and binds the skin to the underlying tissues
what does decussation mean?
the left side of the brain receives sensory information from the right side of the body and sends motor commands to that side, while the right sides of the brain senses and controls the left side of the body
retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
friction ridges
the markings on the fingertips that leave oily fingerprints on surfaces we touch
replication fork
the meet point of the separated helix
what characteristics does an increased number of dendrites give to a neuron?
the more dendrites a neuron has, the more information it can receive can incorporate into its decision making
what does the use of more interneurons say about a signal?
the more interneurons, the more complex the information processing can be
keratinocytes
the most abundant epidermal cells, they function mainly to produce keratin
Abduction
the movement of a body part in the frontal plane away from the midline of the body; e.g. spreading feet apart
Osmosis
the net flow of water from one side of a selectively permeable membrane to the other (nonliving membranes) depends on solutes (hypertonic) water will move toward the place where there is more solutes to dilute it, or less water.
Osmolality
the number of osmoles of a solute per kilogram of water
outer ear
the outermost part of the ear, consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal
nail matrix
the part of the nail beneath the body and root from which the nail is produced
projection pathway
the pathways followed by sensory signals to their ultimate destinations in the CNS (first --> second --> third order neurons)
absolute refractory period
the period immediately following the firing of a nerve fiber when it cannot be stimulated no matter how great a stimulus is applied
relative refractory period
the period of time following an action potential, when it is possible, but difficult, for the neuron to fire a second action potential, due to the fact that the membrane is further from threshold potential (hyperpolarized)
what is meant by the anterior and posterior roots of a spinal nerve? which of these is sensory and which is motor?
the posterior roots passes posteriorly toward the back of the spinal cord and the anterior root passes anteriorly toward the toward the front of the spinal cord the spinal nerve is a mixed nerve carrying sensory information to the spinal cord by way of the posterior root and motor commands away from the cord by way of the anterior root
why are not all of our nerves large, myelinated, and fast to allow for faster signaling?
the presence of ONLY these kinds of fibers would be incredibly bulky, since large fibers require large somas and expenditures of energy to maintain them
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
summation
the process of adding up postsynaptic potentials and responding to their net effect
saltatory conduction
the propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons from one node of Ranvier to the next node, increasing the conduction velocity of action potentials
sense of equilibrium
the proprioceptive sense that provides information about the position of the head and its movements
flexor reflex
the quick contraction of flexor muscles resulting in the withdrawal of a limb from an injurious stimulus
location (receptive field) of stimulus
the region of the sensory surface that, when stimulated, causes a change in the firing rate of that neuron
exfoliation
the removal of excess dead cells from the skin surface
texture of hair is determined by
the shape of the cross section
how does the spinal cord impact locomotion?
the simple and repetitive muscle contractions that put one foot in front of the other are coordinated by neurons in the cord that produce the sequence of outputs to the extensor and flexor muscles of the lower limbs
spinal cord injuries commonly result from fractures of vertebra C5 to C6, but never from fractures of L3 and L5. explain both observations.
the spinal cord does not exist in the L3 to L5 vertebrae, so injuries to this region can not cause spinal cord injury. the C5 and C6 vertebrae are the site of the cervical enlargement.
complete transection of the cord
the spinal cord is completely severed, immediate loss of motor control at/below the level of injury - superior to C4 presents threat of respiratory failure
medulla of the hair
the spongy anterior core of hair that gives it flexibilty; appears as a canal in the middle of the shaft
kinesiology
the study of musculoskeletal movement
Biomechanics
the study of the mechanical structure of a living organism using physics to describe structures and the analogy of machines to understand movement (work) Long bones act as levers (resistance arm Lr; effort arm, Le) and joints act as a fulcrum (F) Resistance (R) equals load and effort (E): energy needed to overcome resistance (fig. 9.7) Mechanical advantage to do work (MA = Le/Lr) (fig. 9.8) MA > 1 or <1
what makes an action potential rise to +35mV? what makes it drop again after this peak?
the threshold for an action potential is typically -55mV) when a neuron fires the voltage-gated Na+ channels open quickly and K+ open more slowly, this depolarizes the membrane which stimulates still more voltage gated Na+ creating a positive feedback look that makes the membrane voltage rise rapidly once the rising potential passes 0mV, Na+ channels are inactivated and begin closing. by the time they all close the Na+ flow ceases, the voltage peaks around +35mV it then starts to drop because the Na+ gate has closed and the K+ channels are fully open. The K+ exit the cell and their outflow repolarizes the membrane and shifts the voltage back to negative numbers
sensory projection
the transmission of information from a receptor, or a receptive field, to a specific locality in the cerebral cortex, enabling the brain to identify the origin of stimulation
cornea
the transparent layer forming the front of the eye
hair follicle
the tube-like depression or pocket in the skin or scalp that contains the hair root
how does the tympanic membrane work?
the tympanic membrane receives sound vibrations from the outer air and transmits them to the auditory ossicles, which continue to vibrate to transfer the sensory stimulus into the inner ear
sense of hearing
the vibration of sound waves on the eardrums and the firing of electrochemical impulses in the brain
why is the overlap of dermatomes important?
their edges overlap by as much as 50%, so severance of one sensory nerve root does not entirely deaden sensation from a dermatome
how does the plasma membrane at the trigger zone differ from that on the soma? how does it resemble the membrane at a myelin sheath gap?
there are less voltage-gated channels (50-70 per square micrometer) and cannot generate action potentials and there are 350-500 channels per square micrometer at the trigger zone
why are muscle spindles important?
these structures enable the brain to send motor commands back to the muscles that control muscle tone, posture, coordinated movement, and corrective reflexes
how do neurons display excitability?
they are able to respond to environmental changes (stimuli)
why must myelinated fibers conduct electrical signals via saltatory conduction?
they cannot conduct a signal in a continuous mode because voltage-gated ion channels re too scarce in the myelin-covered internodal segments = no action potential possible there
action potentials are non decremental, meaning...
they do not get weaker with distance, the last action potential at the end of a nerve fiber is just as strong as the first one
local potentials are decremental, meaning...
they get weaker as they spread from the point of origin
local potentials are graded, meaning...
they vary in magnitude (voltage) according to the strength of the stimulus
Perimysium
thick connective tissue that wraps muscle fibers together in bundles (fascicles)
spiral organ
thick epithelium of sensory and supporting cells and associated membranes that converts vibrations into nerve impulses
Fusiform
thick in the middle and tapered toward the end (smooth muscle)
dura mater
thick, outermost layer of the meninges surrounding and protecting the brain and spinal cord
Endomysium
thin sleeve of connective tissue that surrounds each muscle fiber
papillary layer
thin zone of loose areolar tissue in and near the dermal papillae, upper layer of the dermis - allows for mobility of leukocytes - especially rich in small blood vessels
ventral body cavity
thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
what muscles are spindles abundant in?
those that require fine control (i.e. hand and foot muscles)
Fibrous
threadlike cells (skeletal muscle)
semicircular canals
three canals within the inner ear that contain specialized receptor cells that generate nerve impulses with body movement
meninges of the spinal cord
three fibrous membranes that enclose the brain and spinal cord
how to sensory signals enter the spinal cord?
through the posterior root and ganglion
types of cellular junctions
tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions
are epithelial cells tightly packed or loosely spaced?
tightly packed
physical half-life
time needed for a radioisotope to decay into a stable state - nuclear power plants create radioisotopes
biological half-life
time required for 50% of radioisotope to clear from body
synaptic knob
tiny enlargement at the end of an axon that secretes a neurotransmitter
synaptic vesicles
tiny pouches or sacs in the axon terminals that contain the chemicals known as neurotransmitters
impact of free radicals
tissue damage - destroy molecules, cause cancer, death of heart tissue, aging
loose connective tissue
tissue that binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place, contains collagenous, elastic, and recticular fibers
anterior/posterior roots lead (to/away from) the vertebral column and spinal cord
to
sprain
torn ligament or tendon, sometimes with damage to a meniscus or other cartilage
tactile cells
touch receptor cells associated with dermal nerve fibers In basal layer of epidermis
mechanoreceptors respond to
touch, pressure, gravity, stretch, movement
fundamental purpose of any sensory receptor is...
transduction
ionization
transfer of electrons from one atom to another (increases stability of valence shell)
all seven cervical vertebrae have a prominent round ___ in each transverse process
transverse foramen
holds the dens in place in a facet
transverse ligament
a projection extending from the vertebral arch that extends laterally from the point where the pedicle and lamina meet
transverse process
CNV
trigeminal, both
regulatory protein (transcription activator)
triggered by a receptor in the cytoplasm, moves into the nucleus and binds to the DNA near the casein gene
CNIV
trochlear, motor
T/F: a neuron never has more than one axon, and some neurons have none
true
trunk vs abdomen
trunk = above diaphragm abdomen = below diaphragm
raised anterior margin in sella turcica
tuberculum sellae
ACL & PCL
two deep intrascapular ligaments that cross each other (therefore their name) and anterior or posteior according the points of attachment to the tibia; The synovial membrane raps around them in such a way to exclude them from the synovial cavity; ACL prevents hyperextension of the knee, PCL prevents posterior knee displacement;
stratified cuboidal epithelium
two or more layers of cells, surface cells square or round FUNCTION: contributes to sweat secretion, secretes ovarian hormones, produces sperm LOCATION: sweat gland ducts, egg-producing vesicles, sperm-producing ducts
apocrine sweat gland
type of sweat gland that is associated with hair follicles in the armpits and genital regions
examples of ionizing radiation
ultra-violet rays, x-rays, alpha rays, beta rays, gamma rays
stem cells
undifferentiated cells that are able to renew themselves for long periods of time by cell division
conformation
unique three dimensional shape of protein crucial to function ability to reversibly change their conformation enzyme function muscle contraction opening and closing of cell membrane pores
ground substance
unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contains the fibers
the maxillae form the ______ and meet each other at a median _______
upper jaw, intermaxillary suture
what muscles does the brachial plexus innervate?
upper limb and some muscles of the neck and shoulder
what do cones detect?
used for color vision and to sense fine details
mammilary body
used for feeding reflexes and behaviors
TEM: Transmission Electron Microscope
uses a beam of electrons in place of light. Assisted in seeing the cells ultrastructure. Molecular level.
