A&P Test 2
What is the function of Lymph Nodes?
.Filter circulating lymph.
Innate defenses
1. Chemical Protection 2. Interferons 3. Natural Killer Cells 4. Phagocytosis 5. Inflammation 6. Fever 7. Complement System
Lymphoid Tissue
1. Composed of reticular connective tissue with a large number of macrophages and lymphocytes 2. Provide a site for lymphocyte proliferation and a surveillance vantage point for lymphocytes and macrophages. a. Macrophage live on the fibers while lymphocytes "patrol" the spaces between them. 3. Predominant in all lymphoid organs except the thymus and red bone marrow. a. Diffuse lymphoid tissue- consists of a few scattered reticular elements and cells, is found in virtually every body organ (loose) b. Lymphatic nodules- solid spherical bodies consisting of tightly packed (dense) reticular elements and cells. Forms part of lymph nodes, Isolated clusters are also found within the intestinal wall (Peyer's Patch) and in the appendix, tonsils, malt, and galt
Identify the arrangements of the 2 lymphatic nodules
1. Diffuse lymphoid tissue- consists of a few scattered reticular elements and cells, is found in virtually every body organ (loose) 2. Lymphatic nodules- solid spherical bodies consisting of tightly packed (dense) reticular elements and cells. Forms part of lymph nodes, Isolated clusters are also found within the intestinal wall (Peyer's Patch) and in the appendix, tonsils, malt, and galt
Inflammation- 3 stages
1. Increased vasodilation and permeability, causes warmth, redness, pain and swelling, aided by a number of chemicals. 2. Phagocyte mobilization 3. Tissue repair
What are 3 additional functions for the Spleen mentioned in the book?
1. It stores some of the breakdown products of red blood cells for later reuse (for example, it salvages iron for making hemoglobin 2. It stores blood platelets. 3. Produces RBC in the developing fetus because they have no bone marrow
List the 4 secondary lymphatic organs
1. Lymph Nodes- Predominant lymphoid organs in the body. Found in clusters along lymphatic vessels (only ones in contact with lymphatic vessels) Often deep in connective tissue, but large clusters are located in the inguinal, axillary, and cervical regions. Many macrophages and lymphocytes. FUNCTION: Filter circulating lymph. Have more afferent vessels than efferent vessels which slows the flow of lymph through them to allow the leukocytes to carry out their functions. (afferent= into. efferent= out) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Spleen- largest lymphatic organ. Receives blood from the splenic artery and vein. FUNCTION: Provides a site for lymphocyte proliferation, immune surveillance and response, and blood cleansing. Removes aged and defective formed elements. Three other important FUNCTIONS: 1. Stores products from the breakdown of RBC for later use (ex. Iron) 2. Produces RBC in the developing fetus 3. Stores Platelets Two tissue types within the Spleen 1. White pulp- Mostly B Cells. Plasma cell development. Immune function of the spleen 2. Red Pulp- blood (RBC). Phagocytosis of old and worn out RBC and bloodborne pathogens. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3. Tonsils- Protective rings of lymphatic tissue around the entrance to digestive and respiratory tracts. Appear as swellings of the mucosa. These trap bacteria and foreign matter where most are destroyed. Early exposure helps develop immunity. Named for location: A. Palatine- found on both sides of the posterior oral cavity. Largest and most often infected. B. Lingual- cluster at the base of the tongue C. Pharyngeal (adenoids)- found on posterior wall of nasopharynx. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4. Aggregations of lymphatic nodules- Found in all mucus membranes and composed entirely of lymphocytes. Three types of arrangements: A. Peyer's Patches- large clusters of lymphatic nodules found ONLY in the walls of the of the small intestines. B. Appendix- nodules heavily concentrated in the junction between the small intestine and large intestine. C. Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT)- patches of lymphatic nodules in the walls of the digestive and respiratory tracts and small intestines.
