advanced social psychology exam 2

outgroup

"Them"—a group that people perceive as distinctively different from or apart from their ingroup.

ingroup

"Us"—a group of people who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity

Konrad Lorenz, for example, has argued that aggression is ______________________."

"an essential part of the life-preserving organization of instincts

In a study conducted by Cunningham (1986) college men were asked to rate fifty female yearbook photos for attractiveness. He found that high attractiveness was

"associated with faces with large eyes, a small nose, a small chin, prominent cheekbones and narrow cheeks, high eyebrows, large pupils, and a big smile."

romantic couples, close friendships, and family relationships are governed by a _____________________

"communal norm."

Clark notes, there are two types of relationships, those based on

"communal" norms and those based on "exchange" norms.

sensationalized news coverage of homicides and suicides almost always create __________________

"copy cats."

Freud speculated that human aggression springs from a self-destructive impulse. It redirects toward others the energy of a primitive death urge (the_______________).

"death instinct"

self-evaluation maintenance theory

"dissimilarity in relevant performance dimensions" can lead to greater attraction in some cases. We can get a self-esteem lift by "basking in the other person's glory" as we become closer to that person. It is part of the social comparison process. So, if that person is successful in his or her profession and that person's profession is different from our own, then our self-esteem benefits from our connection to that person and hence we become more attracted to that person. However, according to this same theory, if you are a brilliant neurosurgeon you should probably not marry another brilliant neurosurgeon. Your self-esteem may suffer if your spouse's accomplishments eclipse your own in your area of expertise. That's why movie stars often have a hard time making their relationships work. As one moves up the strata to a higher level, say to the A list, and the other stays on the B list, then the one who is on the B list feels a greater self-esteem loss through his or her association with the A list movie star which diminishes his or her attraction to that A list star. This explains how the "birds of a feather" principle may not apply in all cases.

Cunningham, Barbee, and Pike (1995) used a similar procedure to determine the male features that females considered attractive. The highest attractiveness ratings of males were associated with

"faces with large eyes, prominent cheekbones, a large chin, and a big smile."

bogus pipeline studies, subjects are "hooked up" to an impressive machine and told that it reveals truth telling. Of course the machine is not able to do this but subjects believe it can. When hooked up to these machines, on the average, subjects will admit to subtle racist or sexist attitudes. This form of subtle prejudice has been referred to as _________________________

"modern racism" or "modern sexism."

Negotiation researchers report that most disputants are made stubborn by

"optimistic overconfidence"

Morton Deutsch (1993) captured the spirit of GRIT in advising negotiators to be " _____________': firm in resisting intimidation, exploitation, and dirty tricks; fair in holding to one's moral principles and not reciprocating the other's immoral behavior despite his or her provocations; and friendly in the sense that one is willing to initiate and reciprocate cooperation."

'firm, fair, and friendly

Sexism

( 1) An individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sex, or (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given sex.

Stereotypes assume a correlation between group membership and individuals' presumed characteristics

("Italians are emotional," "Jews are shrewd," "Accountants are perfectionists").

hostile sexism

("Once a man commits, she puts him on a tight leash").

benevolent sexism

("Women have a superior moral sensibility")

racism

(1) An individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race, or (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given race

The use of religion to support injustice helps explain a consistent pair of findings concerning North American Christianity

(1) White church members express more racial prejudice than nonmembers, and (2) those professing fundamentalist beliefs express more prejudice than those professing more progressive beliefs

five basic causes of prejudice:

(1) economic and political competition or conflict, (2) displaced aggression, (3) maintenance of status or self-image, (4) dispositional prejudice, and (5) conformity to existing social norms.

When I ask my friends why they like some of their acquaintances better than others, I get a wide variety of responses. The most typical responses are that peo- ple like most

(1) those whose beliefs and interests are similar to their own; (2) those who have some skills, abilities, or competencies; (3) those with some pleasant or admirable qualities, such as loyalty, reasonableness, honesty, and kindness; and (4) those who like them in return.

When a self-described homosexual person murders or sexually abuses someone, homosexuality is often mentioned. When a heterosexual does the same, the person's sexual orientation is seldom mentioned. Such reporting adds to the illusion of a large correlation between

(1) violent tendencies and (2) homosexuality.

conflict

(a perceived incompatibility of actions or goals)

Social psychologists have a bias toward laboratory research since it is easier to establish causal linkage_________________with this method of research than with other methods

(high internal validity)

the problem with most laboratory research in social psychology is its lack of generalizability to the real world _________________

(low external validity)

The passion-facilitating hormones

(testosterone, dopamine, adrenaline)

Robbers Cave Studies

, 12 year-old boys were randomly assigned to a group called the Rattlers or a group called the Eagles. The two groups engaged in a number of group competitions against each other. Soon, the groups became hostile toward each other. The hostility escalated to the point where they had food fights and in one case a group stole the other's flag and burned it. The researchers became alarmed and brought the two groups together so that they would have less non-competitive contact. However, the groups maintained their hostility. The group "contact" theory of overcoming prejudice did not work. Only later when they brought the two groups together and had them work on "superordinate goals" together did they begin to overcome the intergroup prejudice. For example, the researchers had members from both groups get together to push a broken down vehicle so that it could be fixed to drive in to town to get food and other provisions. The two groups had more positive feelings toward each other after working on this superordinate goal.

Interestingly enough, there seems to be a high level of agreement on attractive faces across cultures. Meta-analytic studies have found wide agreement with correlations of participants from different cultures ranging from __________________

.66 to . 93.

In a survey of children across 35 countries, more than ____out of 10 reported being bullied at school

1

In laboratory games, those who are____________ percent cooperative often are exploited. Politically, a one-sided pacifism is usually out of the question

100

During the past century, some 250 wars killed _________________ people, enough to populate a "nation of the dead" with more than the combined population of France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden.

110 million

Although violent crime declined since the 1990s, ____________________people were murdered in the United States in 2009; 88,097 were forcibly raped; and an incredible 806,843—nearly a million—were shot, stabbed, or assaulted with another weapon

15,241

The _____ Supreme Court decision was the beginning of a gradual change in the frequency of equal-status contact.

1954

My students and I invented the jigsaw technique in ______

1971

friendships and romantic relationships that form on the Internet are more likely than in-person relationships to last for at least ___ years, report Katelyn McKenna and John Bargh and their colleagues

2

In a U.S. national survey, ___ percent of gay, lesbian, and bisexual persons reported having experienced a personal or property crime owing to their sexual orientation, and half reported experiencing verbal harassment

20

Diet affects on aggression

231 inmates signed on to receive nutritional supplements or a placebo. Prisoners who got the extra nutrition were involved in 35 percent fewer violent incidents

Among church members, faithful church attenders were, in ____________ out of 26 comparisons, less prejudiced than occasional attenders

24

A Stanford University survey found that _____________ percent of more than 4,000 adults surveyed reported that their time online had reduced time spent in person and on the phone with family and friends

25

One sampling of 10,000 tape recordings of half-minute slices of students' waking hours (using belt-worn recorders) found them talking to someone_______________ percent of the time—and that doesn't count the time they spent listening to someone

28

Infants as young as ____months exhibit an own-race preference: If surrounded by others of their race, they prefer to gaze at faces of their own familiar race

3

although most abused children do not become criminals or abusive parents, _________________ percent do later abuse their own children—four times the general population rate

30

In a study examining 12.5 million residents of Sweden, those with a genetic sibling convicted of a violent crime were __ times as likely to be convicted themselves

4

In the United States, in 1941, 38 percent of expectant parents said they preferred a boy if they could have only one child; 24 percent preferred a girl; and 23 percent said they had no preference. In 2011, the answers were virtually unchanged, with _____ percent still preferring a boy

40

In the United States, 9 in 10 college-bound high school seniors use social networking sites, with most visiting once or more a day (The College Board, 2011). Half of teens send _______________ or more texts daily (Lenhart, 2010). Our need to belong motivates our investment in being continuously connected.

50

street policing that produces more arrests has produced encouraging results, such as a _________________percent drop in gun-related crimes in some cities.

50

According to national surveys during the past 30 years, more than _____________ percent of all rapes or attempted rapes do not involve assaults by a stranger but rather are so-called date rapes in which the victim is acquainted with the assailant. W

60

According to a recent study, _________percent of all TV programs contain violence—and, of those, 78 percent are without remorse, criticism, or penalty for that violence.73 Indeed, some 40 percent of the violent incidents seen on TV were initiated by characters portrayed as heroes or other attractive role models for children.

61

crime statistics reveal that ____percent of individuals arrested for murder, assault, and other crimes of violence were legally drunk at the time of their arrests

75

In one pair of surveys, "keeping romance alive" was rated as important to a good marriage by _________ percent of American women and 29 percent of Japanese women

78

Most cultures—_____________ percent in one analysis of 166 cultures—do have a concept of romantic love, as refl ected in fl irtation or couples running off together

89

Those who were most similar in physical attractiveness were most likely, __________ months later, to have fallen more deeply in love.

9

"Accuracy dominates bias," notes Lee Jussim (2012). "The social perception glass (of people judging others) is about _____________ percent full."

90

women worry more about their appearance and constitute ___________ percent of American cosmetic surgery patients

92

In _________ percent of studies, increased contact predicted decreased prejudice. This is especially so for majority group attitudes toward minorities

94%

One of our closest relatives in the animal kingdom is the chimpanzee, with whom we share _____ percent of our DNA.

98

Stereotype

A belief about the personal attributes of a group of people. Stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information (and sometimes accurate).

equity

A condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it. Note: Equitable outcomes needn't always be equal outcomes

tereotype threat

A disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Unlike self-fulfilling prophecies that hammer one's reputation into one's self-concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects.

examples of illusory correlation include:

A man holds the belief that people in urban environments tend to be rude.

need to belong

A motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions.

conflict

A perceived incompatibility of actions or goals

authoritarian personality

A personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of outgroups and those lower in status.

Prejudice

A preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individual members

self-awareness

A self-conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself. It makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispositions.

superordinate goal

A shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people's differences from one another

social trap

A situation in which the confl icting parties, by each rationally pursuing its self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. Examples include the Prisoner's Dilemma and the Tragedy of the Commons

passionate love

A state of intense longing for union with another. Passionate lovers are absorbed in each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner's love, and are disconsolate on losing it

subgrouping

Accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by forming a new stereotype about this subset of the group

subtyping

Accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by thinking of them as "exceptions to the rule.

urban-overload hypothesis ( Milgram)

According to this line of thinking, the more crowded the environment, the more stimulus overload. People who live in urban environments try to manage their stimulus overload by avoiding arousal producing situations. Therefore, they are less likely to stop and help (which would presumably stimulate them further) when they see an accident than people who live in rural environments

Empathy-Altruism model of helping (Daniel Batson)

According to this model, feelings of empathy (vicariously experiencing another's emotions) for the victim motivate us to help for altruistic reasons

instrumental aggression

Aggression that aims to injure, but only as a means to some other end

Mediation

An attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions

social-responsibility norm

An expectation that people will help those needing help

reciprocity norm

An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

________________as well as prejudice helps explain why participants in interracial relationships (when students are paired as roommates or as partners in an experiment) may engage in less intimate self-disclosure than those in same-race relationships

Anxiety

The concept of catharsis is usually credited to _________________.