DNA Replication
using law of complementary base pairing to synthesize new DNA
broca's area
usually in the left frontal lobe, directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
CNX
vagus, both
is connective tissue vascular or avascular?
vascular
each vertebral foramen is bordered by a bony _______ composed of pedicles and laminas
vertebral arch
the transverse foramen in all seven cervical vertebrae provide passage and protection for the ___, which supply blood to the brain, and ___, which drain blood from various neck structures (but not from the brain)
vertebral arteries, vertebral veins
the vertebral foramina collectively form a passage for the spinal cord called what?
vertebral canal
inferior and superior articular processes prevent what from twisting?
vertebral column
Primary organs of the ANS
viscera of thoracic and abdominal cavities some structures of the body wall cutaneous blood vessels sweat glands piloerector muscles
special senses
vision, hearing, taste, smell, equilibrium
how to test CNII
visual field test (snellen chart), pupillary light reflex
occipital lobe
visual processing
what bone forms the inferior half of the nasal septum
vomer
epidermal water barrier
water retention is fostered by tight junctions between skin cells and the waterproofing that occurs in the stratum granulosum - helps prevent dehydration - does not prevent the absorption of water by the stratum corneum when we soak in a bath ("prune fingers")
Weight per Volume
weight of solute in given volume of solution IV saline: 8.5 grams NaCl/liter of solution biological purposes - milligrams per deciliter mg/dL (deciliter = 100 ml)
Primary
what order the amino acids come in (specified by genetic code)
messenger RNA (mRNA)
when a gene is activated mRNA is made which is a mirror image of the gene
what happens to Na+ when a neuron is stimulated on its dendrite? why does the movement of Na+ raise the voltage on the plasma membrane?
when an electrical pulse stimulates and destabilizes the membrane, the tiny ion channels open wide and allow positive sodium ions to enter the cell. this, in turn, makes the cell positively charged
Growth Ceases
when epiphyseal plate "closes" anabolic steroids may cause premature closure of growth plate producing short adult stature
explain how nerve fibers in a tendon sense the degree of tension in a muscle.
when muscle contraction pulls on the tendon, the collagen fibers come together like the two side of a stretched rubber band and squeeze the nerve ending between them
transport vesicles
when the ER is finished with a protein it pinches off bubblelike vesicles, then coated with clathrin which selects proteins and transports it threw these vesicles
Concentration gradient
when the concentration of a substance differs from one point to another- up=against gradient, down=with gradient
how do neurons display the ability of secretion?
when the signal reaches the end of a nerve fiber, the neuron secretes a neurotransmitter that crosses the gap and stimulates the next cell
incomplete dominance
when two different alleles are present, the phenotype is intermediate (Red + white = pink)
sclera
white of the eye
white matter
whitish nervous tissue of the CNS consisting of neurons, axons, and their myelin sheaths
cerumen
yellow waxy material that lubricates and protects the ear canal
jaundice
yellowing of the skin and the whites of the eyes caused by an accumulation of bile pigment (bilirubin) in the blood
what bones form the angles of the cheeks at the inferolateral margins of the orbits and part of the lateral wall of each orbit
zygomatic bones
in the squamous part of a temporal bone, extends anteriorly to form part of the zygomatic arch (cheekbone)
zygomatic process
heterozygous
(Cc) express both genes of dominant and recessive
ankle joint
(also know as talocrural joint) has two articulations: medial joint between tibia and talus; lateral joint between fibula and talus; both are enclosed in one capsule; Malleoli of the tibia and fibular overhang the medial and lateral sides, repectively, of the talus; they prevent side-to-side rotation of the ankle
function of CNVI
(m) abduction of the eye (lateral rectus m.)
function of CNVI
(m) adduction of the eye (lateral rectus m.)
function of CNIII
(m) constriction of pupil, opening of eyelid, movement of eye (superior/inferior/medial rectus + inferior oblique)
function of CNIV
(m) diagonal movement of eye (superior oblique m.)
function of CNXI
(m) swallowing, head, neck, and shoulder movement
function of CNXII
(m) tongue movement for speech, food, manipulation, and swallowing
lateral horn
(only in thoracic and lumbar regions) - contains sympathetic neurons
function of CN1
(s) olfaction, smell
how to test CNV
(s) patient closes eyes, tells examiner where they are touching their face (m) clenching the jaw, depressing and elevating the jaw
function of CNIX
(s) sensations from posterior 1/3 of tongue (m) swallowing, salivation, gagging, control of BP and respiration
how to test CNX
(s) sensations of posterior tongue (m) say "ahhh"
function of CNVIII
(s) sense of hearing (cochlear) and balance (vestibular)
function of CNII
(s) sense of vision
function of CNX
(s) sensory of root of tongue, viscera, throat (m) swallowing, speech, regulation of viscera
function of CNV
(s) sensory of skin of the face -- touch, pain, temperature (m) movement of hyoid muscles and mastication
function of CNVII
(s) taste buds anterior 2/3 of tongue (m) movement of facial muscles, salivary/tear/nasal/palatine glands
how to test CNVII
(s) taste test (m) any facial movement like smiling
how to test CNIX
(s) test feeling on tongue (m) testing gag reflex, swallowing
atomic mass/mass number
- # of protons + # of neutrons in the nucleus. - The mass of an atomic particle, sub-atomic particle, or molecule. - It may be expressed in unified atomic mass units (u).
eicosanoids
- 20 carbon compounds derived from a fatty acid called arachidonic acid ~prostaglandins have a 5-carbon ring in the chain *serve as intercellular messengers in inflammation, blood clotting, hormone action, labor contraction, et
pH
- A measure derived from the molarity of H+ - 7.0 = neutral pH (H+ = OH-) - <7 = acidic (H+ > OH-) - >7 = basic (OH- > H+ )
lipids
- Source of energy: more calories per gram than carbs - variable in structure
~atomic mass unit
- The standard unit that is used for denoting atomic mass. Written as "u" or "Da." - It is valued at 1.660538921(73)×10−27 kg. - One unified atomic mass unit is, by International agreement, equivalent to 1/12th mass of a single carbon-12 atom at rest. - 1 g/mol.
Vasomotor Tone
- a baseline firing frequency of sympathetics -keeps vessels in state of partial constriction -increase in firing frequency - vasoconstriction -decrease in firing frequency - vasodilation -can shift blood flow from one organ to another as needed
Cerebral Cortex
- anger, fear, anxiety -powerful emotions influence the ANS because of the connections between our limbic system and the hypothalamus Thus, the limbic system provides a pathway connecting sensory and mental experiences with the autonomic nervous system.
ATP
- best known nucleotide Composition: adenine (nitrogenous base) ribose (sugar) phosphate groups (3) 2nd and 3rd phosphate groups have high energy bonds ~ most energy transfers to and from ATP involve adding or removing the 3rd phosphate Adenosine triphosphatases (ATPases) hydrolyze the 3rd high energy phosphate bond separates into ADP + Pi + energy
somatosensory functions
- carry sensory signals from bones, joints and muscles and the skin, - signals are for touch, heat, cold, stretch, pressure, pain and other sensations
Polymerization
- dehydration synthesis (condensation) is how living cells form polymers
poliomyelitis
- destroys motor neurons in the brainstem and anterior horn of the spinal cord - inflammation of the gray matter of the spinal cord caused by a virus, commonly resulting in spinal and muscle deformity and paralysis - poliovirus spread by fecally-contaminated water
Catabolism
- energy releasing (exergonic) decomposition reactions - breaks covalent bonds - produces smaller molecules - releases useful energy
Anabolism
- energy storing (endergonic) synthesis reactions - requires energy input - production of protein or fat - driven by energy that catabolism releases
Hirschsprung disease
- hereditary defect causing absence of enteric nervous system -no innervation in sigmoid colon and rectum -constricts permanently and will not allow passage of feces -feces becomes impacted above constriction -megacolon - massive dilation of bowel accompanied by abdominal distension and chronic constipation -maybe colonic gangrene, perforation of bowel, and peritonitis -usually evident in newborns who fail to have their first bowel movement
lipids: chemical characteristics
- hydrophobic organic molecule - composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen - high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen (ie - tristearin 18:1) - high energy content thus has more calories/gram
Hypothalamus
- major visceral motor control center -nuclei for primitive functions - hunger, thirst, sex NOTE: Artificial stimulation of different regions of the hypothalamus can activate the fight-or-flight response.