Lymphatic Vessels
1. Lymphatic Capillaries- smallest in size and largest in number. Closed-ended with mini- valves, substances flow in and out. Found interwoven between tissue capillaries and tissue cells. Found in all tissue except bones, bone marrow, teeth and the CNS Lymph- fluid in lymphatic vessel. Lacteals- specialized lymphatic capillaries found in the intestinal mucosa within the villa. Chyle refers to the fatty lymph absorbed by the lacteals. 2. Lymphatic Collecting Vessels- Collect from the Lymphatic Capillaries and deliver it to the Lymphatic Trunks. They have the same structure as veins but thinner walled and more valves. Function as a conduit for lymph, nothing in or out. 3. Lymphatic Trunks- Formed by the union of the biggest collecting vessels. Responsible for draining large areas of the body. Named for the region of the body where they receive lymph from: Lumbar (2), Bronchomediastinal (2), Subclavian (2), Jugular (2), Intestinal (1) 4. Lymphatic Ducts- open up into things. Recevie lymph from the Lymphatic Trunks and deliver it to the bloodstream. a. Right Lymphatic Duct- receives lymph from right arm and right side of the head and thorax. Empties into the Right subclavian vein b. Thoracic Duct- larger of the 2 ducts. Receives lymph from all other locations. Empties into Left subclavian vein.
What do "Lymphocytes" form into?
1. T Cells (T Lymphocytes) which attack and destroy foreign cells 2. B Cells (B Lymphocytes) which protect the body against antigens. 3. Natural Killer Cells- which kill cells that have been bound by antibodies or cells that exhibit abnormal traits
List the 2 primary lymphatic organs and list their functions
1. Thymus- located between the aorta and sternum, site of T cell maturation (makes you more susceptible to infection 2. Red Bone Marrow- Site of leukocyte production (WBC)
Lymphatic Organs
1. Thymus- located between the aorta and sternum, site of T cell maturation (makes you more susceptible to infection. Primary 2. Red Bone Marrow- Site of leukocyte production (WBC). Primary 3. Lymph Nodes- Predominant lymphoid organs in the body. Found in clusters along lymphatic vessels (only ones in contact with lymphatic vessels) Often deep in connective tissue, but large clusters are located in the inguinal, axillary, and cervical regions. Many macrophages and lymphocytes. 4. Spleen- largest lymphatic organ. Receives blood from the splenic artery and vein. 5. Tonsils- Protective rings of lymphatic tissue around the entrance to digestive and respiratory tracts. Appear as swellings of the mucosa. These trap bacteria and foreign matter where most are destroyed. Early exposure helps develop immunity. 6. Aggregations of lymphatic nodules- Found in all mucus membranes and composed entirely of lymphocytes. Three types of arrangements A. Peyer's Patches- large clusters of lymphatic nodules found in the walls of the small intestine (only in small intestines) B. Appendix- nodules heavily concentrated in the junction between the small intestine and large intestine. C. Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT), patches of lymphatic nodules in the walls of the digestive and respiratory tracts and small intestines. The MALT consists of the Peyer's Patches, Appendix, Tonsils, and Lymphoid follicles in the walls of the bronchi and in the mucosa of genitourinary organs.
Overview of Cell-Mediated Immunity- T cells
1.An antigen penetrates body's nonspecific defenses. 2. The antigen is taken up by an antigen-presenting cell (APC, a special type of phagocyte) and is broken down. 3. The Antigen fragments (residual bodies) merge with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins on the APC's membrane. (they do this instead of exocytosis) a. MHC- a special protein imbedded in a cells membrane; allows for the recognition of self by the B and T cells. 4. Inactive T cells that have never fought an infection come into contact with the antigen-presenting cell (APC) and recognizes the altered MHC protein and become active. 5. Activated T cells divide and differentiate, they are programed to fight a specific antigen. a. Cytotoxic T cells (CD8 cells) do most of the work. Destroy the antigen. They rupture the antigens cell membrane/wall. They secrete a lymphotoxin into the antigen and alter the antigens DNS causing cell death. b. Memory T cells- allows us to skip the steps of learning how to fight the infection. They recognize the antigens directly to speed future responses. c. Suppressor T cells- Suppress the cytotoxic T cells when their job is complete. Thought to be the cause of autoimmune disease. d. Helper T cells (CD4 cells)- bridge the gap between T cells and B cells. These produce a interleukins. 1. IL-2, stimulates T cell proliferation and activate NK cells 2. IL-4, promotes T cell growth, switches antibody production of IgE, promotes B cell activation 3. IL-5, Attracts and activates eosinophils, causes plasma cells to secrete IgA antibodies
Blood Vessel Disorders: 1.Atherosclerosis 2.Aneurysm 3.Hypotension 4.Hypertension 5.Prehypertension 6.Stage 1 Hypertension 7.Stage 2 Hypertension
1.Atherosclerosis- plaque build up (fat and cholesterol) within the vessel. The plaque obstructs the vessel causing increased BP and a reduction in elasticity. 2. Aneurysm- ballooning of a blood vessel, which increases the risk of rupture (doesn't have to rupture, genetic) 3. Hypotension- low blood pressure, resting inadequate filtration. Systolic below 90 or diastolic below 60. 4. Hypertension- high blood pressure 5. Prehypertension- Systolic 120-139 or diastolic 80-89 6.Stage 1 Hypertension- Systolic 140-159 or diastolic 90-99, may not give patient medication 7.Stage 2 Hypertension- Systolic 160 and up or diastolic 100 and up
List the steps of phagocytosis in order. Describe each step.