Aristotle

Compared with North Americans, ______________tend to focus less on personal feelings and more on the practical aspects of social attachments

Asians

women from ___________________ showed greater evidence of physical aggressiveness than did men from Sweden and Korea.

Australia and New Zealand

ethnocentric

Believing in the superiority of one's own ethnic and cultural group, and having a corresponding disdain for all other groups.

____________sexists tend to idealize women romantically, may admire them as wonderful cooks and mothers and want to protect them when they do not need protection.

Benevolent

justification of cruelty

Briefly, I pointed out that, if individuals cause harm to a person, they will attempt to justify their behavior by derogating the victim. If I do someone a favor, I will try to justify this action by convincing myself that the recipient of this favor is an attractive, likable, deserving person. In effect, I will say to myself, "Why in the world did I go to all of this effort (or spend all of this money, or whatever) for Sam? Because Sam is a wonderful person, that's why!"

_______________ often helps reduce self-fulfilling misperceptions

Communication

equal-status contact

Contact on an equal basis. Just as a relationship between people of unequal status breeds attitudes consistent with their relationship, so do relationships between those of equal status. Thus, to reduce prejudice, interracial contact should ideally be between persons equal in status

______________________ may lead to more helping in some situations and less helping in others. If a sad person is able to feel better by helping, that person may be more inclined to help. Under other circumstances, sadness may lead to less helping.

Depression or sadness

______________ suggests, those who have an automatic activation of stereotypes and suppress them and those who have an automatic activation of stereotypes and do not suppress them. However, they add a third category of those who do not have an automatic activation of stereotypes

Devine

Children learn the stereotype quite early— and one of the ways they learn it is through stories told to them by adults. "___________________________,"

Disney movies promote the stereotype that what is beautiful is good

Many of Batson's studies (Empathy-Altruism model of helping ) used the "_____________

Elaine paradigm

catharsis

Emotional release. The catharsis view of aggression is that aggressive drive is reduced when one "releases" aggressive energy, either by acting aggressively or by fantasizing aggression

___________________ love is high in commitment and low in intimacy and passion

Empty

Sigmund Freud, who theorized that human beings are born with an instinct toward life, which he called ____________, and an equally powerful death instinct,____________, an instinctual drive toward death, leading to aggressive actions.

Eros, Thanatos

example of Propinquity Effect

Festinger, Schachter, and Back (1950) demonstrated this common sense effect early by tracking friendship patterns in a graduate student housing complex. As was predicted, the majority of the friendships developed between students who lived in the same building even though other resident buildings were close by

example of social identity

Fiona identifies herself as a woman, an Aussie, a Labourite, a University of New South Wales student, a MacDonald family member.

he Prisoner's Dilemma and the Tragedy of the Commons games have several similar features.

First, both games tempt people to explain their own behavior situationally ("I had to protect myself against exploitation by my opponent") and to explain their partners' behavior dispositionally ("she was greedy," "he was untrustworthy"). Most never realize that their counterparts are viewing them with the same fundamental attribution error Second, motives often change. At first, people are eager to make some easy money, then to minimize their losses, and finally to save face and avoid defeat Third, most real-life conflicts, like the Prisoner's Dilemma and the Tragedy of the Commons, are non-zero-sum games.

Two important conditions are necessary for the gain-loss effect to be operative.

First, it is not just any sequence of positive or negative statements that constitutes a gain or loss; there must be an integrated sequence implying a change of heart. Second, the change of heart must be gradual.

Why is agreement attractive? There are at least two major reasons.

First, it is obvious to most of us that people who share our attitudes and opinions on important issues are uncommonly intelligent, thoughtful individuals. It is always rewarding and interesting to hang out with intelligent and thoughtful people. Second, they provide us with a kind of social validation for our beliefs; that is, they provide us with the feeling that we are right.

There seems to be at least two reasons why similarity fuels attraction.

First, we have an expectation that we will be liked by similar others which sets up a self-fulfilling prophecy. Second, the fact that the other person shares attitudes and has a similar personality serves as a type of self-validation that enhances our self-esteem.

hydraulic theory.

Freud believed that aggressive energy must come out somehow, lest it continue to build up and produce illness. The analogy is one of water pressure building up in a container: Unless aggression is al- lowed to drain off, it will produce some sort of explosion.

frustration-aggression theory

Frustration is anything (such as the malfunctioning vending machine) that blocks us from attaining a goal. Frustration grows when our motivation to achieve a goal is very strong, when we expected gratification, and when the blocking is complete.

Acronym for "graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction"—a strategy designed to de-escalate international tensions. mye25454

GRIT

non-zero-sum games

Games in which outcomes need not sum to zero. With cooperation, both can win; with competition, both can lose. (Also called mixed-motive situations. )

A corresponding ecological principle, _____________, states that maximum competition will exist between species with identical needs.

Gause's law

___________________ are believed to facilitate helping by generating positive thoughts. Another motivator is the desire to maintain the good mood.

Good moods

Religious members

Gordon Allport and Michael Ross (1967) found that those for whom religion is an end in itself (those who agree, for example, with the statement "My religious beliefs are what really lie behind my whole approach to life") express less prejudice than those for whom religion is more a means to other ends (who agree "A primary reason for my interest in religion is that my church is a congenial social activity"). And those who score highest on Gallup's "spiritual commitment" index are more welcoming of a person of another race moving in next door (Gallup & Jones, 1992). • Protestant ministers and Roman Catholic priests gave more support to the U.S. civil rights movement than did laypeople (Fichter, 1968; Hadden, 1969). In Germany, 45 percent of clergy in 1934 had aligned themselves with the Confessing Church, which was organized to oppose Nazi infl uence on the German Protestant Church (Reed, 1989).

evil-leader-good people

Group conflicts are often fueled by an illusion that the enemy's top leaders are evil but their people, though controlled and manipulated, are pro-us.

Aggressive outbursts by large groups are often preceded by minor actions that arouse and divert people's attention. ___________________________serve both to hype people up and to reduce self-consciousness

Group shouting, chanting, clapping, or dancing

genetic influence for aggression

Heredity , temperaments,

example of mere exposure

I've tested this idea with my own students. Periodically fl ash certain nonsense words on a screen. By the end of the semester, students will rate those "words" more positively than other nonsense words they have never before seen. People of differing nationalities, languages, and ages prefer the letters appearing in their own names and those that frequently appear in their own languages American business students preferred to buy stocks that shared the same first letter as their name Japanese students prefer not only letters from their names but also numbers corresponding to their birth date

techniques for reducing prejudice

If unequal status breeds prejudice, we can seek to create cooperative, equal status relationships. If prejudice rationalizes discriminatory behavior, we can mandate nondiscrimination. If social institutions support prejudice, we can pull out those supports (for example, with media that model interracial harmony). If outgroups seem more homogeneous than they really are, we can make efforts to personalize their members. If automatic prejudices lead us to engage in behaviors that make us feel guilty, we can use that guilt to motivate ourselves to break the prejudice habit.

Zillman's excitation transfer theory.

In Zillman's experimental paradigm, subjects are provoked and then exposed to an excitation variable like physical exercise, pornography, stimulants, loud noise, etc. In these studies, the subjects have been found to retaliate at higher levels when they had been exposed to one of the excitation variables than when they had not. This phenomenon is believed to be related to the misattribution effect. The additional arousal caused by the excitation variable is misattributed to the anger the subjects felt toward the person who provoked them.

The Tragedy of the Commons

In today's world the "commons" can be air, water, fish, cookies, or any shared and limited resource. If all use the resource in moderation, it may replenish itself as rapidly as it's harvested. The grass will grow, the fi sh will reproduce, and the cookie jar will be restocked. If not, there occurs a tragedy of the commons.

Prejudice springs from several sources.

It may arise from differences in social status and people's desires to justify and maintain those differences. It may also be learned from our parents as they socialize us about what differences they believe matter between people. Our social institutions, too, may maintain and support prejudice

gain-loss theory

It suggests that increases in positive, rewarding behavior from another person have more impact on an individual than constantly rewarding behavior from that person.

example of Altruism

Jesus' parable of the Good Samaritan provides the classic illustration: A man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and fell into the hands of robbers, who stripped him, beat him, and went away, leaving him half dead. Now by chance a priest was going down that road; and when he saw him, he passed by on the other side. So likewise a Levite, when he came to the place and saw him, passed by on the other side. But a Samaritan while traveling came near him; and when he saw him, he was moved with pity. He went to him and bandaged his wounds, having poured oil and wine on them. Then he put him on his own animal, brought him to an inn, and took care of him. The next day he took out two denarii, gave them to the innkeeper, and said, "Take care of him; and when I come back, I will repay you whatever more you spend.

Why does the presence of other bystanders sometimes inhibit helping?

Latané and Darley surmised that as the number of bystanders increases, any given bystander is less likely to notice the incident, less likely to interpret the incident as a problem or an emergency, and less likely to assume responsibility for taking action

Thomas Hobbes, in his classic work ______________ (first published in 1651), took the view that we human beings, in our natural state, are brutes and that only by enforcing the law and order of society can we curb what to Hobbes was a natural instinct toward aggression.

Leviathan

The two agreed that aggressive energy is instinctive (innate, unlearned, and universal). If not discharged, it supposedly builds up until it explodes or until an appropriate stimulus "releases" it, like a mouse releasing a mousetrap

Lorenz, Freud

deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension; occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to group norms, good or bad.

This extremism supposedly leads the individuals affected to repress their hostilities and impulses, which they project onto outgroups

Militant

__________________, on both the political left and the right, shares some common themes, such as catastrophizing, desiring vengeance, and dehumanizing the enemy

Militant extremism

________________ is not the only cause of bystander effect (the inaction of strangers faced with ambiguous emergencies).

Misinterpretation

Such conflicts, notes Philip Zimbardo (2004a), engage "a two-category world—of good people, like US, and of bad people, like THEM."

Negative mirror-image perceptions

Example of Reciprocal Liking

Non-verbal behaviors on the part of the other person, like leaning forward and maintaining eye contact, tend to convey liking that is in turn reciprocated. This in turn creates a self-fulfilling prophecy. Now the other person feels liked and reciprocates the liking. studies have found that people with high to moderate self-esteem prefer to interact with someone who praised them (suggesting liking). Those with a low self-esteem preferred to interact with someone who criticized them. Presumably, those who criticized them were indicating dislike that confirmed their self view.

Why does proximity breed liking?

One factor is availability

Theories of Prosocial Behavior-Learning

Operant conditioning theories Modeling (Social learning theory)

____________________ are especially vulnerable to displaced aggression

Outgroup targets

Environmental Influences on Aggression

Painful Incidents (aversive stimulation) Heat attacks crowding

________________ is characterized by strong emotions, sexual desire, and intense preoccupation with the beloved. Its onset is usu- ally rapid rather than gradual, and, alas, almost inevitably, its fiery in- tensity cools over time.

Passionate love

______________________ has been defined as "feelings of intense longing, accompanied by physiological arousal, we feel for a person; when our love is reciprocated, we feel great fulfillment and ecstasy, but when it is not, we feel sadness and despair.