characteristics of life
- organization - cellular composition - metabolism and excretion - responsiveness and movement - homeostasis - development - reproduction - evolution
supine
- palms face forwards or upwards - radius and ulna parallel
prone
- palms face rearward or downward - radius and ulna crossed
carbohydrate functions
- quickly mobilized source of energy - all digested carbohydrates converted to glucose - oxidized to make ATP
functions of the skin
- resistance to trauma and infection - other barrier functions - vitamin D synthesis - sensation - thermoregulation - nonverbal communication
cross section of cochlea
- scala vestibuli (with perilymph) - scala tympanic (with perilymph) - cochlear duct (with endolymph) - vestibular membrane - tectorial membrane - spiral organ - basilar membrane
phospholipids
- similar to neutral fat except that instead of one fatty acid, it has a phosphate group - structural foundation of cell membrane - Amphiphilic: phosphate "head" = hydrophilic, fatty acid "tails" = hydrophobic
neuropharmacology
- study of effects of drugs on the nervous system
cholesterol
- the 'parent' steroid from which the other steroids are synthesized ...including cortisol, progesterone, estrogens, testosterone and bile acids - important component of cell membranes - required for proper nervous system function
Cooperative Effects
- when two divisions act on different effectors to produce a unified effect -parasympathetics increase salivary serous cell secretion -sympathetics increase salivary mucous cell secretion NOTE: The enzymes and mucus are both necessary components of the saliva.
what is threshold potential and what happens when it is reached?
-55mV, voltage-gated ion channels are open once reached
The charge in a resting muscle is
-90 mV
Control of Autonomic Function
-ANS regulated by several levels of CNS -cerebral cortex -hypothalamus -midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata -spinal cord reflexes
Muscarinic Receptors
-All cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and gland cells that receive cholinergic innervation have muscarinic receptors. There are different subclasses of muscarinic receptors with different effects; thus ACh excites intestinal smooth muscle by bindingto one type of muscarinic receptor, and inhibits cardiac muscle by binding to a different type. NOTE: Muscarinic receptors work through a variety of second-messenger systems.
triglycerides (neutral fats): chemical properties
-Glycerol + 3 fatty acids -> triglyceride (fat) + 3H2O 3 fatty acids covalently bonded to 3 carbon alcohols and 1 glycerol molecule via dehydration synthesis. {- Once joined to glycerol, fatty acids can no longer donate protons - neutral fats - Broken down by hydrolysis - At room temperature = triglyceride; liquid = oil; solid = fat}
Enteric Nervous System
-Is the name for the nerve system of the digestive tract -does not arise from the brainstem or spinal cord -does innervate smooth muscle and glands -composed of 100 million neurons found in the walls of the digestive tract -no components in CNS -has its own reflex arcs -regulates motility of esophagus, stomach, and intestines and secretion of digestive enzymes and acid -normal digestive function also requires regulation by sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
Parasympathetic Tone
-Maintains smooth muscle tone in the intestines -holds the resting heart rate down to about 70 to 80 beats/minute. NOTE: If the parasympathetic vagus nerves to the heart are cut, the heart beats at its own intrinsic rate of about 100 beats/minute.
Peptide
-Molecule composed of 2 or more amino acids joined by peptide bonds -oligopeptides - fewer than 10 or 15 amino acids -polypeptides - larger than 15 amino acids
Dual Innervation
-Most of the viscera receive nerve fibers from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions -antagonistic effect - oppose each other -cooperative effects - two divisions act on different effectors to produce a unified overall effect -both divisions do not normally innervate an organ equally digestion, heart rate
Nicotinic Receptors
-On all postganglionic neurons, in the adrenal medulla and at the neuromuscular junctions of skeletal muscle fibers The binding of ACh to a nicotine receptor is always excitatory. Nicotinic receptors work by opening ligand-gated ion channels and producing an excitatory postsynaptic potential in the target cell.
The Sympathetic Nerve Route
-Other postganglionic fibers leave by way of sympathetic nerves that extend to the heart, lungs, esophagus, and thoracic blood vessels -These nerves from a carotid plexus around each carotid artery of the neck -issue fibers from there to effectors in the head -including sweat, salivary, and nasal glands; piloerector muscles; blood vessels; and dilators of the iris -Some fibers from the superior and middle cervical ganglia form the cardiac nerves to the heart. NOTE: The cardiac nerves also contain parasympathetic fibers.
The Splanchnic Nerve Route
-Some of the fibers that arise from spinal nerves T5 to T12 pass through the sympathetic ganglia without synapsing. -Beyond the ganglia, they continue as splanchnic nerves -lead to a second set of ganglia called collateral (prevertebral) ganglia -Here the preganglionic fibers synapse with the postganglionics.
The Spinal Nerve Route
-Some postganglionic fibers exit a ganglion by way of the gray ramus -return to the spinal nerve or its subdivisions, and travel the rest of the way to the target organ. -most sweat glands, piloerector muscles, and muscles, and blood vessels of the skin and skeletal muscles.
Thoracolumbar Division
-The sympathetic division is also called the thoracolumbar division because it arises from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord. -It has relatively short preganglionic and long postganglionic fibers -preganglionic neurosomas in lateral horns and nearby regions of the gray matter of spinal cord -fibers exit spinal cord by way of spinal nerves T1 to L2 -lead to nearby sympathetic chain of ganglia (paravertebral ganglia)
some effectors receive only sympathetic fibers
-adrenal medulla, arrector pili muscles, sweat glands and many blood vessels -control of blood pressure and routes of blood flow -sympathetic vasomotor tone - a baseline firing frequency of sympathetics -sympathetic division acting alone can exert opposite effects on the target organ through control of blood vessels -during stress -blood vessels to muscles and heart dilate -blood vessels to skin constrict
characteristics of action potential
-all or none law -nondecremental -irreversible
Steroids
-cholestorol -estrogen -cortisol -progesterone -testosterone -bile acids
ANS has components in both the central and peripheral nervous systems
-control nucleus in the hypothalamus and other brainstem regions -motor neurons in the spinal cord and peripheral ganglia -nerve fibers that travel through the cranial and spinal nerves
Spinal Cord
-defecation and micturition reflexes are integrated in spinal cord -we control these functions because of our control over skeletal muscle sphincters...if the spinal cord is damaged, the smooth muscle of bowel and bladder is controlled by autonomic reflexes built into the spinal cord
neuronal divergence predominates
-each preganglionic cell branches and synapses on 10 to 20 postganglionic cells -one preganglionic neuron can excite multiple postganglionic fibers leading to different target organs -have relatively widespread effects
Summary of Sympathetic Innervation
-effectors in body wall are innervated by sympathetic fibers in spinal nerves -effectors in head and thoracic cavity are innervated by fibers in sympathetic nerves -effectors in abdominal cavity are innervated by sympathetic fibers in splanchnic nerves
How can different autonomic neurons have different effects? -constricting some vessels but dilating others
-effects determined by types of neurotransmitters released and types of receptors found on target cells -2 fundamental reasons: -sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers secrete different neurotransmitters -target cells respond to the same neurotransmitter differently depending upon the type of receptor they have for it -all autonomic fibers secrete either acetylcholine or norepinephrine -there are 2 classes of receptors for each of these neurotransmitters
Metabolic Proteins
-enzymes that control metabolism -antibodies that defend against pathogens -receptors and channels in the cell membrane -myosin and actin of muscle contraction
epithelium vs epidermis
-epidermis is only applicable to the epithelium of the skin -epithelium is the histological tissue layer of any surface (internal or external)
Fatty Acids and Ketones
-fatty acid catabolism --> ketone bodies - LOOK AT SLIDE -can become elevated in cases of rapid fat catabolism, as in extreme fasting and diabetes mellitus -causes a dangerous PH imbalance (ketoacidosis) that can lead to coma and death
Visceral Reflex to High BP
-high blood pressure detected by arterial stretch receptors (1), afferent neuron (2) carries signal to CNS, efferent (3) signals travel to the heart (4), heart slows reducing blood pressure -example of homeostatic negative feedback loop
Terminal Ganglia
-in or near the target organ -long preganglionic fibers, short postganglionic fibers NOTE: If the terminal ganglia is embedded within the wall of a target organ, it is also called an intramural ganglion.