1.Leukocytosis- Leukocytes (Neutrophils) enter blood stream from bone marrow. 2.Margination- Neutrophils cling to capillary wall. 3.Diapedisis- Neutrophils flatten and squeeze out of capillaries into infected tissue. Movement out of capillary into the infected tissue 4.Chemotaxis- Neutrophils follow chemical path toward bacteria/germ. 5.Adherence/Opsonization (when complement proteins or antibodies coat foreign particles)- Adhere to infection. Physical coming together of phagocyte and bacteria. 6.Ingestion-taking in the particles, phagocytosis. ** Results in the formation of a phagosome.(vesicle containing an infectious bacteria, ingested particles)** 7.Phagolysosome Formation- fusing of Phagosome and Lysosome. Phagolysosomes contain Lysozymes (destroy bacteria) and Digestive enzymes, that destroy proteins and fats fuses with phagosome. 8.Digestion- destruction of infectious particles. Leave Residual Bodies, left over infectious particles. Undigested component of the invader. 9.Exocytosis- of the vesicle removes indigestible and residual bodies. The process by which we get rid of the vesicle and residual body.
Control of Blood and Pressure- Short Term
3 mechanisms do these three thing 1. Alter cardiac output 2. Adjust total blood volume 3. Change vascular resistance- dilate, diameter increase and BP goes down. Constrict, increase resistance and increase BP Mechanisms 1. Autonomic NS-Short Term Receive input from 1. Baroreceptors, monitor BP 2. Chemoreceptors, Monitor O2, CO2, H+. If CO2 or H+ high we need to increase blood flow. Sends output to 1. Sympathetic fibers a. Cardiac accelerator nerves, increase in SV, CO, and BP. Responds to low BP. Innervates the conduction system and ventricular myocardium. b. Vasomotor Nerves, cause both excitatory and inhibitory responses in the tunica media of select vessels. Causes vasodilation of the blood vessels supplying the heart and skeletal muscle. This will increase blood flow to these areas, Because there is a limited numbers, does not cause a drop in systemic blood pressure. 2. Parasympathetic fibers- responds to high blood pressure, making BP and HR to go down. No effect on SV. Increases the AV node delay, longer delay decreases HR. Decreases the SA node, HR goes down. a. Vagus nerves innervate the conduction system. They DO NOT innervate any blood vessels. Vasomotor Reflexes 1. Baroreflex- blood pressure reflex. Triggered by increased stretch (BP), high BP. Inhibits sympathetic output and stimulates the Vagus nerve (parasympathetic) 2. Chemoreflex- triggered by hypoxia (low O2), acidosis (low pH), hypercapnia (high CO2). HR goes up and we need blood flow to increase. Stimulates sympathetic output. 3. Medullary ischemic reflex- Triggered by hypoxia or hypercapnia at the brainstem. Stimulates the vasomotor center (sympathetic), we need to increase blood flow to the brain. Causes vasoconstriction of vessels in lower parts of the body
Identify three types of tonsils and name their locations.
3. Tonsils- Protective rings of lymphatic tissue around the entrance to digestive and respiratory tracts. Appear as swellings of the mucosa. These trap bacteria and foreign matter where most are destroyed. Early exposure helps develop immunity. Named for location: A. Palatine- found on both sides of the posterior oral cavity. Largest and most often infected. B. Lingual- cluster at the base of the tongue C. Pharyngeal (adenoids)- found on posterior wall of nasopharynx.
About how much Lymph does the Lymphatic System drains and clean each day?
About three liters per day.
What is the function of the T Cell?
Activated T Cells (which matured in the Thymus) manage the immune response, and some of them directly attack and destroy infected cells.
Where is Aldosterone released?