Passionate love

outgroup homogeneity effect

Perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another than are ingroup members. Thus "they are alike; we are diverse

example of implicit egotism

Philadelphia, being larger than Jacksonville, has 2.2 times as many men named Jack. But it has 10.4 times as many people named Philip. Likewise, Virginia Beach has a disproportionate number of people named Virginia America's dentists are almost twice as likely to be named Dennis as Jerry or Walter. There also are 2.5 times as many dentists named Denise as there are with the equally popular name Beverly or Tammy. People named George or Geoffrey are overrepresented among geoscientists (geologists, geophysicists, and geochemists). And in the 2000 presidential campaign, people with last names beginning with B and G were disproportionately likely to contribute to the campaigns of Bush and Gore, respectively.

aggression

Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone

These are the factors known to influence our friendship formation

Proximity, attractiveness, similarity, being liked

mirror-image perceptions

Reciprocal views of each other often held by parties in conflict; for example, each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive

example of subgroups

Recognizing that the stereotype does not apply for everyone in the category, homeowners who have "desirable" Black neighbors can form a new and different stereotype of "professional, middle-class Blacks."

arbitration

Resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement

self-disclosure

Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

Some of the earliest studies to illustrate prejudice were the ________________ Studies

Robbers Cave

A high degree of agreement with such items indicates authoritarianism.

Sex crimes such as rape and attacks on children deserve more than mere imprisonment; such criminals ought to be publicly whipped, or worse. Most people don't realize how much our lives are controlled by plots hatched in secret places. Obedience and respect for authority are the most important virtues children should learn.

The instru-ment developed to determine authoritarianism (called the F scale) measures the extent to which each person agrees or disagrees with such items as:

Sex crimes such as rape and attacks on children deserve more than mere imprisonment; such criminals ought to be publicly whipped, or worse. Most people don't realize how much our lives are controlled by plots hatched in secret places. Obedience and respect for authority are the most important virtues children should learn.

___________________also motivate helping. They prescribe how we ought t o behave

Social norms

to find out, Latané and Darley (1968) had Columbia University men fill out a questionnaire in a room, either by themselves or with two strangers. While they were working (and being observed through a one-way mirror), there was a staged emergency: Smoke poured into the room through a wall vent.

Solitary students, who often glanced idly about the room while working, noticed the smoke almost immediately—usually in less than 5 seconds. Those in groups kept their eyes on their work. It typically took them about 20 seconds to notice the smoke.

______________________ increase aggression through their arousal inducing effects

Stimulants

ways to control aggression

Stress management anger management training Conflict resolution training

From research on stereotypes, two conclusions are indisputable:

Strong gender stereotypes exist, and, as often happens, members of the stereotyped group accept the stereotypes

authoritarian personalities

Such individuals tend to be rigid in their beliefs; they tend to possess conventional values; they are intolerant of weakness in themselves, as well as in others; they tend to be highly punitive; they are suspicious; and they are respectful of authority to an unusual degree.

The popular television show called "_____________" recreates aspects of the Robbers Cave study

Survivor

terrorism

That goal is "to compel liberal democracies to withdraw military forces from territory that the terrorists consider to be their homeland

social identity

The "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

companionate love

The affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined.

According to this theory, the person must first become aroused due to the victim's plight. Then, the potential helper presumably does a quick cost-rewards analysis. If on balance, the costs are lower than the rewards of helping, the potential helper will assist the victim. The primary reward of helping according to this model is the lowering of the helper's arousal levels. The cost of helping and the cost of not helping (e.g., guilt) are both assessed when making this decision.

The arousal-cost model of prosocial behavior

frustration

The blocking of goal directed behavior

bystander effect

The finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders.

the combination of sex and violence—whether in pornographic films or slasher films—has effects remarkably similar to those associated with other violence in the media:

The level of aggression is increased and, in many instances, attitudes condoning violence are strengthened.

complementarity

The popularly supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other.

physical-attractiveness stereotype

The presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: What is beautiful is good.

displacement

The redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target.

matching phenomenon

The tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a "good match" in attractiveness and other traits

mere-exposure effect

The tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them.

disclosure reciprocity

The tendency for one person's intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner.

own-race bias

The tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race. (Also called the cross-race effect or other-race effect.

just-world phenomenon

The tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

ingroup bias

The tendency to favor one's own group.

social-exchange theory

The theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs.

realistic group conflict theory

The theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources

social learning theory

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished

non-zero-sum games

The two sides' profits and losses need not add up to zero. Both can win; both can lose. Each game pits the immediate interests of individuals against the well-being of the group. Each is a diabolical social trap that shows how, even when each individual behaves "rationally," harm can result. No malicious person planned for the earth's atmosphere to be warmed by a carbon dioxide blanket.

prototypes

These schemas involve classification systems or cognitive files that are activated when a person first meets another. Once the file is open, however, a high effort thinker will modify impressions based on the behavior of the other person. A low effort thinker will use a stereotype from the file and continue to view the person through the lens of the stereotype. If that person is also prejudiced against the group represented in the stereotype, information will be selectively attended to that confirms the prejudicial attitudes.

Adrian Raine and his colleagues (1998, 2000, 2005, 2008) used brain scans to measure brain activity in murderers and to measure the amount of gray matter in men with antisocial conduct disorder

They found that the prefrontal cortex, which acts like an emergency brake on deeper brain areas involved in aggressive behavior, was 14 percent less active than normal in murderers (excluding those who had been abused by their parents) and 15 percent smaller in the antisocial men.

terror management

They shield themselves from the threat of their own death by derogating those who further arouse their anxiety by challenging their worldviews

social responsibility

This norm states that we should help those who are less fortunate than us. It is an important norm but also a less powerful norm than the norm of reciprocity.

In one experiment, Brad Bushman made his participants angry by having his accomplice (a fellow student) insult them. Immediately afterward, the participants were assigned to one of three experimental conditions: In one condition, they were allowed to spend a few minutes slugging away at a punching bag while being encouraged to think about the student who had made them angry. In a second condition, the students hitting the punching bag were encouraged to think of this activity as physical exercise. In the third condition, the participants simply were allowed to sit still for a few minutes with- out punching anything. At the end of the experiment, which students felt the least angry?

Those who had sat still without punching anything.

reward theory of attraction:

Those who reward us, or whom we associate with rewards, we like.

Reason why People who live in rural environments are more likely to help

Trust hypothesis urban-overload hypothesis

the pain of social rejection is so real that a pain-relieving ______________can reduce hurt feelings

Tylenol

People with the ________________behavior pattern, the coronary prone behavior pattern, have been shown to have higher levels of hostility toward others. These individuals, being more anger prone, would also be more inclined to be aggressive.

Type A

discrimination

Unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members

We identify:

We associate ourselves with certain groups (our ingroups ) and gain self-esteem by doing so

We compare:

We contrast our groups with other groups ( outgroups ), with a favorable bias toward our own group.

categorize:

We find it useful to put people, ourselves included, into categories. To label someone as a Hindu, a Scot, or a bus driver is a shorthand way of saying some other things about the person

implicit egotism:

We like what we associate with ourselves

__________________discrimination, in fact, exceeds racial or gender discrimination and occurs at every employment stage—hiring, placement, promotion, compensation, discipline, and discharge

Weight

physical-attractiveness stereotype:

What is beautiful is good

equity principle of attraction:

What you and your partner get out of a relationship should be proportional to what you each put into it. If two people receive equal outcomes, they should contribute equally; otherwise one or the other will feel it is unfair

Example of superordinate goals

When a truck "broke down" on a camp excursion, a staff member casually left the tug-of-war rope nearby, prompting one boy to suggest that they all pull the truck to get it started. When it started, a backslapping celebration ensued over their victorious "tug-of-war against the truck.

example of institutional sexism

When job ads for male-dominated vocations feature words associated with male stereotypes ("We are a dominant engineering fi rm seeking individuals who can perform in a competitive environment"), and job ads for female-dominated vocations feature the opposite ("We seek people who will be sensitive to clients' needs and can develop warm client relationships")

mirror image perceptiuons

When two sides have clashing perceptions, at least one of the two is misperceiving the other. And when such misperceptions exist, noted Bronfenbrenner, "It is a psychological phenomenon without parallel in the gravity of its consequences . . . for it is characteristic of such images that they are self-confirming." If A expects B to be hostile, A may treat B in such a way that B fulfi lls A's expectations, thus beginning a vicious circle

When seeking love and employment, overweight people— especially _____________—face slim prospects

White women

Special individuals who experience no negative emotional response to social threats—namely, children with the genetic disorder called _________________—display a notable lack of racial stereotypes and prejudice

Williams syndrome

integrative agreements

Win-win agreements that reconcile both parties' interests to their mutual benefit.

example of mirror image perceptiuons

You hear the false rumor that a friend is saying nasty things about you; you snub him; he then badmouths you, confirming your expectation. Similarly, if the policymakers of East and West believe that war is likely and either attempts to increase its military security vis-à-vis the other, the other's response will justify the initial move.

Strangers and casual acquaintances maintain equity by exchanging benefits:

You lend me your class notes; later, I'll lend you mine. I invite you to my party; you invite me to yours.

When the two parties mistrust each other and communicate unproductively, a third-party mediator—___________________—sometimes helps

a marriage counselor, a labor mediator, a diplomat

straight talk,

a person's clear statement of his or her feelings and concerns without accusing, blaming, judging, or ridiculing the other person.

stereotype threat

a self-confirming apprehension that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype example.... I am a short guy in my 60s. When I join a pickup basketball game with bigger, younger players, I presume that they expect me to be a detriment to their team, and that tends to undermine my confi dence and performance

prefrontal cortex

acts like an emergency brake on deeper brain areas involved in aggressive behavior

Lorenz, an animal behavior expert, saw aggression as __________________ rather than self-destructive

adaptive

because good-looking people bring us "____________________" rewards.

aesthetic

A general definition of _____________is "behavior with an intention to harm."

aggression

To a social psychologist, ____________ is physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm. . It includes kicks and slaps, threats and insults, even gossip or snide "digs" (as in online bullying).

aggression

Social psychologists define ________________ action as intentional behavior aimed at causing either physical or psychological pain.

aggressive

The chimpanzee is extremely_______________. Although chimps do not engage in full scale-war like humans do, male chimps will hunt and kill other chimps.9

aggressive

Instrumental aggression

aims to injure, too—but only as a means to some other end.