carbohydrates: chemical characteristics
-includes sugars and starches - hydrophilic organic molecule - general formula: (CH2O)n (where n = number of carbon atoms) - 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen - Ex. glucose: n = 6, so formula is C6H12O6 -Classifications -Monosacharides - disach - polysach
Norepinephrine (NE)
-is secreted by nearly all sympathetic postganglionic fibers -called adrenergic fibers -receptors for it called adrenergic receptors
neuronal divergence
-less than sympathetic division -one preganglionic fiber reaches the target organ and then stimulates fewer than 5 postganglionic cells
list four ways in which action potential is different from a local potential
-local potentials summate -action potentials are all or none -local potentials are due to ligand gated sodium channels -action potentials are voltage gated channels -local are reversible-action are irreversible
proteins
-long chains of amino acids -a polymer of amino acids
Antagonistic Effects
-oppose each other -exerted through dual innervation of same effector cells -heart rate decreases (parasympathetic) -heart rate increases (sympathetic) -exerted because each division innervates different cells -pupillary dilator muscle (sympathetic) dilates pupil -constrictor pupillae (parasympathetic) constricts pupil The sympathetic division speeds up the heart and the parasympathetic division slows it down; the sympathetic division inhibits digestion and the parasympathetic division stimulates it (pg.575).
autonomic nervous system
-portion of the nervous system that operates in comparative secrecy -it manages a multitude of unconscious processes responsible for the body's homeostasis -homeostasis cannot be maintained without the ANS
ANS - two neurons from CNS to effectors
-presynaptic neuron whose cell body is in CNS -postsynaptic neuron cell body in peripheral ganglion
Efferent Pathways
-remaining parasympathetic fibers arise from levels S2 to S4 of the spinal cord -form pelvic splanchnic nerves that lead to the inferior hypogastric plexus -most form pelvic nerves to their terminal ganglion on the target organs distal half of colon, rectum, urinary bladder, and reproductive organs
After entering the sympathetic chain, the postganglionic fibers may follow any of three courses
-some end in ganglia which they enter and synapse immediately with a postganglionic neuron some travel up or down the chain and synapse in ganglia at other levels -these fibers link the paravertebral ganglia into a chain -only route by which ganglia at the cervical, sacral, and coccygeal levels receive input -some pass through the chain without synapsing and continue as splanchnic nerves
Sympathetic and Vasomotor Tone
-sympathetic division prioritizes blood vessels to skeletal muscles and heart in times of emergency blood vessels to skin vasoconstrict to minimize bleeding if injury occurs during stress or exercise
many substances released as neurotransmitters that modulate ACh and NE function
-sympathetic fibers also secrete enkephalin, substance P, neuropeptide Y, somatostatin, neurotensin, or gonadotropin-releasing hormone -parasympathetic fibers stimulate endothelial cells to release the gas, nitric oxide - causes vasodilation by inhibiting smooth muscle tone -function is crucial to penile erection - means of action of Viagra
Autonomic Pathways
-the signal must travel across two nerve fibers to get to the target organ -must cross a synapse where these two neurons meet in an autonomic ganglion -presynaptic neuron - the first neuron has a soma in the brainstem or spinal cord -synapses with a postganglionic neuron whose axon extends the rest of the way to the target cell
Divisions of ANS
-two divisions innervate same target organs -may have cooperative or contrasting effects
Glycolysis - Transition - Citric Acid Cycle - Electron Transport Chain
...
measuring in "equivalents"
1 Equivalent is the amount of electrolyte that will electrically neutralize 1 mole of H+ or OH- ions in the body, expressed as milliequivalents (mEq/L) multiply molar concentration x valence of the ion 1 M Na+ = 1 Eq/L 1 M Ca2+ = 2 Eq/L
8 cranial bones
1 frontal, 2 parietal, 2 temporal, 1 occipital, 1 sphenoid, 1 ethmoid
Overall reaction in Cellular Respiration
1 glucose + 6 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP
molarity: numbers
1 mole of a substance is its molecular weight in grams 1 mole of a substance is equal to Avogadro's number of molecules 6.023 x 10 Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute/ liter of solution MW of glucose is 180 one-molar (1.0M) glucose solution contains 180g/L
a change of one number on the pH scale represents a _______ change in H+ concentration
"10 fold" - a solution with pH of 4.0 is 10 times as acidic as one with pH of 5.0
sensory division
"afferent" carries signals from various receptors to the CNS
motor division
"efferent" carries signals from the CNS mainly to gland and muscle cells that carry out the body's responses
cauda equina
"horse's tail", a fan of nerve fibers below the spinal cord
Ribosomes
"reading machines" composed of small subunit and large subunit, subunits contain rRNA,
funiculi of white matter
"white column" bundles of axons that course up and down the cord and provide avenues of communication between different levels of the CNS - posterior (dorsal) - lateral - anterior (ventral)
the speed at which a nerve signal travels along a nerve fiber depends on...
(1) the diameter of the fiber (2) the presence or absence of myelin
amino acid
-COOH - C - NH, w variable "R" side chains -20 amino acids --> protein
Visceral Reflexes
-Unconscious, automatic, stereotyped, responses to stimulation, much like the somatic reflexes discussed (pg. 562/Visceral Reflexes)
sympathomimetics
-enhance sympathetic activity -stimulate receptors or increase norepinephrine release -cold medicines that dilate the bronchioles or constrict nasal blood vessels
How much ATP does a human make daily
100 lbs
how many bones are in the skull?
22
how many intervertebral discs are there?
23
haploid
23 unpaired chromosomes for ex sperm and egg
the vertebrae are divided into five groups:
7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, 4 coccygeal
Healing Time
8 - 12 weeks, longer in elderly
Matrix of Osseous Tissue Inorganic Matter
85% hydroxyapatite (crystallized calcium phosphate salt) 10% calcium carbonate other minerals (fluoride, sulfate, potassium, magnesium)
~Dehydration synthesis
A hydroxyl (-OH) group is removed from one monomer, and a hydrogen (H+) from another, producing H2O as a by-product
Glucose used in fermentation produces
A little ATP (2 units) for energy, but also lactic acid.
Bone Growth and Remodeling Notes
A mature bone however, grows only by the appositional mechanism. Because osteocytes have little room as it is and none to spare for the deposition of more matrix. The only way an adult bone can grow is to add more osseous tissue to the surface.
Second step of relaxation
ACh breakdown by AChE
ion
An atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving the atom a net positive or negative electrical charge.
Monomer
An identical or similar subunit of a polymer.
Adrenergic Fibers
Are nerve fibers that secrete nearly all sympathetic postganglionic fibers.
Compact Bone - Osteon (haversian system)
Basic structural unit cylinders of tissue formed from layers (lamellae) of matrix arranged around central canal holding a blood vessel collagen fibers alternate between right- and left-handed helices from lamella to lamella osteocytes connected to each other and their blood supply by tiny cell processes in canaliculi
Two places skeletal muscle attaches.
Bone or skin
Motor neurons have their cell bodies in the
Brain stem or spinal cord
ATP
Briefly stores energy gained from exergonic reactions, releases it within seconds for physiological work. Holds energy in covalent bonds. - Needed for polymerization reactions, muscle contraction and pumping ions through cell membranes.
Purpose of breathing
Bring in oxygen, remove carbon dioxide
Resistance training (weight lifting)
Builds muscle size by stimulation cell enlargement due to synthesis of more myofilaments
The *perimysium*
Bundles muscle fibres into muscle fascicle.
cervical plexus location
C1-C5
brachial plexus location
C5-T1
homozygous
CC or cc ( dominant or recessive)
Functions of membrane protein 7of 7: Cell adhesion molecules CAM
Cells adhere to each other and extracellular material through cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs)
Columnar
Cells taller than they are wide (intestine lining)
First step of relaxation
Cessation of nervous stimulation and ACh release
Tension while shortening
Concentric
polar covalent
Covalent bond in which electrons are more attracted to one nucleus than to the other, resulting in slightly positive and negative regions in one molecule. May be single or double.
Hip joint
Coxal joint is the articulation of the femoral head and the os coxae at the acetabulum; For a bipedal human, it is the primary weight bearing ball-and-socket joint and has a much deeper socket than the shoulder; Like the shoulder, a ring of fibrocartilage, acetabular labrum, acts to deepen the socket; Dislocation of the hip is rare in adults, but may occur in infants with congenital hip dysplasia
DNA
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 100 million to 1 billion nucleotides long constitutes genes instructions for synthesizing all of the body's proteins transfers hereditary information from cell to cell and generation to generation
dipeptide synthesis
Dehydration synthesis creates a peptide bond that joins amino acids
5 classes of chemical reactions
Delinquent Skulls Remember Creative Associations Decomposition, Synthesis, Reversible, Catabolism, Anabolism
Smooth muscle cells have this while skeletal muscles do not
Dense bodies
Slow twitch fibers
Do not fatigue easily, long contraction
Bone as a tissue
Dynamic tissue that continually remolds itself
Extracellular Fluid
ECF- fluid outside of the cell
how are EPSPs produced?