Adrenal Cortex
What is one difference between blood capillaries and lymphatic capillaries?
Although similar to blood capillaries, lymphatic capillaries are so remarkably permeable that they were once thought to be open at one end like a straw.
What does Renin convert Angiotensen into?
Angiotensin 1
What is an "Antigen?"
Antigens are anything the body perceives as foreign, such as bacteria and their toxins, viruses, mismatched RBS's, or cancer cells.
What is the functionof the B Cell?
B Cells protect the body by producing plasma cells, daughter cells that secrete antibodies into the blood (or other body fluids).
What kind of receptors are found on the carotid and aortic arch?
Baroreceptors ( monitor pressure) Chemoreceptors (monitor O2 and CO2)
Innate Defenses (Nonspecific Defenses)
Born with these. 1st line of defense is the external body membrane, intact skin and mucosae. Inherited defenses. Attempts to stop all foreign invaders in the same way. Called innate because they try to stop all virus the same way. They are not antigen specific. Categories 1. Mechanical Protection a. Epidermis- Primarily the Keratin. Almost impenetrable if not broken. Only takes a microscopic break to let bacteria in. b. Mucus- Traps things. Just the sticky part. Traps microorganisms in the respiratory and digestive tract. Always moving c. Cilia/Hair- Works with Mucus to trap and move things out. Propel debris-laden mucus away from nasal cavity and lower respiratory passages. d. Lacrimal Apparatus- Tear ducts. Wash and flush eyes. Contains Lysozyme, an enzyme that destroys microorganisms. Tears always producing and moving. e. Saliva- Contains Lysozyme, an enzyme that destroys microorganisms. Mostly water. f. Urination & defecation- Limits out exposure to bacteria. Urination helps keep bacteria out of eurythrea. Anything that limits urination, especially in women, can cause a urinary tract infection. STD's risk increase in urination is lowered. g. Vomiting & diarrhea- voids digestive tract of bacteria. 2. Chemical Protection a. Lysozymes- enzyme that destroy all bacteria the same way, found in perspiration, lacrimal fluid, sebum, and saliva. Antibacterial. b. Gastric Juice, vaginal secretions, urine, bile, and pancreatic juice- they all alter the pH of their environment. 3. Interferons- Work by inhibiting viral replication in cells. Released from cells that are already Virus-infected cells. Only target viruses. Lymphocytes and macrophages- produce interferons. Hepatitis C and B are treated with Interferons. 4. Natural Killer Cells (NK Cell)- non specific. Are not phagocytic. Present in spleen, lymph nodes, red bone marrow, and blood. Attack foreign cells, virus-infected cells and cancer cells in healthy tissue. Attack any cell not human or cells not behaving properly. Like a cell that doesn't die when it is suppose to.
What 2 determinants of blood pressure are modified for short term blood pressure control?
Cardiac Output and diameter of vessels
Overview of Antibody-Mediated Immunity- B Cells
Cell mediated response has already occurred. 1. Helper T cells activate inactive B cells. a. Stimulates B cell division and differentiation. Memory B Cells- recognize antigen in the future and speed up 2nd response. Plasma Cells- produce antibodies. Specific for the antigen they are activated for. 2. Antibody merges with antigen= antigen-antibody complex. This causes destruction of the antigen a. Neutralization- binds to toxins or virus (outside cell) rendering them useless. We build up antigens to the toxins. b. Immobilization, binds to cilia or flagella slowing antigen movement. Holds it in place so the T and B cells can kill it. c. Attraction of phagocytes- antibodies can attract phagocytes. d. Facilitating phagocytes- they aid in the adherence e. Stimulating inflammation- histamines relased f. Inhibiting antigen metabolism-
2 Types of adaptive immunity (also called immunity)
Cell-mediated immunity- think T Cells Antibody-mediated (humoral) immune response- think B Cells
Antibody Structure