GRIT

aims to reverse the "conflict spiral" by triggering reciprocal de-escalation. To do so, it draws upon social-psychological concepts, such as the norm of reciprocity and the attribution of motives

Blood chemistry also influences neural sensitivity to aggressive stimulation such as ____________

alcohol

Circumstances that decrease self-awareness, as _________________ consumption does, increase deindividuation

alcohol

Blood chemistry that influences aggression

alcohol, Testosterone, poor diet

Mediators

also help resolve conflicts by facilitating constructive communication. Their first task is to help the parties rethink the conflict and gain information about the others' interests aims to replace this win-lose orientation with a cooperative "win-win" orientation, by prodding both sides to set aside their confl icting demands and instead to think about each other's underlying needs, interests, and goals

SDubjects with high empathy levels were willing to trade places with Elaine even if they could easily escape to lower their arousal levels

altruistically motivated

There is an area in the core of the brain called the ________________, which is associated with aggressive behaviors in human beings, as well as in the lower animals.

amygdala

This suggests that automatic prejudices involve primitive regions of the brain associated with fear, such as the _________________

amygdala

Neurological and Chemical Causes of aggression

amygdala Testosterone alcohol Pain and Discomfort frustration

there are two types of aggression,

angry (affective) aggression instrumental aggression

Does becoming physically anonymous always unleash our worst impulses? Fortunately, no. In all these situations, people were responding to clear _______________ cues

antisocial

Exclusion hurts longest for _____________ people

anxious

Hopeless people are _____________ people.

apathetic

stereotype threat.

apprehensiveness among black students about confirming the existing negative stereotype of "intellectual inferiority." S

. Disputants usually prefer to settle their differences without ______________ so that they retain control over the outcome.

arbitration

the parties may turn to ____________ by having the mediator or another third party impose a settlement

arbitration

Communal relationships

are characterized by feelings of responsibility for the other's well-being. In these relationships, benefits are given in response to the other's needs or simply to please the other.

Racism and sexism

are institutional practices that discriminate, even when there is no prejudicial intent

women

are more likely to report feeling euphoric and "giddy and carefree," as if they were "floating on a cloud." are also somewhat more likely than men to focus on the intimacy of the friendship and on their concern for their partner

Anabolic steroids

are testosterone-like compounds that are popular among some body builders. These steroids increase the likelihood of aggression in the same way that testosterone does.

Scripts

are ways of behaving socially that we learn implicitly from the culture.

Richard Nisbett15 has shown that homicide rates for white southern males are substantially higher than those for white northern males, especially in rural areas. But this is true only for "___________________" homicides.

argument-related

A number of different explanatory models of aggression can be grouped together and called _____________________

arousal-aggression models.

prejudice.

as a hostile or negative attitude toward a distinguishable group on the basis of generalizations derived from faulty or incomplete information

Prejudgments guide our _____________

attention and our memories

Prejudice is a negative _______________

attitude

cooperation leads to __________________________

attraction.

We like ________________ people because we perceive that they offer other desirable traits and because we benefit by associating with them

attractive

research indicates that we are more likely to help _____________people

attractive

the data indicate that, as a relation- ship moves toward greater intimacy, what becomes increasingly important is ______________—our ability to give up trying to make a good impression and begin to reveal things about ourselves that are hon- est, even if unsavory.

authenticity

insecurity of ____________ individuals predisposes them toward an excessive concern with power and status and an inflexible right-wrong way of thinking that makes ambiguity difficult to tolerate. Such people therefore tend to be submissive to those with power over them and aggressive or punitive toward those whom they consider lower in status than themselves. In other words, "My way or the highway."

authoritarian

some people are predisposed toward being prejudiced not solely because of immediate external influences, but also because of the kind of people they are. Theodor Adorno and his associates referred to these individuals as ______________.

authoritarian personalities

Others have proposed that certain types of personalities are more prone to be prejudiced than others. The so called "_________________" is more likely to hold prejudiced attitudes than non-authoritarian personalities. These individuals tend to have rigid beliefs, they are highly punitive, and have a high level of respect for authority

authoritarian personality

The major finding is that people who are high on ______________ do not simply dislike Jews or blacks; rather, they show a consistently high degree of prejudice against all minority groups.

authoritarianism

Satisfy the need to belong in balance with two other human needs— to feel ___________________— and the typical result is a deep sense of wellbeing

autonomy and competence

Frustration is certainly one important type of unpleasantness. But any _________________ event, whether a dashed expectation, a personal insult, or physical pain, can incite an emotional outburst. Even the torment of a depressed state increases the likelihood of hostile, aggressive behavior.

aversive

Berkowitz (1983, 1989, 1998) proposed that ________________ rather than frustration is the basic trigger of hostile aggression

aversive stimulation

In China, where 95 percent of orphanage children are girls (Webley, 2009), the 118 boys born for every 100 girls has led to an excess of 32 million under-20 males. These are tomorrow's "_____________," as the Chinese think of them—bachelors who will have trouble finding mates

bare branches

Conflicting parties have other ways to resolve their differences

bargaining, mediate, arbitrate

We can get a self-esteem lift by "____________________. It is part of the social comparison process.

basking in the other person's glory" as we become closer to that person

pro-beauty bias

beautiful people tend to be given the benefit of the doubt. They receive more favor- able treatment than less attractive people,

Group experiences that diminish self-consciousness tend to disconnect ______________ from attitudes

behavior

What social psychologists have long known, but have only recently begun to understand, is that changes in ______________ can affect changes in attitudes.

behavior

discrimination is negative ________________.

behavior

To perceive ourselves as having status, we need people ___________ us.

below

Opposing sides also tend to have a "________________," notes Cynthia McPherson Frantz (2006). They see their own understandings as not biased by their liking or disliking for others; but those who disagree with them seem unfair and biased.

bias blind spot

he diminishing anxiety that accompanies friendly outgroup interactions is a ___________event: It is measurable as decreased stress hormone reactivity in cross-ethnic contexts

biological

passionate love is the psychological experience of being ______________ aroused by someone we find attractive.

biologically

studies have found that helping is more likely when ___________ is not present on the victim than when blood is present.

blood

An emotion involves both _______________—both arousal and the way we interpret and label that arousal

body and mind

Studies that use a "________________," subliminal images or other clever methods of detecting prejudice have found covert prejudices.

bogus pipeline

We have seen that proximity—and the accompanying interaction, anticipation of interaction, and mere exposure—_________________.

boosts liking

If your relationship is to survive, it's important that you ______________continue to associate your relationship with good things."

both

the ________________is now one of the best-understood of all the phenomena studied by social psychologists

bystander intervention effect

examples of Changing the Payoffs

carpools

One way we simplify our environment is to __________ —to organize the world by clustering objects into groups

categorize

MRI scans from young adults intensely in love revealed areas, such as the ______________, that became more active when gazing at the loved-one's photo (but not when gazing at the photo of another acquaintance).

caudate nucleus

Alcohol is a ___________________ that has a disinhibiting effect on behavior. A person with aggressive tendencies will be more likely to act on these tendencies when intoxicated.

central nervous system depressant

To reverse stereotypes, individuals have to engage in high effort thinking. Therefore, they must be motivated to use the ___________________ instead of peripheral route processing or heuristic route processing

central route processing

altruism can be seen in

chimpanzees

There are a number of theories of interpersonal attraction. Some of these are discussed by Clark in the video. These include include

classical conditioning theory, the social norm approach, the misattribution of arousal, and Tesser's self-evaluation maintenance approach.

A general reward-cost theory loses a good deal of its value if our definition of what constitutes a reward is not ______________

clear.

Stereotypes refer to the "__________________."

cognitive beliefs that associate groups of people with certain traits

prejudice contains three components

cognitive component (a stereotype and set of beliefs about a group), an emotional component (dislike of or active hostility toward the group), behavioral component (a predisposition to discriminate against the group).

As an attitude, it has _________________

cognitive, affective, and behavioral components

example of evil-leader-good people

cold war, vietnam, iraq

It's not distress and arguments that predict divorce, add Ted Huston and colleagues (2001) from their following of newlyweds through time. (Most newlyweds experience conflict.) Rather, it's _____________________that predict a dim marital future

coldness, disillusionment, and hopelessness

companionate love

combination of intimacy and commitment—without a lot of passion.

Although the partners in a _______relationship are not totally unconcerned about achieving a rough kind of equity, they are relaxed about it and have faith that, over the long haul, some semblance of equity will fall into place.

communal

______________ love in this theory is high in intimacy and commitment and low in passion

companionate

______________—a milder, more stable experience marked by feelings of mutual trust, dependability, and warmth.

companionate love

If a close relationship is to endure, it will settle to a steadier but still warm afterglow that Hatfield calls ________________

companionate love.

the more ________________ an individual is, the more we will like that person.

competent

GRIT is __________. But it is not "surrender on the installment plan."

conciliatory

GRIT requires one side to initiate a few small de-escalatory actions, after announcing a__________________

conciliatory intent

Pettigrew believes that, although economic competition, frustration, and personality needs account for some prejudice, the great majority of prejudiced behavior is driven by slavish ____________ to social norms.

conformity

Social psychologists have focused on four strategies for helping enemies become comrades. We can remember these as the four Cs of peacemaking:

contact, cooperation, communication, and conciliation

Laboratory experiments confirm this "_____________." To men who have recently been gazing at centerfolds, average women or even their own wives tend to seem less attractive

contrast effect

Instrumental aggression suggests that violence is used to ________________________

control another or is used for external rewards.

Peter Kropotkin concluded that______________________have great survival value for many forms of life. There is ample evidence to support this conclusion. The cooperative behavior of certain social insects, such as termites, ants, and bees, is well known.

cooperative behavior and mutual aid

"It is clear," wrote race-relations expert John McConahay (1981), that ______________ "is the most effective practice for improving race relations in desegregated schools that we know of to date."

cooperative learning

John McConahay, a leading expert on race relations, has called __________ the single most effective practice for improving race relations in desegregated schools.

cooperative learning

exert a positive influence on boy campers, industrial executives, college students, and schoolchildren.

cooperative, equal-status contacts

Ostracized people exhibit heightened activity in a brain _____________ area that also activates in response to physical pain.

cortex

Hamilton and Gifford (1976) Example of illusory correlation effect

created a set of cards that represented two groups, group A and group B. Two-thirds of the total were members of group A (note group A represents a statistical majority) and one-third of the total were members of group B (note group B represents a statistical minority). On each card were the group membership identification and the trait characteristics of the group member. Half of the members of group A had undesirable trait characteristics and half the members of group B had undesirable trait characteristics. Subjects examined each card. At the end of the experiment they were asked to give their evaluation of group A and group B. According to the illusory correlation effect, which group do you think received the most negative evaluation? If you guessed group B you were correct. As the illusory correlation effect predicts, salient variables are linked together. Since group B members were less prevalent, they were more salient and since negative traits draw our attention more than positive traits, they were more salient. Therefore, the group B statistical minority salience was erroneously linked to the group B negative trait characteristics. This process also illustrates how members of social minorities can be negatively stereotyped by virtue of their distinctiveness within a majority dominated group.