EPSPs are produced by opening Na+ and K+ channels, similar to the nicotinic ACh receptor
Oxygen Debt
Fast breathing after exercise
Second step of contraction
Formation of myosin-actin cross-bridge
Pott
Fracture at the distal end of the tibia, fibula, or both: common sports injury
Ligand-regulated gates
Gates that respond to chemical messengers
Energy source for muscle fibres
Glycogen (broken down into glucose for energy)
Bone Growth and Remodeling
Grow and remodel themselves throughout life growing brain or starting to walk athletes or history of manual labor have greater density & mass of bone Cartilage grows by both appositional & interstitial growth Non-mature bones increase in length by interstitial growth of epiphyseal plate (adding more matrix internally) Bones also increase in width by appositional growth (adding more matrix to the surface) osteoblasts lay down matrix in layers parallel to the outer surface & osteoclasts dissolve bone on inner surface if one process outpaces the other, bone deformities occur (osteitis deformans)
GTP
Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) another nucleotide involved in energy transfer donates phosphate group to other molecules
Incomplete Tetanus
Higher frequency stimulation (20-40 stimuli/sec). Generates gradually more strength of contraction. Each stimuli arrives before last one recovers, muscle doesn't relax completely = sustained fluttering contractions.
5 functional groups carried by carbon backbones
Holy Men Construct Apathetic Policies Hydroxyl, Methyl, Carboxyl, Amino, Phosphate
The amount of tension generated by a muscle (the force of its contraction depends on
How stretched (or contracted) the muscle was before stimulation
Shorter
I band gets ? when contracting
Endurance training (aerobic exercise)
Improves fatigue resistance by producing an increase in mitochondria, glycogen, and density of capillaries, more RBCs, better function of cardio system (better aerobic respiration)
H-bands are located
In the middle of the A-band
Communicating Rami
In the thoracolumbar region, each Paravertebral ganglion is connected to a spinal nerve by two branches called communicating rami.
Bone Marrow notes
In young to middle aged adults most of this red marrow turns to fatty yellow bone marrow. Yellow marrow no longer produces blood. In adults red marrow is limited to the vertebrae... (see line 3 under RBM)
Recruitment
Including more motor neurons to get a larger contraction -> stimulates more motor units
Bones make up skeletal system
Individual bones are made up of bone tissue, marrow, cartilage, and periosteum.
Two methods of ossification (prior to birth)
Intramembranous Endochondral
Craniosacral Division
Is also referred to as the parasympathetic division -it arises from the brain and sacral regions of the spinal cord -its fibers travel in certain cranial and sacral nerves -origin of long preganglionic neurons -midbrain, pons, and medulla -spinal cord segments S2-S4 -pathways of long preganglionic fibers -fibers in cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X -fibers arising from sacral spinal cord -pelvic splanchnic nerves and inferior hypogastric plexus
Cholinergic Fiber
Is any nerve fiber that secretes ACh.
Adrenal Cortex
Is the outer rind secretes steroid hormones.
Isotonic
Iso=equal. A solution where the total concentration of a nonpermeating solutes is the same as in the ICF
Structural Proteins
Keratin of epidermis , hair and nails -collagen of tendons, ligaments, bones, dermis -elastin of dermis, some ligaments
Degree of stretch of muscle before stimulation
L/T relationship
sacral plexus
L4-S4
When a muscle is overly stretched
Little overlap exists between actin and myosin
Overly contracted muscle allows
Little room to build more tension
Long Bone
Long bones include the humerus, ulna, femur, tibia and fibula. Spongy bone is found at the edges of long bone.
Long Bone
Long bones serve as rigid levers that are acted upon by the skeletal muscles to produce body movement.
Polymer
Molecules made of a repetitive series of identical or similar subunits (monomers).
A lack of dystrophin results in
Muscular dystrophy
atomic number/proton number
Number of protons in the nucleus. Uniquely identifies each element.
Parasympathetic Cranial Nerves
Oculomotor nerve (III) Facial nerve (VII) Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) Vagus nerve (X)
6 major elements of human body (98.5%)
Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Calcium, Phosphorus
Creatine Kinase
P1 in transferred from creatine phosphate to ADP -> ATP
K+ ion gates open when
Potassium rushes out of cell
Four levels of protein structure
Primary secondary tertiary quaternary
Third step of relaxation
Reabsorption of calcium ions by sarcoplasmic reticulum; ATP needed
Loss of tension and return to resting length
Relaxation
The stiffening of the body beginning 3 to 4 hours after death
Rigor mortis
the vertebral column is in the shape of what
S
sievert
SI unit of radiation 5 Sv or more is usually fatal
General Features of Bones
Shaft (deaphysis) is cylinder of compact bone containing marrow cavity (medullary cavity) & lined with endosteum (layer of osteogenic cells and reticular connective tissue)
Forth step of excitation-contraction coupling
Shifting of tropomyosin; exposure of active sites on actin
Achondroplastic Dwarfism
Short stature but normal-sized head and trunk long bones of the limbs stop growing in childhood but other bones unaffected
proteins: 7 functions
Simple Comatose Memorization Raises Combined Medical Costs Structure, Communication, Membrane transport, Recognition and protection, Catalysis, Movement, Cell adhesion
monosaccharides
Simple sugars; are the simplest carbs - 3 important monosaccharides: 1)glucose, 2)fructose, 3)GALACTOSE; -are isomers of each other (all are C6H12O6) - produced by digestion of complex carbohydrates
Muscle strength depends on
Size, fatigue
Smooth muscle lasts longer than
Skeletal muscle (slow to contract and relax)
Na+ ion gates open when
Sodium rushes into cell
Stellate
Starlike cell shape (nerve cells)
Plasma membranes of muscle cells exhibit voltage changes in response to
Stimulation
Cardiac Plexus
Supplies fibers to the heart.
Function of membrane protein 1of 7: Receptors
Surface proteins usually specific for a particular messenger that allows for said messenger to communicate with the cell
lumbar plexus location
T12-L4
T/F: both gray and white matter have an abundance of glial cells
TRUE
Elastic filaments anchor thick filaments to
The Z disc
Osmotic Pressure
The amount of pressure that would have to be applied to one side of a selectively permeable membrane to stop osmosis
Wolff's Law of Bone
The architecture of a bone is determined by the mechanical stresses placed upon it, and the bone thereby adapts to withstand those stresses.
Abdominal Aortic Plexus
The collateral ganglia contribute to a network called the abdominal aortic plexus wrapped around the aorta.
valence electrons
The electrons in the outer-most shell of an atom. They determine the reactivity/chemical properties of that element.
Primary Ossification Center & Marrow Space
The first sign of Endochondral ossification is the multiplication and swelling of chondrocytes near the center of the model which is called the primary ossification center. There is the formation of the supportive bony collar. Invasion of the model by blood vessels and creation of a primary marrow space.
The number of muscle fibres innervated by 1 motor neuron depends on
The function of the muscle
Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX)
The glossopharyngeal nerve carries parasympathetic fibers concerned with salivation. The preganglionic fibers leave this nerve soon after its origin and form the tympanic nerve. A continuation of this nerve crosses the middle-ear cavity and ends in the otic ganglion near the foramen ovale. The postganglionic fibers then follow the trigeminal nerve to the parotid salivary gland just in front of the earlobe.
vallate papillae
The largest papillae on the tongue, arranged in the form of a V, contain half of taste buds (B)
The stronger a muscle
The less control we have over it
Lower Branch of the Facial Nerve Parasympathetic Fibers Split
The lower branch crosses the middle-ear cavity and ends at the submandibular ganglion near the angle of the mandible. Postganglionic fibers from here supply salivary glands in the floor of the mouth.
Voltage-gated ion channels open when
The membrane potential reaches a critical level.
The functional connection between a nerve fibre and a muscle cell.
The neuromuscular junction.
Oculomotor Nerve (III)
The oculomotor nerve carries parasympathetic fibers that control the lens and pupil of the eye. The preganglionic fibers enter the orbit and terminate in the ciliary ganglion behind the eyeball. Postganglionic fibers enter the eyeball and innervate the ciliary muscle, which thickness the lens, and the pupillary constrictor, which narrows the pupil.
Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands
The paired adrenal (suprarenal) glands rest like hats on the superior poles of the kidneys. -Each adrenal is actually two glands with different functions and embryonic origins.
The Metaphysis
The region of transition from cartilage to bone at each end of the primary marrow cavity is called a metaphysis. This is where cartilage in converted into bone and it is responsible for bone elongation and a person's increase in height.
The charge in a muscle cell is maintained by
The sodium-potassium pump
Characteristics of Muscle: Conductivity
The stimulation of a muscle cell causes the contraction of a whole muscle.
Upper Branch of the Facial Nerve Parasympathetic Fibers Split
The upper branch ends at the pterygopalatine ganglion near the junction of the maxilla and palatine bone. Postganglionic fibers then continue to the tear glands and glands of the nasal cavity, palate, and other areas of the oral cavity.
Vagus Nerve (X)
The vagus nerve carries about 90% of all parasympathetic preganglionic fibers. It travels down the neck and forms three networks in the mediastinum of the chest (the cardiac plexus, the pulmonary plexus, and the esophageal plexus).
alpha-adrenergic Receptors
These usually have excitatory effects. Example, the binding of NE to a-adrenergic receptors promotes labor contractions, stimulates piloerection, and constricts dermal blood vessels, yet it inhibits intestinal motility.
H-bands are made up of
Thick filament
Three kinds of muscle filaments
Thick, thin, elastic
Elastic filaments stabilize _______________ filaments, _________________ it between thin filaments and prevents _______________________.