Consist of 4 polypeptide chains 1. 2 identical chains- 450 amino acids in length known as heavy chains. 2. 2 identical chains- 220 amino acids in length known as light chains Know the lengths. H chains has 5 variations and 5 classes of antibodies 1. IgA- found in blood plasma, breast milk, and mucus membranes, saliva, sweat. They prevent pathogens from adhering to epithelia and penetrating tissue. 2. IgD- integral part of B cell membrane. Acts as an antigen presenter 3. IgE- found mainly in tonsils, skin, mucus membranes. Stimulates mast cells and basophils to release contents and attracts eosinophils 4. IgG-75-85% of circulating antibodies in plasma. Dictates long term immunity. Crosses the placenta to confer temporary immunity to the fetus. Protects against viruses, bacteria, toxins, cold sores.2nd responder 5. IgM- found on the B cell membrane and circulating in plasma. Presence indicates recent or current infection. 1st responder
Vascular Resistance
Created by friction between blood and walls of vessels Dependent on 1. Blood Viscosity (thickness)- The thicker the blood the more resistance. a. Ratio of RBC to plasma, more RBC thicker blood, less RBC thinner blood. b. Dehydration increases- causes a decrease in resistance, an increase in viscosity, a decrease in blood flow Dehydration decreases- causes an increase in resistance, a decrease in viscosity, an increase in blood flow 3. Anemia decreases blood flow, causes a decrease in resistance, an increase in viscosity, decrease in blood flow 4. Total blood vessel length- longer the vessel the more resistance. Increase in resistance, decrease in blood flow. 5. Blood vessel diameter- controlled by the sympathetic nervous system through vasoconstriction and vasodilation. a. decrease in diameter, increase in resistance, decrease in blood flow. b. increase in diameter, decrease in resistance, increase in blood flow
Blood Pressure- Pressure of the blood on the walls of the vessel
Decreases as you move away from the heart. 1. Systolic Pressure- 100-120. Pressure of the blood on the walls of the vessel during ventricular contraction. 2. Diastolic Pressure- 70-80. Pressure of the blood on the walls during rest. Pulse pressure- Pulse P= systolic P - diastolic P If the BP is 120/90 Pulse P= 120-90 Pulse P= 30
_____ is a parasitic infection of the lymph nodes.
Elephantiasis- parasitic infection of the lymph nodes causing them to become clogged. Improper drainage of lymph results in massive edema, especially of lower regions of the body (feet)
Disorders of the Lymphatic System: Elephantiasis, Tonsillitis, Appendicitis, Lymphoma- Hodgkin's Disease and Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma
Elephantiasis- parasitic infection of the lymph nodes causing them to become clogged. Improper drainage of lymph results in massive edema, especially of lower regions of the body (feet) Tonsillitis- Inflammation of the tonsils usually caused by a bacterial infection Appendicitis- Inflammation of the appendix usually caused by a bacterial infection Lymphoma- any tumor (benign or malignant) of lymphoid tissue Hodgkin's disease- a malignancy of the lymph nodes Non-Hodgkin's disease- all cancers of the lymphoid tissue except Hodgkin's disease
Lymphatic capillaries are found in the vicinity of what blood vessel?
Found interwoven between tissue capillaries and tissue cells. Within the tissue of capillary beds.
Where is Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) released?
From the ventricles of the heart in response to an increase in blood volume.
Functions of the Lymphatic System
Functions of the Lymphatic System Defense (WBC) Transportation of various substances back to the cardiovascular system (lipids, lipid-soluble vitamins A,E,D,K and leaked proteins. Draining of excess interstitial fluid, returns it to the bloodstream to assure adequate volume
List the 5 types of antibodies. Where are they located
H chains has 5 variations and 5 classes of antibodies 1. IgA- found in blood plasma, breast milk, and mucus membranes, saliva, sweat. They prevent pathogens from adhering to epithelia and penetrating tissue. 2. IgD- integral part of B cell membrane. Acts as an antigen presenter 3. IgE- found mainly in tonsils, skin, mucus membranes. Stimulates mast cells and basophils to release contents and attracts eosinophils 4. IgG-75-85% of circulating antibodies in plasma. Dictates long term immunity. Crosses the placenta to confer temporary immunity to the fetus. Protects against viruses, bacteria, toxins, cold sores.2nd responder 5. IgM- found on the B cell membrane and circulating in plasma. Presence indicates recent or current infection. 1st responder
List the chemicals that enhance inflammation. Where they come from and what they do.