Students like another student who says eight positive things about them better than one who says seven positive things and one negative thing. We are sensitive to the slightest hint of ________________

criticism.

frustrated person is especially likely to lash out when aggressive ________________ pull the cork, releasing bottled-up anger. Sometimes the cork will blow without such cues. But, as we will see, cues associated with aggression amplify aggression

cues

They report that the American South, settled by Scots-Irish sheep herders ever wary of threats to their flocks, has a "__________________," which maintains that insults deserve retaliation

culture of honor

the "______________" that is the hallmark of the southern gentleman may be characteristic of particular economic and occupational circumstances—specifically those involving portable (and, therefore, stealable) wealth, as in the herding society of the early South and West, where one's entire wealth could be stolen away

culture of honor

Finally, suggests Robert Putnam (2000), the social benefits of computer mediated communication are constrained by "_________________." The Internet enables those of us with hearing loss to network, but it also enables White supremacists to fi nd one another and thus contributes to social and political polarization.

cyberbalkanization

About the ___________ Freud wrote: "It is at work in every living being and is striving to bring it to ruin and to reduce life to its original condition of inanimate matter."

death instinct,

The mere-exposure effect violates the commonsense prediction of boredom— ______________—regarding repeatedly heard music or tasted foods

decreased interest

The first step in scientifically studying romantic love, as in studying any variable, is to decide how to ___________________

define and measure it

When arousal and diffused responsibility combine, and normal inhibitions diminish with crowds

deindividuated

Zimbardo suggests that anonymity induces _______________, a state of lessened self-awareness, reduced concern over social evaluation, and weakened restraints against prohibited forms of behavior.

deindividuation

elf-awareness is the opposite of _________________

deindividuation

Hurt feelings are also embodied in a ____________ heart rate

depressed

" Experiments confirm that when the retaliation matches the provocation, people do not _____________the provocateur.

derogate

Patricia Devine (the expert in your videotape)(1989)

developed a theory that states that most people are aware of the negative stereotypes that are present within the cultures of their nation or region. In her theory, there is a two-step process that occurs of first automatically activating the stereotype (low effort thinking) and then through a controlled process (high effort thinking) overriding the stereotype. If the second process is not engaged, the stereotype will prevail. She demonstrated that both high prejudiced subjects and low prejudiced subjects were equally aware of negative stereotypes of African Americans. When high prejudiced subjects had the stereotypes activated they listed more negative words for African Americans than low prejudiced subjects suggesting that the high prejudiced subjects did not engage in the second step of suppressing the stereotype. (negative stereotypes of African Americans are automatically activated in Americans.)

two-factor theory of emotion

developed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer (1962), argue that when the revvedup men responded to a woman, they easily misattributed some of their own arousal to her.

When in conflict, do not assume that the other fails to share your values and morality. Rather, compare perceptions, assuming that the other is likely perceiving the situation __________________.

differently

Latane and Darley, two social psychologists living in New York at the time of the Kitty Genovese murder, decided to investigate the bystander intervention effect. They set up a laboratory paradigm where the subject sat in a booth and communicated with other subjects over an intercom. The other subjects, actually confederates of the experimenter, served as bystanders except one who served as a victim. As the subject listened to the other subjects, one subject (actually a confederate) ostensibly had a seizure. Would the subject leave the booth and try to help the subject who was having a seizure? Darley and Latane (1968) found that the more bystanders there were, the less likely the subject was to help and the slower the help was when it did occur. The effect was believed to be due to _________________. The more other subjects that were present, the less responsibility the subject felt to help.

diffusion of responsibility

These speculations receive support by research showing that marriage partners who use an intimate, nonaggressive, yet _______________method of conflict resolution report higher levels of marital satisfaction.

direct

Fazio et al. (1995)

disagrees with Devine's contention that negative stereotypes of African Americans are automatically activated in Americans. They accept the two categories of people that Devine suggests, those who have an automatic activation of stereotypes and suppress them and those who have an automatic activation of stereotypes and do not suppress them. However, they add a third category of those who do not have an automatic activation of stereotypes

More recent inquiry into authoritarian people's early lives has revealed that, as children, they often face harsh ______________

discipline

, the results of laboratory and field experiments indicate that alcohol serves as a ______________; that is, drinking reduces social inhibitions, making us less cautious than we usually are. B

disinhibitor

A prejudiced person may ______ those different from self and ______ in a discriminatory manner, ______ them ignorant and dangerous.

dislike, believing, behave,

The general picture of scapegoating that emerges is that individuals tend to displace aggression onto groups that are ____________________

disliked, that are visible, and that are relatively powerless.

This phenomenon of "_________________" may have contributed to the lynchings of African Americans in the South after the Civil War.

displaced aggression

Overkill maximizes _____________. The greater the discrepancy between what the perpetrator did to you and your retaliation, the greater the dissonance. The greater the dissonance, the greater your need to derogate him.

dissonance

About 4 years after marriage, the _____________ rate peaks in cultures worldwide

divorce

Individualistic cultures (where love is a feeling and people ask, "What does my heart say?") have more _____________ than do communal cultures (where love entails obligation and people ask, "What will other people say?").

divorce

The overwhelming thrust of the experimental evidence demonstrates that watching violence _______________indeed increase the frequency of aggressive behavior in children

does

Adolescents who bully others—either verbally or physically—are also engaged in instrumental aggression, because they often seek to demonstrate their ____________________

dominance and high status

Research by social psychologist Arthur Aron and colleagues (2005) indicates that passionate love engages ______________-rich brain areas associated with reward

dopamine

Subjects who were excluded during the game showed increased activity in the ____________________, areas of the brain involved in the experience of pain. But, if they had been given a dose of Tylenol prior to playing the game, these regions did not show heightened activity.

dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and right anterior insula

In study after study, thinking about your own mortality—by writing a short essay on _____________ and the emotions aroused by thinking about death— provokes enough insecurity to intensify ingroup favoritism and outgroup prejudice

dying

Equal-status contact under the ideal conditions of no ____________ conflict can and does produce increased understanding and a diminution of prejudice.

economic

prejudice may also be directed toward people based on their__________________

economic status, career, physical characteristics, nationality, religion, ethnicity, age,

disclosure reciprocity

effect: Disclosure begets disclosure (Berg, 1987; Miller, 1990; Reis & Shaver, 1988). We reveal more to those who have been open with us. But intimate disclosure is seldom instant

men with ___________ gender role attitudes, seem increasingly willing to reveal intimate feelings and to enjoy the satisfactions that accompany a relationship of mutual trust and self-disclosure.

egalitarian

The arousal-cost model of prosocial behavior is an______________model

egoistic

Another issue that social psychologists have investigated and debated over the years is the issue of what motivates helping. One camp contends that helping is always __________, that is, motivated by self-interest. Another camp, which includes Daniel Batson, the expert in the video, contends that helping can also be ___________, that is motivated to help out of a desire to benefit others

egoistic, altruistic

subjects with low empathy levels chose to escape (leave the situation) when escape was easy

egoistically motivated

television programs contain an average of _________________violent acts per hour

eight

Philosophers have debated whether our human nature is fundamentally that of a benign, contented, "noble savage" (instinct) or that of a brute

eighteenth-century French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), blames society, not human nature, for social evils. The second idea, associated with the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), credits society for restraining the human brute. In the twentieth century, the "brutish" view—that aggressive drive is inborn and thus inevitable—was argued by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis

Attack and provocation have been found to be some of the most powerful variables ______________________

eliciting aggression

arousal-aggression models.

eliciting conditions that create negative affect leading to aggression. The negative affect or arousal can be created by a number of conditions or stimuli. Frustration can lead to arousal which can in turn lead to aggression. Berkowitz et al. (1981) found that pain, an arousal or negative affect condition, can also lead to aggression. They found that women who placed their hand in ice water, a painful condition, administered more aversive noise (the measure of aggression) to other subjects than those who did not place their hand in ice water.

As you will note from Geen's model, variables predisposing a person toward aggression include

eliciting conditions, negative affect, previous experiences, causal attributions, and predisposing variables which include subcultures of violence, personality and gender.

two-factor theory of emotion Arousal X its label =

emotion

Angry aggression suggests that there is an _________________ cause of aggression.

emotional

It's not just head knowledge of other people that matters; it's also the ____________ ties that form with intimate friendships and interracial roommate pairings that serve to reduce anxiety and increase empathy

emotional

The silent treatment is "_________________" and "a terrible, terrible weapon to use," say those who have experienced it from a family member or a co-worker

emotional abuse

______________ often produces helping only when help-givers believe the other will actually receive the needed help and regardless of whether the recipient knows who helped.

empathy

cooperation changes our tendency to categorize the outgroup from "those people" to "us people." But how does this change from "those people" to "us people" actually come about? I believe that the mediating process is___________—the ability to experience what your group member is experiencing.

empathy

Proximity leads to liking because

enables interaction anticipatory liking and mere exposure

examples of The Tragedy of the Commons

environmental pollution is the sum of many minor pollutions, each of which benefits the individual polluters much more than they could benefit themselves (and the environment) if they stopped polluting. We litter public places—dorm lounges, parks, zoos—while keeping our personal spaces clean. We deplete our natural resources because the immediate personal benefits of, for instance, taking a long, hot shower outweigh the seemingly inconsequential costs. Whalers knew others would exploit the whales if they didn't, and that taking a few whales would hardly diminish the species. Therein lies the tragedy. Everybody's business (conservation) becomes nobody's business

Research has demonstrated that merely overhearing someone use a derogatory label, such as a racial or ethnic ___________, toward a given group can increase our likelihood of viewing someone from that group—or someone merely associated with that group—in a negative light.

epithet

Before 1954 many prejudiced Whites had frequent contacts with Blacks—as shoeshine men and domestic workers. Such unequal contacts breed attitudes that merely justify the continuation of inequality. So it's important that the contact be _____________, like that between the store clerks, the soldiers, the neighbors, the prisoners, and the summer campers.

equal-status contact

Don't we sometimes give in response to a loved one's need, without expecting anything in return? Indeed, those involved in an _____________, long-term relationship are unconcerned with short-term equity

equitable

in exchange relationships (e.g., acquaintances) we are presumably more likely to help out of ______________concerns

equity

people perceive justice as __________________—the distribution of rewards in proportion to individuals' contributions

equity

What factors influence the ups and downs of our close relationships

equity and intimacy.

Though interviewers may deny it, attractiveness and grooming affect first impressions in job interviews—especially when the _____________ is of the other sex

evaluator

subtle prejudice

exaggerating ethnic differences, feeling less admiration and affection for immigrant minorities, rejecting them for supposedly nonracial reasons sometimes called the new modern racism. patronization

Subtypes are ___________ to the group

exceptions

in ______________ relationships we are more likely to help friends than strangers

exchange

In communal relationships we are more likely to help than in ___________________

exchange relationships

in ___________________members do not feel a special responsibility for the other's needs. Rather, they give benefits to repay debts created by the prior receipt of benefits or in anticipation of receiving specific repayment in the future."

exchange relationships

Anticipatory liking—_______________—increases the chance of forming a rewarding relationship (Klein & Kunda, 1992; Knight & Vallacher, 1981; Miller & Marks, 1982). How

expecting that someone will be pleasant and compatible

According to the mere _____________________, "the more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more apt we are to like it.

exposure effect

Mullen's research suggests that when people are part of a crowd, they are "_________________," less self-aware, and less mindful of prohibitions against aggressive, destructive actions. They are therefore less likely to take responsibility for aggressive acts.

faceless

Men

fall in love more readily fall out of love more slowly less likely than women to break up a premarital romance. In heterosexual relationships, it's men, not women, who most often are first to say "I love you. think about the playful and physical aspects of the relationship

It turns out that getting someone to do you a ______________ is a more certain way of using favors to increase your attractiveness.

favor

Jennifer Crocker and her colleagues

found that college women who belonged to low-status sororities expressed more prejudice and disparagement of other sororities than did members of higher-status sororities. Similarly, when researchers have investigated the prejudice of whites against blacks or of Gentiles against Jews, they found that those whose social status is low or declining are more prejudiced than those whose social status is high or rising. Moreover, white people who are near the bottom in terms of education, income, and occupation are most likely to dislike blacks and most likely to resort to violence to prevent the desegregation of schools.