Thick; centres; overstretching
Z-discs are anchorage for
Thin filaments and elastic filaments
Squamous
Thin, flat cell, often have a bulge where the nucleus is (like a fried egg, "sunny side up")
The minimum voltage necessary to generate an action potential and produce a contraction in a muscle fibre
Threshold
knee joint
Tibiofemoral joint is the largest and most complex diarthrosis joint of the body; it is a hinge joint; The joint capsule encloses the sides and back of the knee
Purpose of cellular respiration
To make ATP
Traction
Traction is not used in elderly due to risks of long-term confinement to bed hip fractures are pinned & early walking is encouraged
Functions of membrane protein 5 of 7: Carriers
Transmembrane proteins bind to glucose, electrolytes, etc and transfer them to the side of the membrane (those carriers called PUMPS use ATP)
This blocks myosin binding sites on actin beads when the muscle is relaxed
Tropomyosin
A quick cycle of contraction and relaxation
Twitch
exchange reactions
Two molecules exchange atoms or group of atoms AB+CD ABCD AC + BD Stomach acid (HCl) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) from the pancreas combine to form NaCl and H2CO3.
synthesis reactions
Two or more small molecules combine to form a larger one A + B --> AB
stop codons
UAG, UGA, UAA end of synthesizing proteins
Voluntary means
Under conscious control
Gray Communicating Ramus
Unmyelinated postganglionic fibers leave the ganglion by way of the gray communicating ramus, named for its lack of myelin and duller color, and by other routes. This ramus forms a bridge back to the spinal nerve. Postganglionic fibers extend the rest of the way to the target organ.
Is cardiac muscle voluntary or unvoluntary?
Unvoluntary
Is smooth muscle voluntary or unvoluntary?
Unvoluntary
Is skeletal muscle voluntary or unvoluntary?
Voluntary
Temperature of muscle
Warmed muscle contracts more strongly because enzymes in myosin heads work more quickly
Thermal Stability of Water
Water helps stabilize the internal temperature of the body has high heat capacity - the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 degree C. calorie (cal) - the amount of heat that raises the temperature of 1 g of water 1 degree C. hydrogen bonds inhibit temperature increases by inhibiting molecular motion water absorbs heat without changing temperature very much effective coolant 1 ml of perspiration removes 500 calories
unique properties of water (H20)
Water's polar covalent bonds and its V-shaped molecule gives water a set of properties that account for its ability to support life.
hydrogen bond
Weak attraction between polarized molecules or between polarized regions of the same molecule. Important in the three-dimensional folding and coiling of large molecules (proteins, DNA). Easily disrupted by temperature and pH changes - gives water its unique properties
Van der Waals force
Weak, brief attraction due to random disturbance in the electron clouds of adjacent atoms. Weakest of all bonds Only 1% as strong as a covalent bond when two surfaces or large molecules meet, the attraction between large numbers of atoms can create a very strong attraction important in protein folding important with protein binding with hormones association of lipid molecules with each other
Percentages
Weight/volume of solute in solution IV D5W (5% w/v dextrose in distilled water) 5 grams of dextrose and fill to 100 ml water
Adenylate cyclase (enzyme in membrane)
When the G protein is activated by the receptor it relays it to Adenylate Cyclase which removes two phosphate groups from ATP and converts it to cyclic AMP (cAMP)
vitreous body
a transparent jellylike substance filling the interior of the eyeball maintains intraocular pressure and presses the retina against the wall of the eye
macula lutea
a yellowish central area of the retina that is rich in cones and that mediates clear detailed vision
CNVI
abducens, motor
Solvency
ability to dissolve other chemicals; Virtually all metabolic reactions depend on the solvency of water; water = "universal solvent"
Mineral Deposition - Ectopic Ossification
abnormal calcification may occur in lungs, brain, eyes, muscles, tendons or arteries (arteriosclerosis)
paresthesia
abnormal sensation of numbness and tingling without objective cause
Cofactors
about 2/3rds of human enzymes require a nonprotein cofactor -nonprotein partners that activates an enzyme, such as iron, copper, magnesium, zinc or calcium ions
photoreceptor cells
absorb light and generate a chemical or electrical signal
synovial joints
also called a diathrosis, the most movable type of joint, ex. ball-and-socket, condylar, saddle, plane, hinge & pivot
cartilaginous
also called amphiarthrosis, two bones are linked by cartilage, ex. synchrondrosis and symphysis,
small points of maxillary bones that grow into spaces between the teeth
alveolar processes
the articulation between the atlas and the cranium
atlanto-occipital joint
articulation between the atlas and axis
atlantoaxial joint
vertebra c1 is called the _____ because it supports the head
atlas
tendon
attach a muscle to a bone
are epithelial tissues vascular or avascular?
avascular
is cartilage vascular or avascular?
avascular
caffeine competes with adenosine (the presence of which causes sleepiness)
by binding to its receptors
how do nails enhance sensation
by providing a counterforce or resistance from the other side of the finger
Cyclic AMP
cAMP: a second messenger, activates enzymes called Kinases in the cytosol
skullcap
calvaria
4 categories of carbon compounds
carbohydrates lipids proteins nucleotides and nucleic acids
the subarachnoid space is filled with...
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
endocrine system communicates by means of...
chemical messengers (hormones) secreted into the blood
3 reasons electrolytes are important
chemical reactivity osmotic effects (influence water movement) electrical effects on nerve and muscle tissue
Solution
consists of particles of matter called the solute mixed with a more abundant substance (usually water) called the solvent - Can be gas, solid or liquid
Purpose of all types of muscle
convert chemical energy of ATP into motion
bones that enclose the brain
cranial bones
schizophrenia is sometimes treated with drugs such as chlorpromazine that inhibit dopamine receptors. a side effect is that patients begin to develop muscle tremors, speech impairment, and other disorders similar to parkinson disease. explain
dopamine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that suppresses unwanted muscle contractions and contributes to smoother, more coordinated muscular action. parkinson disease involves a dopamine deficiency. by blocking dopamine receptors, chlorpromazine prevents dopamine from acting and sometimes producing the same effects as a dopamine deficiency.
posterior margin in sella turcica
dorsum sellae
how to test CNIV
drawing an x or h with the eyes (diagonal movement)
types of sweat (sudoriferous) glands
eccrine and apocrine
epineurium vs perineurium vs endoneurium
epineurium: covers the entire nerve perineurium: surrounds individual fascicles endoneurium: separates individual nerve fibers
how to test CNI
have patient smell something
cribriform plate
he horizontal plate of the ethmoid bone separating the cranial cavity from the nasal cavity
temporal lobe
hearing, memory of sounds, speech, understanding speech
fourth function of muscle
heat production
why do the dermis and epidermis interlock?
helps resists slippage of the epidermis across the dermis
what bone is a slender U-shaped bone between the chin and larynx
hyoid bone
inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
hyperpolarization of a postsynaptic neuron in response to a neurotransmitter, making it less likely to reach threshold and fire - result of Cl- flowing into the cell or K+ leaving the cell
subcutaneous fat
hypodermic predominantly composed of adipose tissue - energy reservoir and thermal insulation
canal at the anterolateral edge of each occipital condyle
hypoglossal canal
foramen of CNXII
hypoglossal canal
rods vs cones
i) shape: rod-shaped vs. cone-shaped ii) population: more rods than cones iii) location: rods are in the periphery while cones are more centrally located iv) function: rods are made for scotopic (nighttime) vision while cones are for photopic (daytime) vision v) function: cones distinguish elements of color and sharpen an image
fibroblasts
in connective tissue, cells that secrete the proteins of the fibers
plasma cells
in connective tissue, produce antibodies
where are the neurosomas of the posterior root located? where are the neurosomas of the anterior root?
in the posterior root ganglion none
just behind the incisors is a pair of _______
incisive foramina
axon hillock (trigger zone)
initial segment of axon where the action potential is initiated
what part of the mandible has a pair of small points, the mental spines, that serve for attachment of certain chine muscles
inner (posterior) surface
spatial summation
integration by a postsynaptic neuron of inputs (EPSPs and IPSPs) from multiple sources
an opening on the petrous' part posteromedial surface that allows the passage of the vestibulocochlear nerve
internal acoustic meatus
foramen of CNVII
internal acoustic meatus
foramen of CNVIII
internal acoustic meatus
bulging fontanels suggest abnormally high _____
intracranial pressure
apocrine secretion
involves the loss of cytoplasm as well as the secretory product
ipsilateral vs contralateral reflex arc
ipsilateral: sensory input and motor output are on the same side of the spinal cord contralateral: input and output are on opposite sides
Stress Fracture
is a break caused by abnormal trauma to a bone car accident, fall, athletics, etc
biceps tendon
is on margin of glenoid cavity, it passes through the joint capsule and extends through the intertubercular sulcus, and is held in the groove by tranverse humeral ligament; Shoulder is stabilized by the tendon; holds humerus in place against the glenoid cavity
Protraction
is the anterior movement of a body part in the transverse plane
Simple Diffusion
is the net movement of particles from a place of higher concentration to a place of lower concentration
Molarity
known number of molecules per volume moles of solute/liter of solution physiologic effects based on number of molecules in solution not on weight
a large mass on each side of the perpendicular plate in the ethmoid bone
labyrinth
Cystic Fibrosis
lack of cilia in apical membranes, so respiratory tract lots of sticky mucus, clogs it up, in pancreas it clogs up ducts so nutrition so digestion nutrition and respiration are compromised. life expectancy 30 yrs.