Histamine- release from many blood cells. Function to increase vasodilation and permeability Kinins- formed in blood in response to tissue damage, Function- as a chemoattractant to attract phagocytes WBC. Also increase vasodilation and permeability Prostaglandins- released from damaged cells, intensify the effects of histamines and kinins, may promote Diapedisis (passage of WBC through intact vessel walls into tissue). Also increase vasodilation and permeability Leukotrienes- released by basophils and mast cells. Promote adherence and increase vasodilation and permeability
Control of Blood and Pressure- Long Term
Hormonal Control- Long Term 1. Renin-Angiotensin System, increases blood volume, BP increases, responds to dehydration. Decrease in BV is usually because of dehydration. Renin- a chemical that is released from the Kidney in response to decreased blood volume. Controls blood volume and water volume. If BP is low the kidneys release more water. Converts Angiotensinogen (plasma protein) to Angiotensin 1 Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE)- Found primarily in the Lungs. Conversion of Angiotensin 1 to Angiotensin 2 takes place in the lungs. Angiotensin 2- systemic vasoconstrictor or arterioles. BP goes up but does not affect BV. Causes Aldosterone release from adrenal cortex. This increases sodium and water reabsorption by the kidneys (retain water to raise BP and BV) 2. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)- decreases blood volume. It is released from the ventricles of the heart in response to an increase in BV. Decreases sodium and water reabsorption by the kidneys and inhibits release of aldosterone. BV down BP down.
What are the 3 regions where large clusters of Lymph Nodes occur (near the surface of the body)?
In the Inguinal, Axillary, and Cervical Regions.
Where is the Appendix?
In the junction between the small intestine and the large intestine.
Where does Angiotensin 1 convert to Angiotensin 2?
In the lungs
How does Angiotensin II work?
Increases retention of water by the kidneys, which increases blood volume and blood pressure. Increases sodium and water reabsorption by the kidneys. Systemic vasoconstrictor, arterioles, BP goes up but does not affect BV. Causes aldosterone release from adrenal cortex.
The Lacteals play a major role in absorbing digested fats from the intestine. What color is the "Fatty Lymph" and what is it called?
It's white versus clear. It's called Chyle.
Where is Renin released?
Kidneys
What are the steps of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway?
Kidneys secrete renin. Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin 1. Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) converts angiotensin 1 to angiotensis 2 at the lungs. Angiotensin 2 directs the adrenal glands to secrete aldosterone.
Which organs are involved in the long term control of blood pressure?
Kidneys, adrenal glands, lungs, heart, brain (control center)
Indentify the names of the Lymphatic Trunks and how many of each
Lumbar (2) Bronchomediastinal (2) Subclavian (2) Jugular (2) Intestinal (1)
What makes up the Lymphoid Organs?
Lymph Nodes, Spleen, Thymus, Tonsils, and other lymphoid Tissues scattered throughout the body.
List the lymphatic vessels in order from smallest to largest
Lymphatic Capillaries, Lymphatic Collecting Vessels, Lymphatic Trunks, Lymphatic Ducts
The Spleen provides a site for what?
Lymphocyte proliferation and immune surveillance and response, and blood cleansing
List the 5 types of Lymphoid Cells
Lymphocytes- warriors of the immune system arise in the bone marrow and mature into 1-3 types 1. T Lymphocytes- attack and destroy foreign cells 2. B Lymphocytes- become plasma cells that release antibodies 3. Natural Killer Cells- kill cells that have been bound by antibodies or cells that exhibit abnormal traits 4. Macrophages- engulf and destroy foreign cells 5. Reticular Cells- similar to fibroblasts, produce reticular fibers that supports other cell types
_____ is a cancer of lymphatic tissue.
Lymphoma- any tumor (benign or malignant) of lymphoid tissue Hodgkin's disease- a malignancy of the lymph nodes Non-Hodgkin's disease- all cancers of the lymphoid tissue except Hodgkin's disease
Define Lysosome, Phagosome, and Phagolysosome
Lysosome- Vesicle containing Lysozymes and Digestive enzymes Phagosome- Vesicle containing an infectious agent/bacteria, ingested particles. . Phagolysosome- a vesicle containing Lysozymes (destroy bacteria) and Digestive enzymes, that destroy proteins and fats fuses with phagosome.
What are lysozymes? Where would you expect to find them?
Lysozymes- enzyme that destroy all bacteria the same way, found in perspiration, lacrimal fluid, sebum, and saliva. Antibacterial.
Mean arterial blood pressure (MABP)
MABP- is the average BP, 93. MABP= diastolic P + (pulse pressure/3) BP= 120/90 MABP= 90 + (30/3) MABP= 90 + 10 MABP= 100 Depentdent on total blood volume 1. A small decrease of less than 10% in Blood volume shows no significant change in MABP 2. A large decrease of more than 10% in blood volume would make BP drop. 3. Any increase in blood volume causes MABP is increase
What role do Macrophages play in the Lymph Nodes?