Aversive experiences such as ____________________ predispose hostile aggression

frustrated expectations and personal attacks

motivation for prejudice

frustration displaced aggression competition passion

The resulting aggression is designed to remove the obstacle.

frustration aggression

one of the earliest models of aggression was Dollard et al.'s (1939) _____________________ model. Frustration is defined as the emotion people feel when they have their goals blocked

frustration aggression

Bandura (1979) contended that aggressive acts are motivated by a variety of aversive experiences—_____________________

frustration, pain, insults

Dollard et al.'s (1939) "_______________" model stated that aggression was caused by feelings of frustration. We know for example, that some people who become frustrated commit acts of aggression but others do not.

frustration-aggression

If an individual is thwarted on the way to a goal, the resulting frustration will increase the probability of an aggressive response. A clear picture of __________________

frustration-aggression

Of all these aversive situations, the major instigator of aggression is ___________________

frustration.

Even more signifcant than geographic distance is "_____________"— how often people's paths cross

functional distance

In explaining others' actions, we frequently commit the _______________We attribute others' behavior so much to their inner dispositions that we discount important situational forces

fundamental attribution error

In one survey, Mary Jackman and Mary Senter (1981) found that ____________ stereotypes were much stronger than racial stereotypes

gender

To stereotype is to _______________. To simplify the world, we generalize: The British are reserved. Americans are outgoing. Professors are absentminded

generalize

Two-thirds of the world's unschooled children are _____________

girls

relational aggression.

girls are more likely to engage in activity aimed at hurting others by sabotaging their reputations and relationships with peers. Exclusion, spreading false rumors, and malicious gossip are prime examples, and their effects can have devastating consequences.

superordinate goals

goals that unite all in a group and require cooperative effort

Those with social power usually convince themselves and others that they deserve what they're getting (Mikula, 1984). This has been called a "____________________: Whoever has the gold makes the rules

golden" rule

People tend to select as friends, and especially to marry, those who are a "______________" not only to their level of intelligence, popularity, and self-worth but also to their level of attractiveness

good match

Social psychologist Charles Osgood (1962, 1980) advocated a third alternative, one that is conciliatory yet strong enough to discourage exploitation. Osgood called it "___________." He nicknamed it GRIT, a label that suggests the determination it requires

graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction

A _________________has the power not only to arouse its members but also to render them unidentifiable.

group

what affects deindividuated

group size Anonymity Arousing and Distracting Activities

we can minimize destructive entrapment in social dilemmas by establishing rules that regulate self-serving behavior, by keeping ______________________________

groups small, by enabling people to communicate, by changing payoffs to make cooperation more rewarding, and by invoking compelling altruistic norms.

One symptom of ________________ is the tendency to perceive one's own group as moral and strong, and the opposition as evil and weak. Acts of terrorism that in most people's eyes are despicable brutality are seen by others as "holy war."

groupthink

Such people tend to be good listeners. During conversation, they maintain attentive facial expressions and appear to be comfortably enjoying themselves (Purvis & others, 1984). They may also express interest by uttering supportive phrases while their conversational partner is speaking. They are what psychologist Carl Rogers (1980) called " ______________" listeners—people who are genuine in revealing their own feelings, who are accepting of others' feelings, and who are empathic, sensitive, reflective listeners.

growth-promoting (skilled openers)

In terms of bad moods, people who feel guilty are more likely to help if helping will alleviate the ________________

guilt

example of a cue

gun nearby or playing with toy gun

Fazio and his colleagues

had subjects evaluate words as either being positive words or negative words. Before each word was presented on a screen they would subliminally see a white face or an African American face. The speed of the evaluation of each word was recorded. Subjects with strong automatic negative stereotypes of African Americans gave faster evaluations to negative words when first subliminally primed with an African American face. They also gave slower evaluations of positive words when first subliminally primed with an African American face. The activation of negative stereotypes by viewing the subliminal African American prime presumably created negative feelings. For negative words, the primes led to faster reaction times since negative feelings were already present and for positive words the primes led to slower reaction times since they had to first suppress negative feelings to make a positive evaluation. Fazio found that there were also those who did not have faster or slower evaluations to the words when first primed with an African American face. These individuals fell into the third category of people who do not have an automatic activation of stereotypes of African Americans.

After 2 years of marriage, spouses express affection about _____________as often as when they were newlyweds

half

It is estimated that over __________________ of the acts of violence perpetrated against victims in the U.S. are alcohol related

half

The mere-exposure effect has "enormous adaptive significance," notes Zajonc (1998). It is a "___________" phenomenon that predisposes our attractions and attachments. It helped our ancestors categorize things and people as either familiar and safe or unfamiliar and possibly dangerous. The more two strangers interact, the more attractive they tend to find each other

hardwired

Through an intensive clinical interview of people high and low on the F scale, Adorno and his colleagues traced the development of this cluster of attitudes and values to early childhood experiences in families characterized by ____________, threatening parental discipline. They argued that people high on the F scale tend to have parents who use love and its __________ as their major way of producing obedience.

harsh, withdrawal

Companionate love

has been defined as "feelings of intimacy and affection we feel when we care deeply for a person but do not experience passion or arousal in the person's presence."

scapegoating

has been used to describe the process of blaming a relatively powerless innocent person for something that is not his or her fault.

social learning theory

has been used to explain prejudice. According to this theory, these attitudes are learned just like any other attitudes through operant conditioning and modeling. Parents can promote prejudicial attitudes by reinforcing them in their children or by serving as prejudiced role models. In addition, social norms tend to determine prejudicial attitudes. Therefore, if family norms and/or the norms of society promote prejudicial attitudes, these attitudes are more likely to be accepted and acted upon.

altruistic

hat is motivated to help out of a desire to benefit others

Other experiments reveal physiological symptoms of rejection such as the slowing of the _______________—which is physiologically associated with vigilance for physical threats—and the activation of brain regions associated with physical pain.

heart rate

prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behavior surface when they can _______________ behind the screen of some other motive

hide

Toi and Batson (1982) found that, as predicted by the empathy-altruism model, people in the_____________ altruism condition helped even when the cost was high.

high

My colleagues in sociology have pointed out that minority groups who feel excluded show many of the same patterns that our laboratory manipulations elicit:

high rates of aggression and antisocial behavior, decreased willingness to cooperate and obey rules, poorer intellectual performance, more self-destructive acts, short-term focus, and the like

For women, the story was more complicated; they were generally interested in the most attractive men, but nonetheless preferred the less attractive men if they appeared to have _______________. Even an absolute hunk was not found attractive by the women if he was dressed in a Burger King uniform.

high status

social psychologists over recent years have become increasingly more willing to accept other research methods like archival research and correlational research. These methods, once spurned for their low internal validity, have ______________________ than lab research and help social psychologists round out their research findings with added relevancy to the real world.

higher external validity

Studies have found for example that those who are the quickest to respond to a staged emergency in the laboratory are also those with the ______________ (The arousal-cost model )

highest heart rates

Social exchange theory

holds "that how people feel about a relationship depends on their perceptions of the rewards and costs of the relationship, the kind of relationship they deserve, and their chances of having a better relationship with someone else." It is based in part on an economic model that subtracts the costs from the rewards to determine a favorable exchange. A person with low standards (a low comparison level) will stay in a costly relationship because he or she does not believe there are enough favorable alternatives. The amount of time, energy, and "investment" in the relationship also plays a role in its longevity. In general, all other things being equal, the greater the investment, the less likely the couple is to split.

Members of the in-group are seen as heterogeneous and members of the out-group are seen as_______________

homogeneous

in a New York Times Magazine article on hate crimes. Such statements assume the "_______________," which implies accumulated aggressive energy, like dammed-up water, needs a release.

hydraulic model

The parents themselves were highly prejudiced against minority groups; perhaps their children acquire their prejudices through the process of _____________. That is, a child might consciously pick up beliefs about minorities from his or her parents because the child identifies with them.

identification

When people are already feeling vulnerable about their mortality, prejudice helps bolster a threatened belief system. Thinking about death can also heighten communal feelings, such as ingroup _____________________

identification, togetherness, and altruism

Residential stability also strengthens communal_________________ and procommunity behavior

identity

Reciprocal Liking

if someone likes us, we tend to like him or her

With________________feedback, we are better able to gain insight into the impact of our actions and statements and to consider our options for meeting our own needs, as well as our partner's.

immediate

Even children's _____________ racial attitudes reflect their parents' explicit prejudice

implicit

rejudice provides one of the best examples of our dual attitude system

implicit (automatic), explicit (conscious)

example of instrumental aggression

in a professional football game, a defensive lineman will usually do whatever it takes to thwart his opponent (the blocker) and tackle the ball carrier. This typically includes intention- ally inflicting pain on his opponent if doing so is useful in helping him get the blocker out of the way so that he can get to the ball carrier.

Thanks to natural________________, women with brothers tend to trust unfamiliar men whose faces are morphed with their own but do not feel attracted to them; they find self-resembling men's faces to be "trustworthy but not lust-worthy"

inbreeding avoidance

A dash of uncertainty can also fuel desire. Thinking that someone probably likes you—but you aren't sure—tends to ______________ your thinking about, and feeling attracted to, another

increase

Where school desegregation results in a competitive situation, especially if there are serious inequities for the minority groups, there is often an____________ in hostility of blacks or Latinos toward whites that is at least partially due to an attempt to regain some lost self-esteem.

increase

Taking all of this together it is clear that venting anger—directly or indirectly, verbally or physically—does not reduce hostility. It ________________ it.

increases

Once established, prejudice is maintained largely by ______________

inertia

The psychology of _______________can and does set up pressures to reduce prejudiced attitudes and can set the stage for smooth, nonviolent school desegregation under ideal conditions.

inevitability

Once we notice an ambiguous event, we must interpret it. Put yourself in the room filling with smoke. Though worried, you don't want to embarrass yourself by appearing flustered. You glance at the others. They look calm, indifferent. Assuming everything must be okay, you shrug it off and go back to work. Then one of the others notices the smoke and, noting your apparent unconcern, reacts similarly. This is yet another example of_________________

informational influence.