what bones form part of the medial wall of each orbit and are the smallest bones of the skull?
lacrimal bones
a depression in the lacrimal bones called _______ houses a membranous _______ in life in which tears from the eye collect in and drain into the nasal cavity
lacrimal fossa, lacrimal sac
wernicke's area
language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
do signals travel faster along larger or thinner fibers?
large fibers have more surface area and conduct signals more rapidly than small fibers
alpha particle/ray
large, heavy, do not penetrate, deadly if ingested - 2 protons + 2 neutrons - can't penetrate skin
cerebrum
largest part of the brain; responsible for voluntary muscular activity, vision, speech, taste, hearing, thought, and memory
voice box
larynx
how long does the absolute refractory period last?
lasts from the start of the action potential until the membrane returns to the resting potential
how long does the relative refractory period last?
lasts until hyperpolarization ends
on each side of the atlas there is a ___ with a deeply concave ___ that articulates with the occipital condyle of the skull
lateral mass, superior articular facet
brachial plexus cords
lateral, posterior, medial
arachnoid mater
layer of simple squamous epithelium lining dura mater and loose mesh of collagenous and elastic fibers filled with CSF
stratum spinosum
layer of spiny cells directly above the stratum basale, several layers of keratinocytes
Postganglionic Fiber
leave the ganglion by way of the gray communicating ramus (unmyelinated) -forms a bridge back to the spinal nerve extend the rest of the way to the target organ
which wing of the sphenoid bone forms the posterior wall of the orbit and contains the optic canal
lesser
photoreceptors respond to
light
pathway of optic nerve
light, cornea, pupil, lens, retina, optic canal, optic chiasm, optic tract, optic radiation, visual cortex decussates at optic nerve and ends in area 17 crosses over the visual cortex
ependymal cells
line cavities of the brain and spinal cord; secrete and circulate cerebrospinal fluid
flexion lines
lines on the flexor surfaces of the digits, palms, wrists, elbows
inferior to the medullar cone, the subarachnoid space is called the...
lumbar cistern
Thin filament
made of actin, tropnin complex, and tropomyosin, has an active site where myosin head can bind to
chromosomes
make up chromatin by forming as long as 46 chromosomes
histones
makes up chromatin, disc shaped cluster of 8 proteins
Transcription
making a copy from DNA to RNA,
squamous cell carcinoma
malignant tumor that arises from keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum; raised, reddened, scaly appearance, later forming a concave ulcer with raised edges
what are the largest facial bones
maxillae
what passes through the foramen rotundum
maxillary n. (V2)
what passes through the infraorbital canal
maxillary n. (V2)
pH
measurement of molarity of H+ [H+] on a logarithmic scale
Reverse Osmosis
mechanical pressure applied to one side of the system can override osmotic pressure and drive water through a membrane against its concentration gradient. Sea water desalinated to drinkable freshwater. The Heart drives water out of capillaries "capillary filtration". Blood contains proteins =side A, tissue=side B water leaves capillaries by filtration but comes back by osmosis.
lateral to each aperture, a pair of parallel plates in the sphenoid bone, provides some attachment of the jaw muscles
medial and lateral pterygoid plates
homologous chromosomes
members of each pair of chromosomes
three membranes that separate the brain from the bone
meninges
on the anterolateral surface of the body of the mandible, what permits the passage of nerves and blood vessels of the chin?
mental foramen
the point of the chin itself
mental protuberance
the median cartilaginous joint at the point of the chin that ossifies in early childhood, united the two halves of the mandible into a single bone
mental symphysis
modes of secretion
merocrine, apocrine, holocrine
the petrous part of the temporal lobes houses which cavities
middle and inner ear
cranial fossae that is the second deepest, shaped like a pair of outstretched bird's wings and accommodates the temporal lobes
middle cranial fossa
dermis
middle layer of the skin, composed of fibrous connective tissue
choroid
middle, vascular layer of the eye, between the retina and the sclera (L)
the three auditory ossicles are in what cavity
middle-ear
what organelles do neurons have?
mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi complex, numerous inclusions, extensive rough ER, cytoskeleton
sensory receptors transmit what kinds of information?
modality, location, intensity, duration
ceruminous glands
modified sweat glands, located in external ear canal, secretes cerumen (earwax)
molecular formula vs structural formula
molecular formula = H2O; structual = spatial relationship
molecule vs compound
molecule = chemical particle composed of two or more atoms united by a chemical bond (O2); compound = molecules composed of two or more elements (H20)
isomers
molecules - molecules with identical molecular formulae but different arrangement of their atoms (CH3CH2OH vs CH3OCH3)
basal cell carcinoma
most common and least severe type of skin cancer that arises from the stratum basale and eventually invades the dermis; often characterized by light or pearly nodules
action potential
most dramatic change in membrane produced where high density of voltage-gated channels occur
nervous tissue
most sections show a few large neurons, usually with rounded or stellate cell bodies and fibrous processes FUNCTION: carries electrical messages back and forth between the brain and every other part of the body LOCATION: brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia
the high density of interneurons and motor neurons in the cervical and lumbar enlargements is related to...
motor control and sensation in the upper and lower limbs
pons
motor control and sensory analysis, connects cerebellum to brain stem
DNA polymerase
move along each strand and makes matching base pairs
retrograde transport
movement up the axon toward the soma - substances needed to be disposed of/recycled in lysosomes in the cell body
Monaxial
moves in only one anatomical plane, (hinge and pivot)
Reposition
moving the thumb back to zero position
how to test CNXII
moving tongue side to side, swallowing
infection and inflammation of air sinuses in mastoid part of temporal lobe which can erode the bone and spread to the brain
mstoiditis
conjunctiva
mucous membrane lining the eyelids and covering the anterior portion of the sclera
why can local potentials eventually contribute to an action potential if they are decremental?
multiple local potentials can 'combine' together to create a stronger potential
synergist
muscle that aids prime mover
antagonist
muscle that opposes the prime mover
fixator
muscle that prevents bone from moving, allowing another muscle attached to bone to pull on something else
prime mover/agonist
muscle that produces most of the force during a movement
Smooth muscle cells are called
myocytes
myopia vs hyperopia
myopia: nearsightedness due to eye being too long hyperopia: farsightedness due to eye being too short
parasympathetic innervation of all effectors
name the diagram
abducens n.
name the structure
accessory n.
name the structure
brain stem
name the structure
cerebellum
name the structure
cerebrum
name the structure
corpus callosum
name the structure
cribriform plate
name the structure
cutaneous distribution of mandibular n.
name the structure
cutaneous distribution of maxillary n.
name the structure
cutaneous distribution of ophthalmic n.
name the structure
ethmoid bone
name the structure
maxillary n.
name the structure
medulla oblongata
name the structure
mental foramen
name the structure
midbrain
name the structure
motor component of facial n.
name the structure
motor component of oculomotor n.
name the structure
occipital lobe
name the structure
orbital surface of greater wing of sphenoid bone
name the structure
otic ganglion
name the structure
parietal lobe
name the structure
pineal gland
name the structure
pituitary gland
name the structure
pons
name the structure
primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus)
name the structure
primary sensory cortex (postcentral gyrus)
name the structure
pterygopalatine ganglion
name the structure
somatic motor association area
name the structure
sphenoid bone
name the structure
stylomastoid foramen
name the structure
submandibular ganglion
name the structure
superior orbital fissure
name the structure
supraorbital notch
name the structure
temporal lobe
name the structure
thalamus
name the structure
trigeminal ganglion
name the structure
trigeminal n.
name the structure
trochlear n.
name the structure
vagus n.
name the structure
vestibulocochlear n.
name the structure
bones that form the bridge of the nose and support cartilages that shape its lower portion
nasal bones
the palate's function is to separate what from what?
nasal cavity, oral cavity
the perpendicular plate of the palatine bones form part of the wall between what?
nasal cavity, orbit
electron
negatively-charged particle of an atom - weight = negligible
Innervation
nerve that acts on the muscle
pathway of vestibular part of vestibulocochlear nerve
nerve, vestibular nuclei in pons and medulla to cerebellum, reticular foramen, spinal cord, thalamus, or nuclei of oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens n. (eye control)
how does the structure of a nerve compare to that of a skeletal muscle? which of these descriptive terms have similar counterparts in muscle histology?
nerves are bundled fibers are wrapped skeletal muscle is bundled fibers are wrapped epi-, endo-, peri-
mixed nerves
nerves carrying both sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) fibers
motor nerves
nerves that carry information from the central nervous system to the muscles of the body (efferent)
sensory nerves
nerves that carry information from the sense receptors to the spinal cord and brain (afferent)
spinal plexuses
network of intersecting nerves that serve motor and sensory needs of muscles, skin and limbs - nerve fibers from different spinal nerves are sorted and recombined, so that all fibers going to a specific body part are put together in one nerve - cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral
excitable tissues
neural and muscle tissue that is capable of generating and responding to electrical signals
region where motor nerve fiber meets skeletal muscle fiber
neuromuscular junction
local disturbances in membrane potential occur when...