Macrophages in the nodes remove and destroy microogranisms and other debris that enter the lymph from the loose connective tissues, effectively preventing them from being delivered to the blood and spreading to other parts of the body.
Lymphoid (Lymphatic) Tissue is an important component of the immune system. Why?
Mainly because it (1) houses and provides a proliferation site for lymphocytes and (2) furnishes an ideal surveillance vantage point ofr lymphocytes and macrophages.
When B-cells differentiate during the antibody-mediated response, what 2 types of cells do they become and what is the function of each of those cells.
Memory Cells- recognize antigen in the future and speed up 2nd response Plasma Cells- produce antibody specific for the antigen they are activated for.
What is "MALT?"
Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT) protects passages that are open to the exterior from the never-ending onlaughts of foreign matter entering them. Ex: in the walls of bonchi and in the mucosa of genitourinary (reproductive) organs.
Adaptive Immunity- Specific Defense
Must meet or be primed by an initial exposure to a specific foreign substance (antigen). An antigen is any substance that initiates an immune response Antigen-specific- It recognizes and is directed against particular pathogens or foreign substances that initiate the immune response It is systemic- response and is localized. Immunity is not restricted to the initial infection site. It has memory- After an initial exposure, it recognizes and mounts even stronger attacks on the previously encountered pathogens. 2 types of Adaptive Immunity 1. Cell-mediated immune response 2 Antibody-mediated (humoral) immune response
List the phagocytic cells of the immune system
Neutrophils Wandering Macrophages- go where needed Fixed Macrophages- lymph nodes, spleen, malt. Sit and wait.
Venous Return
No vasoconstriction or vasodilation. Requires a pressure difference to work. Heart normally creates enough pressure to keep blood moving, when you are at rest. When you are moving it is aided by: 1. Skeletal muscle pump- squishes venules and veins 2. Respiratory pump- When you inhale your abdominal cavity contracts and compresses the Inferior Vena Cava.
What is the appendix and where is it located?
Nodules heavily concentrated in the junction between the small intestine and large intestine. Ideal location to destroy bacteria (which are present in large numbers in the intestine) before these pathogens can breach the intestinal wall and to generate many "memory" lymphocytes for long-term immunity
Complement System
Non specific. Enhances the effectiveness of innate and adaptive defenses. A group of at least 20 plasma proteins that circulate in the blood in an inactive state. Once activated some increase the inflammatory response while others destroy bacteria directly.
If blood pressure is too high, what ANS branch is activated and what adjustments are made?
Parasympathetic branch is increased, decreasing heart rate and contractility and dilating blood vessels.
What lymphatic organs are located in the digestive tract:
Peyer's Patches, Tonsils, Appendix
Describe Peyer's Patches and MALT. Include location in description
Peyer's Patches- large clusters of lymphatic nodules found ONLY in the walls of the of the small intestines. Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT)- patches of lymphatic nodules in the walls of the digestive and respiratory tracts and small intestines. Lymphoid follicles in the walls of the bronchi and in the mucosa of genitourinary organs. MALT protects passages that are open to the exterior from the never-ending onslaughts of foreign matter entering them. Digestive tract, urinary tract, reproductive tract, respiratory tract.
Which Lymphoid Organs are located in the digestive tract?
Peyer's patches, the appendix, and the tonsils.
What do Lymphoid Organs house?
Phagocytic cells and lymphocytes, which play essential roles in the body's defense mechanisms and its resistance to disease.
What are the possible functions of fever?
Promotes sequestration of iron and zinc in liver and spleen
Where do "Lymphocytes" form from?
Red bone marrow
Identify the lymphatic ducts and the blood vessels they empty into
Right Lymphatic Duct- Receives lymph from right arm, right side of head, thorax. Empties into Right Subclavian Vein. Drains lymph from the right arm and right side of upper body. Thoracic Duct- Receives lymph from all other locations. Empties into Left Subclavian Vein
What other affects does angiotensin 2 have?
Signals arteries to constrict increasing blood pressure and signals hypothalamus to tell the brain it is thirsty and to increase fluid intake.
How does aldosterone work?
Signals the kidneys to add sodium channels. Forces reabsorption of salt which drags water back into the blood stream, increasing blood volume.