An _________________ is an inclusive group; the group that the person belongs to and identifies with.

ingroup

An outgroup includes all those who are not in the _______________

ingroup

In short, we like to be liked—and the more _____________ we feel, the more we like someone who likes us.

insecure

Benevolent sexism, according to Glick and Fiske, is "a particularly________________ form of prejudice" because, lacking a tone of hostility toward women, it doesn't seem like a "prejudice" to men— nor to many women, either.

insidious

Anticipated rewards and costs influence_________________

instrumental aggression

Most terrorism is _______________. "What nearly all suicide terrorist campaigns have in common is a specific secular and strategic goal," concludes Robert Pape (2003) after studying all suicide bombings from 1980 to 2001.

instrumental aggression

a pilot dropping a bomb on an enemy in wartime is considered an act of ___________________

instrumental aggression

_____________are more enduring. Because they are mutually rewarding, they also lead to better ongoing relationships

integrative agreements

"self-other integration":

intertwined self-concepts

Sternberg (1986) proposed that love consists of a mixture of three components. The components are ______________________

intimacy, passion, and commitment

Sherif

introduced the seeming essentials into several three-week summer camping experiences. In one study, he divided 22 unacquainted Oklahoma City boys into two groups, took them to a Boy Scout camp in separate buses, and settled them in bunkhouses about a half-mile apart at Oklahoma's Robber's Cave State Park. For most of the fi rst week, each group was unaware of the other's existence. By cooperating in various activities—preparing meals, camping out, fi xing up a swimming hole, building a rope bridge—each group soon became close-knit. They gave themselves names: "Rattlers" and "Eagles." Typifying the good feeling, a sign appeared in one cabin: "Home Sweet Home." G roup identity thus established, the stage was set for the confl ict. Near the fi rst week's end, the Rattlers discovered the Eagles "on 'our' baseball fi eld." When the camp staff then proposed a tournament of competitive activities between the two groups (baseball games, tugs-of-war, cabin inspections, treasure hunts, and so forth), both groups responded enthusiastically. This was win-lose competition. The spoils (medals, knives) would all go to the tournament victor. The result? The camp degenerated into open warfare. It was like a scene from William Golding's novel Lord of the Flies, which depicts the social disintegration of boys marooned on an island. In Sherif's study, the conflict began with each side calling the other names during the competitive activities. Soon it escalated to dining hall "garbage wars," fl ag burnings, cabin ransackings, even fist fights. Asked to describe the other group, the boys said they were "sneaky," "smart alecks," "stinkers," but referring to their own group as "brave," "tough," "friendly."

Laboratory tests of the frustration-aggression theory have produced mixed results: Sometimes frustration increased aggressiveness, sometimes not. For example, if the frustration was understandable—if, as in one experiment, a confederate disrupted a group's problem solving because his hearing aid malfunctioned (rather than just because he wasn't paying attention)—frustration led to _________________, not aggression (Burnstein & Worchel, 1962)

irritation

stereotype threat

is "the apprehension experienced by members of a minority group that they might behave in a manner that confirms an existing stereotype."

scapegoat theory

is also related to the idea of economic hardship in that it proposes that during economic down times people tend to look for a group to blame for their misfortunes. After WWI, Germany had hyperinflation that was so bad that a wheelbarrow full of money was required to buy a loaf of bread. Many Germans scapegoated people of Jewish ethnicity leading to the rise of the Nazi party and the horror of the Holocaust.

Hostile aggression

is an act of aggression stemming from a feeling of anger and aimed at inflicting pain or injury.

Prejudice

is an attitude which is a distinct combination of feelings, inclinations to act, and beliefs

Aggression

is an intentional action aimed at doing harm or causing pain.

similarity effect

is best captured by the folk wisdom statement that "birds of a feather flock together." In general, the better the match between two people on their attitudes, beliefs, values, and personality, the more the attraction.

Passionate love

is emotional, exciting, intense. Elaine Hatfield (1988) defined it as "a state of intense longing for union with another" (p. 193). If reciprocated, one feels fulfilled and joyous; if not, one feels empty or despairing.

Consummate love

is high in all three components ( intimacy, passion, and commitment). A romantic relationship that is high in consummate love is believed to be the most satisfying

companionate love

is lower key than passionate love it's a deep, affectionate attachment. It activates different parts of the brain

displaced aggression

is most likely when the target shares some similarity to the instigator and does some minor irritating act that unleashes the displaced aggression . When someone is harboring anger from a prior provocation, even a trivial offense may elicit an explosive overreaction

communal relationship

is one in which neither of the partners is keeping score. Rather, a person will be inclined to give of herself or himself in response to the other's need and will readily receive the same kind of care when he or she is feeling needy.

Proximity

is rewarding. It costs less time and effort to receive friendship's benefits with someone who lives or works close by.

Altruism

is selfishness in reverse. An altruistic person is concerned and helpful even when no benefits are offered or expected in return

Covert prejudice

is subtler and is often unexpressed except in a private setting.

social-exchange theory

is that we help after doing a cost-benefit analysis. As part of an exchange of benefits, helpers aim to maximize their rewards and minimize their costs. When donating blood, we weigh the costs (the inconvenience and discomfort) against the benefits (the social approval and noble feeling). If the anticipated rewards exceed the costs, we help

stereotype

is the generalization of characteristics, motives, or behavior to an entire group of people.

pratfall effect

is the tendency for attractiveness to increase or decrease after an individual makes a mistake, depending on the individual's perceived ability to perform well in a general sense.

Aaronson (the author of one of your texts) (1978) created the ________________. In this task, student members of different racial and ethnic groups were mixed together into different groups. Each group was given a task to solve and each person in the group was given a piece of the solution. Individual group members have to work collaboratively with each other to solve the group task, like putting together pieces of a jigsaw puzzle where each member has one piece of the puzzle. Based on research with the jigsaw puzzle technique, members of the different racial and ethnic groups showed reduced prejudice toward each other and showed increases in self-esteem. Members appeared to break down in-group vs. out-group categories and developed more empathy for their fellow classmates.

jigsaw classroom task

Those who assume a______________believe that rape victims must have behaved seductively (Borgida & Brekke, 1985), that battered spouses must have provoked their beatings (Summers & Feldman, 1984), that poor people don't deserve better (Furnham & Gunter, 1984), and that sick people are responsible for their illnesses

just world

here are a number of biologically based theories of prosocial behavior. According to sociobiological theories, members of certain species will sacrifice themselves for the survival of the gene pool. For example, bees will sting an intruder to the hive even though the sting will result in their own death. With the queen safe, the bee genes will continue to survive into future generations. This phenomenon has been called ______________; help one's genes by helping one's kin.

kin selection

reciprocity

leads to reciprocal helping and is a very powerful norm.

People who feel angry or hostile are_______________likely to help

less

Students considered the negative reviewer to be considerably more intelligent, competent, and expert than the positive reviewer—but less _____________

likable!

sociologists long ago found that most people marry someone who

lives in the same neighborhood, or works at the same company or job, or sits in the same class, or visits the same favorite place

In Europe and North America, prejudice is often greater among those_____________or slipping on the socioeconomic ladder and among those whose positive self-image is threatened

low

Several studies indicate that a good predictor of prejudice is whether a person's social status is ______________

low or declining.

Caryl Rusbult and colleagues (1986, 1987, 1998) explored three ways of coping with a failing relationship. Some people exhibit

loyalty neglect voice their concerns

Passionate love =

lust + attachment

Brian Mullen (1986) reported a similar effect associated with _____________________: The bigger the mob, the more its members lose self-awareness and become willing to commit atrocities, such as burning, lacerating, or dismembering the victim.

lynch mobs

Between 1882 and 1930, more _______________ occurred in years when cotton prices were low and economic frustration was therefore presumably high

lynchings

Many stereotypes spring less from malice of the heart than from the________________

machinery of the mind

if we dislike the stimulus initially, the mere exposure effect will __________________ our dislike. However, if we are initially neutral or positive toward the stimulus, the mere exposure effect will tend to increase our attraction to it.

magnify

bonobos have been called the "_______________" ape, because prior to engaging in activities that could otherwise lead to conflict, bonobos have sex. This sexual activity functions to diffuse potential conflict.

make love not war

Individualists

marry "for as long as we both shall love," expect more passion and personal fulfi llment in a marriage, which puts greater pressure on the relationship

Implicit Association Test

measuring people's speed of associations. Much as we more quickly associate a hammer with a nail than with a pail, so the test can measure how speedily we associate "White" with "good" versus "Black" with "good."

A third-party ______________ may offer suggestions that enable conflicting parties to make concessions and still save face. If my concession can be attributed to a mediator, who is gaining an equal concession from my antagonist, neither of us will be viewed as weakly caving in.

mediator

BBC Internet survey of nearly 220,000 people,

men more than women ranked attractiveness as important in a mate, whereas women more than men assigned importance to honesty, humor, kindness, and dependability

Advertisers and politicians exploit this phenomenon. When people have no strong feelings about a product or a candidate, repetition alone can increase sales or votes

mere exposure

Taijfel conducted a number of studies during the 1970's and 1980's demonstrating in-group and out-group biases by using the __________________

minimal group paradigm.

We like people whose behavior provides us with maximum reward at _________________ cost.

minimum

Albert Bandura (1997) proposed a social learning theory of aggression

modeling

hindsight bias

most of us are terrific Monday- morning quarterbacks: After we know the outcome of an event, the complex circumstances surrounding its occurrence suddenly seem crystal clear; it seems as if we knew it all along, and if asked to pre- dict the outcome, we could have done so without difficulty.

The infl uence of family socialization appears in children's prejudices, which often mirror those perceived in their _____________

mothers

egoistic

motivated by self-interest

Final-offer arbitration

motivates each party to make a reasonable proposal

We like to be liked and love to be loved. Thus, liking is usually _______________. We like those who like us.

mutual

The key factor to resolve the conflict between the eagles and rattler was ______________—a situation wherein individuals need one another to accomplish their goal.

mutual interdependence

Some elements of love are common to all loving relationships:

mutual understanding, giving and receiving support, enjoying the loved one's company.

Aristotle called humans "the social animal." Indeed, we have what today's social psychologists call a _______________ —to connect with others in enduring, close relationships.

need to belong

Prejudice is always ________________and refers to a "negative attitude about a group."

negative

Prejudice refers to a ______________ attitude about a group

negative

. It is a well known phenomenon that _________________ bulls, stallions, Tom-cats, etc. makes them less aggressive because it reduces their testosterone levels.

neutering

Mann (1981) found that when the crowd was small and exposed by daylight, people usually did not try to bait the person with cries of "Jump!" But when a large crowd or the cover of_______________gave people anonymity, the crowd usually did bait and jeer.

night

Does becoming physically anonymous always unleash our worst impulses?

no

when it came to actual felonies, the physical attractiveness of the defendant made _______________ difference. Thus, the answer is that even trained judges are in danger of being influenced. But when the crime is serious, their good judgment overrides the potential impact of this irrelevant variable.

no

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's concept of the _____________ (a theory he developed in 1762) suggested that we human beings, in our natural state, are gentle creatures and that it is a restrictive society that forces us to become hostile and aggressive.

noble savage

Noxious stimuli in general have been found to raise arousal levels and increase aggression. Examples of noxious stimuli include ____________________

noise, heat, crowding, and pollution.