neuron is stimulated by chemicals, light, heat, or mechanical disturbances
how is a glial cell different from a neuron? list the six types of glial cells and discuss their functions
neurons have TWO "processes" called axons and dendrites....glial cells have only ONE. neurons CAN generate action potentials...glial cells CANNOT. however, glial cells do have a resting potential.
how do neurons display conductivity?
neurons respond to stimuli by producing electrical signals that are quickly conducted to other cells at distant locations
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
antioxidants
neutralize free radicals in body, superoxide dismutase (SOD) in diet (Selenium, vitamin E, vitamin C, carotenoids)
neutron
neutrally-charged particle of an atom - weight = 1 AMU (atomic mass unit)
what do rods detect?
night vision, low light conditions. no color, not much detail
are all nerve fibers myelinated?
no, many nerve fibers in the CNS and PNS are unmyelinated
Autonomic Tone
normal background rate of activity that represents the balance of the two systems according to the body's changing needs
situs solitus vs situs inversus
normal vs. mirror image of normal (heart, liver, spleen, etc all on opposite side)
ligament binds the skull to the vertebral column
nuchal ligament
the bifid fork in c2-c6 provides attachment for what of the back of the neck?
nuchal ligament
an intervertebral disc consists of an inner gelatinous _____ surrounded by a ring of fibrocartilage, the _____
nucleus pulposus, anulus fibrosus
Anticodon
opposite of a codon for ex AUG to UAC
permits passage of the optic nerve and ophthalmic artery
optic canal
foramen of CNII
optic foramen
CNII
optic, sensory
the lateral surface of the labyrinth is a smooth, slightly concave _______ seen on the medial wall of the orbit
orbital plate
cochlea
organ of hearing -- a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube arising from the anterior vestibule in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
epidermis
outermost layer of skin
condyloid (ellipsoid) joint
oval convex surface articulates with a complimentary, concave surface; Really multiaxial but considered biaxial
nociceptors respond to
pain
neuralgia
pain along the course of a nerve
nociceptive pain
pain from a normal process that results in noxious stimuli being perceived as painful
form most of the cranial roof and part of its walls
parietal bones
perilymph vs endolymph
perilymph: between bony and membranous labyrinths, similar to CSF endolymph: within the membranous labyrinth, similar to ICF
the spinal cord connects...
peripheral nervous system and the brain
a thin median plate of bone that forms the superior two-thirds of the nasal septum
perpendicular plate
the superior half of the nasal septum is formed by which plate of the ethmoid bone?
perpendicular plate
three major portions of ethmoid bone
perpendicular plate, cribriform plate, labyrinth
what part of the temporal lobe can be seen in the cranial floor, where it resembles a little mountain range separating the middle cranial fossa from the posterior fossa
petrous part
microglia
phagocytic cells that ingest and break down microorganisms, foreign matter, dead nervous tissue, and pathogens in the CNS
phasic vs tonic receptors
phasic: receptors that adapt rapidly to presence of stimuli (thermo/cuatneous receptors) tonic:adapt slowly or not at all (nociceptors pain)
Polygenic (multiple gene) inheritance
phenomenon in which genes at two or more loci; or even on different chromosomes, contribute to a single phenotypic trait
Pleiotropy
phenomenon in which one gene produces multiple phenotypic effects
Glycolipids
phospholipids +carbohydrates help form the glucocalix
X rays
photons, lower energy than gamma; medically valuable but can cause cancer
UV rays
photons, lower energy than x rays -useful for sterilization -can induce skin cancer
Filtration
physical pressure that forces fluid through a selectively permeable membrane. Blood capilaries, water salts and nutrients and other solutes are transferred from the bloodstream to the tissue fluid.
cranial fossae that is the deepest and houses a large posterior division of the brain called the cerebellum
posterior cranial fossa
internal openings of the nasal cavity
posterior nasal apertures or choanae
guard hairs
prevent foreign particles from entering the nostrils or ear canals
Orthopedics
prevention & correction of injuries and disorders of the bones, joints & muscles
Countertransport
process carrying solutes in opposite directions (the carrier is antiport)
Cotransport
process carrying solutes in the same direction (the carrier is symport)
midbrain
processes visual and auditory info, involuntary muscles, arousal from sleep, awareness, eating, sleeping, attention
brain stem
processing center, relay station for info headed to or from cerebrum/cerebellum
serous glands
produce relatively thin, watery fluids such as perspiration, milk, tears, and digestive juices
tendon organ
proprioceptors located in tendons that detect stretch
functions of epithelial tissue
protection, absorption, filtration, secretion, sensation
functions of hair
protects and insulates, guards openings against particles and insects, is sensitive to very light touch
kinetochore
protein plaque on each side of the centromere
primary
protein's sequence amino acid which is encoded in the genes
enzymes
proteins that function as biological catalysts permit reactions to occur rapidly at normal body temperature Substrate - substance an enzyme acts upon Mechanisms by which they catalyze: Lowers activation energy - energy needed to get reaction started enzymes facilitate molecular interaction
Transmembrane Proteins or Integral proteins
proteins that pass through the membrane, with hydrophilic regions in contact with the cytoplasm and extracellular fluid, and hydrophobic regions that pass back and forth through the lipid of the membrane. Most are glycoproteins (proteins with oligosacharides) Some are like ice cubes they drift freely in the phospholipid membrane, others attached to cytoskeleton.
what does umami taste indicate?
proteins to grow and repair tissue (amino acids)
base
proton acceptor (accepts H+ ions) releases OH- ions in water
acid
proton donor (releases H+ ions in water)
each medial and lateral pterygoid plates in the sphenoid bone has a narrower inferior extension called what, provides attachment for some of the jaw muscles
pterygoid process
what nerves are especially vulnerable to injury and why?
radial: passes through the axilla and can be compressed against the humerus sciatic: due to its position and length, can cause sciatica if damaged
background radiation
radon gas & cosmic rays 3.6 millisieverts/year (background), 0.6 millisieverts/year (artificial), 50 millisieverts/year (acceptable exposure)
how to test CNVIII
raising hand on side that sound is coming from + balancing on one leg
the vertical to oblique posterior portion of the mandible is called the _____
ramus
Hip dislocation
rare, but some infants suffer from it when their acetabulum is not deep enough to hold the head of the femur in place
dendrites
receive messages from other cells
each pair of spinal nerves receives _______ and issues ________ to muscles and glands
receives sensory information and issues motor signals to muscles and glands
parietal lobe
receives sensory input for touch and body position
posterior (dorsal) horns
receives sensory nerve fibers from the spinal nerves, which usually synapse with networks of interneurons in the horn - extend toward the posterolateral surfaces of the cord
what structures make up a reflex arc?
receptor, afferent nerve fiber, often one or more interneurons, efferent nerve fiber, and effector
Visceral reflex arc
receptors - nerve endings that detect stretch, tissue damage, blood chemicals, body temperature, and other internal stimuli afferent neurons - leading to the CNS interneurons - in the CNS efferent neurons - carry motor signals away from the CNS effectors - that make adjustments ANS modifies effector activity
erythema
redness of the skin due to capillary dilation
Calcitonin Functions
reduces osteoclast activity by as much as 70% in 15 minutes - so osteoclasts liberate less calcium from the skeleton. increases the number & activity of osteoblasts
ionic bond
relatively weak attraction between an anion and a cation. Easily disrupted in water, as when salt dissolves
Stages of healing 4
remodeling (4) occurs over next 6 months as spongy bone is replaced with compact bone
interoreceptors
respond to stimuli within the body
divisions of sensory nervous system
somatic sensory and visceral sensory
what passes through the foramen magnum
spinal cord
lumbar enlargement
supplies nerves of pelvis and lower limbs
parasympatholytics
suppress activity
iris
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
vestibule of the ear
the area between cochlea & semicircular canals
thalamus
the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Energy
the capacity to do work
why must the withdrawal reflex, but not the stretch reflex, involve in a polysynaptic reflex arc?
the flexor muscles receives prolonged output from the spinal cord and not just from one sudden stimulus as in the stretch reflex
Cytology
the scientific study of cells
peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
primary curvatures in spine
thoracic, pelvic
how do motor signals exit the spinal cord?
through the anterior root
Opposition
to move the thumb to touch the tip of any of the other four fingers
modality of stimulus
type of stimulus or the sensation it produces
stratum corneum
up to 30 layers of dead, scaly, keratinized cells
c7 is sometimes called ___ because of its conspicuous spinous process
vertebra prominens
commonly called the backbone, physically supports the skull and trunk, allows for their movement, protects the spinal cord, absorbs stressed produced by walking, running, and lifting, provides attachment for the limbs, thoracic cage, and postural muscles
vertebral column (spine)
why does the vertebral cord extend only to L1?
vertebral column grows faster than the spinal cord
posterior to the body of each vertebra is a triangular space called what?
vertebral foramen
carries signals for hearing and balance from the inner ear to the brain
vestibulocochlear nerve
CNVIII
vestibulocochlear, sensory