Lymphatic Transport
Slow and sporadic Driven by the same skeletal muscle and respiratory pumps that help venous return. Smooth muscle within the lymphatic trunks and the thoracic duct also help pump lymph Accounts for about 3L/day (equal the loss from the capillaries)
What is a lacteal?
Specialized lymphatic capillaries found in the intestinal mucosa within the villi
If blood pressure is too low, what ANS branch is activated and what adjustments are made?
Sympathetic branch is increased, cardiac output is changed by increasing heart rate and contractility and peripheral resistance is changed by contracting blood vessels.
How does sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems affect blood vessels?
Sympathetic: increase heart rate, cardiac contractility, and vasoconstriction. Parasympathetic: decreases heart rate, dialates vessels. Both alter peripheral resistance.
Fever- defense mechanism
Systemic reponse to invading microorganisms. Caused by pyrogens (create or generate heat)- secreted by leukocytes and macrophages exposed to foreign substances in the body. Pyrogens are most often released from WBC as well as some bacteria. Promotes sequestration of iron and zinc. May aid interferon, inhibit microbe growth and speed reaction time of defense cells.
What two body systems does the Lymphatic System support?
The Cardiovascular and Immune System.
What is "Lymph?"
The Interstitial fluid that is collected by the Lymphatic Vessels. Once fluid enters the lymphatics it's called "Lymph."
Which of the "trunks" is a single trunk?
The Intestinal Trunk
What cleans the Lymph?
The Lymph Nodes as the Lymph passes through them.
Lymphatic Capillaries pick up pathogens, which are disease-causing microorganisms, and travel throughout the body. How is this threat to the body "Partly" resolved?
The Lymph takes "detours" through the lymph nodes, where it is cleansed of debris and "examined" by cells of the immune system.
Which is the first Lymphoid Organ to develop in an embryo?
The Thymus.
What is the difference between primary and secondary hypertension?
The cause of primary hypertension in unknown.
How is Lymph "pumped" through the Lymphatic System?
The milking action of active skeleta muscles, pressure changes in the thorax during breathing, and valves to prevent backflow. Pulsation of nearby arteries alsopromote pymph flow. In addition to these mechanisms, smooth muscle in the walls of the lymphatic trunks and thoracic duct contracts rhythmically helping to pump the lymph along.
Total Peripheral Resistance
The total resistance of all systemic blood vessels combined. Adjusted by altering arteriole diameter- controlled by the vasomotor center. Determines localized blood pressure and flow to particular tissues and systemic BP. Systemic BP controlled by Cardiac Output.
Where are Lymphatic Capillaries found?
These capillaries weave between the tissue cells and blood capillaries in the loose connective tissues of the body.
Describe the Lymphatic "Trunks."
They are formed by the union of the largest collecting vessels, and drain fairly large areas of the body. Often named for the region of the body where they receive lymph from: Lumbar (2), Bronchomediastinal (2), Subclavian (2), Jugular (2), Intestinal (1)
What are "Lacteals?"
They are highly specialized lymphatic capillaries present in the fingerlike villi of the intestinal mucosa. Chyle is the fatty lymph absorbed by the Lacteals.
What is the main function of the Lymphatic Vessels?
This system "sucks" in all the fluid(s) left behind in the tissue spaces (Interstitial Fluid) plus any plasma proteins that escapre from the bloodstream and carry it back to the blood to ensure that the cardiovascular system has sufficient blood volume to operate properly.
Why is it a good idea to immobilize a badly infected body part?
To hinder flow of inflammatory material from that region to other areas of the body.
Once Lymph is cleaned (filtered) where does it go? How?
To the circulatory system. Through the junctions of the internal jugular veins and subclavian veins on its own side of the body.
______ and ______ are caused by a bacterial infection.
Tonsillitis- Inflammation of the tonsils usually caused by a bacterial infection Appendicitis- Inflammation of the appendix usually caused by a bacterial infection
Blow Flow- Volume of blood that flows thru any tissue
Total blood flow- cardiac output Distribution of blood throughout the body is dependent on: 1. A pressure difference at the tissues (localized blood pressure) 2. Vascular Resistance- changes a lot through vasoconstriction and vasodialation. Blood flows high to low pressure.
Are the following vasoconstrictors or vasodilators Endothelin?
Vasoconstrictor
Are the following vasoconstrictors or vasodilators Nitric Oxide, Histamine, and alcohol?
Vasodilators
What is Chyle?
the fatty lymph absorbed by the lacteals