Stereotyped beliefs and prejudiced attitudes exist not only because of social conditioning and because they enable people to displace hostilities, but also as by-products of ______________

normal thinking processes

Those in an enduring relationship, including roommates and those in love, do __________feel bound to trade similar benefits—notes for notes, parties for parties (Berg, 1984). They feel freer to maintain equity by exchanging a variety of benefits ("When you drop by to lend me your notes, why don't you stay for dinner?") and eventually to stop keeping track of who owes whom

not

in problem-solving groups, the participants who are considered the most competent and to have the best ideas tend ____________ to be the ones who are best liked.

not

praise, favors, and the like are_____________ transsituational; whether they function as rewards depends on situational variations, some of which can be extremely subtle.

not

cause of bystander inhinition

notice, interpret and assume responsibility

Social psychologists focus more on the "______________" or socialization side of the equation, since it deals primarily with social influence variables

nurture

Displacement

occurs in an old anecdote about a man who, humiliated by his boss, berates his wife, who yells at their son, who kicks the dog, which bites the mail carrier (who goes home and berates his wife . . .).

"_______________________" in communal relationships lead to less attraction than "no offers of repayment"

offers of repayment

Canada and the United States record ________ divorce for every two marriages

one

Lab studies have found that although ______________ drink of alcohol actually decreases aggression, three or more drinks leads to increased aggression

one

When Latané, James Dabbs (1975), and 145 collaborators "accidentally" dropped coins or pencils during 1,497 elevator rides, they were helped 40 percent of the time when_________other person was on the elevator and less than 20 percent of the time when there were six passengers.

one

In one experiment, they found that people disclosed more, with greater honesty and less posturing, when they met people _____________. They also felt more liking for people with whom they conversed online for 20 minutes than for those met for the same time face to-face.

online

Norms are learned through

operant conditioning and modeling.

People (women especially) respond to ___________ with depressed or numbed mood, anxiety, hurt feelings, efforts to restore relationships, and eventual withdrawal

ostracism

Those who are not in the category are seen as part of the "________________."

out-group

A cognitive bias associated with social categorization is called the ________________. Once we have created a social category, we tend to view our self as in the category or not in the category. If we are in the category, then we are a part of the "in-group." Those who are not in the category are seen as part of the "out-group."

out-group homogeneity bias

Mere division into groups can create an _____________ —a sense that they are "all alike" and different from "us" and "our" group

outgroup homogeneity effect

The 10 percent problem with stereotypes arises when they are _______________ or just plain wrong

overgeneralized

retaliation is typically more severe than the initial insult or attack; we tend to engage in ______________, which sets the stage for dissonance reduction.

overkill

Modern prejudice even appears as a race sensitivity that leads to exaggerated reactions to isolated minority persons—

overpraising their accomplishments, overcriticizing their mistakes, and failing to warn Black students, as they would White students, about potential academic difficulty

One study found that, when ________________, young women tend to wear and prefer more revealing outfits than when infertile

ovulating

the hormone____________ supports feelings of attachment and trust

oxytocin

Among dating couples, the closer and longer the relationship and the fewer the available alternatives, the more ____________ the breakup

painful

frustration is most pronounced when the goal is becoming _____________________________

palpable and drawing within reach, when expectations are high, and when the goal is blocked unjustifiably.

As Gordon Allport concluded, "The role of religion is ______________. It makes prejudice and it unmakes prejudice

paradoxical

subgroups are acknowledged as a ___________ of the overall group

part

A crime of ________________ is considered an act of angry (affective) aggression

passion

triangle of love

passion (euphoria and sexual excitement), intimacy (feeling free to talk about anything, feeling close to and understood by the loved one), commitment (needing to be with the other person, feeling loyal).

Robert Sternberg (1998) views love as a triangle consisting of three components:

passion, intimacy, and commitment

Hatfield and Walster (1978) theorized that there are two types of love, ___________________________

passionate love and companionate love.

terror management

people's self-protective emotional and cognitive responses (including adhering more strongly to their cultural worldviews and prejudices) when confronted with reminders of their mortality.

"dissimilarity in relevant ________________ dimensions" can lead to greater attraction in some cases

performance

the use of stereotypes means activating schemas that involve low effort thinking (______________________), and as a result, they lead to distortions and interfere with the person's ability to have a true understanding of the person being stereotyped.

peripheral processing or heuristic processing

Stereotypes can lead to a _____________bias or a negative bias (e.g., "blonds have more fun" or "blonds are not smart").

positive

Stereotypes," note Lee Jussim, Clark McCauley, and Yueh-Ting Lee (1995), "may be ______________

positive or negative, accurate or inaccurate

although a high degree of competence does make us appear more attractive, some evidence of fallibility increases our attractiveness still further. This phenomenon has been dubbed the _________________

pratfall effect.

Neural influences on aggression

prefrontal cortex less active

The mere-exposure effect's negative side is our wariness of the unfamiliar— which may explain the automatic, unconscious_______________people often feel when confronting those who are different.

prejudice

Unequal status breeds _____________

prejudice

Stereotypes (beliefs) are not _____________

prejudices (attitudes)

Where economic conflict is present, as in integrated neighborhoods of ________________, there is often an increase in prejudiced attitudes.

private homes

Deep and long-standing attachments seldom break quickly; detaching is a_______________, not an event

process

A number of factors have been studied that have an influence on attraction. Four major areas of study are

propinquity, similarity, reciprocal liking, and physical attractiveness.

The impetus for social psychology research in ____________was the murder of Kitty Genovese in New York City in the mid-1960's

prosocial behavior

Ethnic peace is easier to maintain during __________ times.

prosperous

Everyone uses cognitive schemas that are called ___________

prototypes.

One powerful predictor of whether any two people are friends is sheer _________________

proximity

The U.S. National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health revealed that gay and lesbian teens are much more likely to be harshly____________by schools and courts than are their straight peers, despite being less likely to engage in serious wrongdoing

punished

Equity theory

puts the notion of "fairness" into the equation. If the relationship is out of balance where one is "overbenefited" and the other is "underbenefited," both should feel the need to restore balance. However, the research has demonstrated that as one might guess, this is more of a problem for the underbenefited person than the overbenefited one. Nevertheless, these imbalanced romantic relationships are less likely to be successful in the long run.

Some prominent examples of prejudice include _______________

racism and sexism.

" Terrorism is _________________ committed by someone with a psychological pathology, note Arie Kruglanski and his colleagues (2009); instead, terrorists seek personal significance through, for example, attaining hero or martyr status

rarely

Those told that certain others like or admire them usually feel a __________________ affection

reciprocal

Norms learned through operant conditioning and modeling

reciprocity social responsibility

Sociobiologists also suggest that helping of others including strangers may occur because of the expectation that we will be helped in return (reciprocal helping). Thus, the propensity to adhere to the______________ may be genetic and passed on through generations as a survival mechanism.

reciprocity norm

Theories of Prosocial Behavior-Biological

reciprocity norm kin selection

eliminating people's hope is an undesirable means of _____________ aggression.

reducing

Resolving Social Dilemma

regulation small is beautiful ( make the group small) communication Changing the Payoffs Appealing to Altruistic Norm

As sociologist Robert Merton wrote, this self-fulfilling prophecy generates and perpetuates a "__________________." I

reign of error

Back in the helter-skelter world of high school, my own research reveals that __________________ were the dominant issues underlying every one of the rampage killings.

rejection and the accompanying humiliation

Although research suggests that boys tend to be more physically aggressive, girls are more prone to engage in a more social form of aggression, which Nikki Crick and her associates call_____________________

relational aggression.

Revolutions usually are not started by people whose faces are in the mud. They are most frequently started by people who have recently lifted their faces out of the mud, looked around, and noticed that other people are doing bet- ter than they are and that the system is treating them unfairly. Thus, frustration is not the result of simple deprivation; it is the result of _________________

relative deprivation.

Prejudice comes in many forms

religion obesity Sexual orientation Age Immigants

Stereotypes

represent cognitive efficiency. They are energy-saving schemes for making speedy judgments and predicting how others will think and act. Thus, they served as " ultimate, evolutionary functions," by enabling our ancestors to cope and survive

GRIT steps

requires one side to initiate a few small de-escalatory actions, after announcing a conciliatory intent the initiator establishes credibility and genuineness by carrying out, exactly as announced, several verifiable conciliatory acts the plan protect each side's self-interest by maintaining retaliatory capability

One aspect of social learning that tends to inhibit aggression is the tendency most people have to take ___________ for their actions.

responsibility

Punishment typically triggers__________________, which means that those who punish tend to escalate conflict, worsening their outcomes, while nice guys finish first. What punishers see as a defensive reaction, recipients see as an aggressive escalation

retaliation

The implicit egotism phenomenon does have its skeptics. Uri Simonsohn (2011a, 2011b) acknowledges that implicit egotism occurs in the laboratory, and he was able to replicate the associations between people's names, occupations, and places. But he argues that "_____________" sometimes is the explanation. For example, streets are often named after their residents, and towns are often named after their founders (Williams founded Williamsburg). And founders' descendants may stick around

reverse causality

a ____________________ would lead us to suspect that, all other things being equal, we will like people who live in close proximity to us because we can get the same reward at less cost by traveling a short distance than we can by traveling a great distance.

reward-cost theory

cholars have criticized research into the authoritarian personality for focusing on _____________ authoritarianism and overlooking similarly dogmatic authoritarianism of the left

right-wing

Different forms of prejudice—toward Blacks, gays and lesbians, women, Muslims, immigrants, the homeless

right-wing authoritarians

The cooling of intense romantic love often triggers a period of disillusion, especially among those who believe that_________________ love is essential both for a marriage and for its continuation

romantic

as the relationship develops, it often moves from pure passion and blossoms into a combination of passion and intimacy that Sternberg calls _________________.

romantic love

People who live in _____________ environments are more likely to help

rural

Aggression is most likely when we are aroused and it seems ____________________ to aggress

safe and rewarding

The ancient Hebrews had a custom that is noteworthy in this context. During the days of atonement, a priest placed his hands on the head of a goat while reciting the sins of the people. This symbolically transferred the sin and evil from the people to the goat. The goat was then allowed to escape into the wilderness, thus cleansing the community of sin. The animal was called a ________________

scapegoat.

subtyping —

seeing people who deviate as exceptions example..The positive image that British schoolchildren form of their friendly school police offi cers (whom they perceive as a special category) doesn't improve their image of police offi cers in general

bargaining

seeking an agreement to a conflict through direct negotiation between parties.

Example of the Prisoner's Dilemma

seemingly intractable and costly confl icts between Israelis and Palestinians over borders, U.S. Republicans and Democrats over taxation and deficits, and professional athletes and team owners over pay.

People made __________________are also less likely to cheat . So are those who generally have a strong sense of themselves as distinct and independent

self-aware

Alcohol enhances aggressiveness by reducing people's ______________, by focusing their attention on a provocation, and by people's mentally associating alcohol with aggression

self-awareness

Research by Ed Diener (1980) and Steven Prentice-Dunn and Ronald Rogers (1980, 1989) revealed that unselfconscious, deindividuated people are less restrained, less self-regulated, more likely to act without thinking about their own values, and more responsive to the situation. Those findings complement and reinforce the experiments on ___________________ .

self-awareness

Christian Crandall and Amy Eshleman21 suggest that most people struggle with the conflict between their urge to express prejudice and their need to maintain a positive _____________ (as someone who is not a bigot), both in their own eyes, as well as the eyes of others.

self-concept

People who are _____________________, or who are temporarily made so, exhibit greater consistency between their words outside a situation and their deeds in it

self-conscious

Tom Postmes and Russell Spears (1998; Reicher & others, 1995) concluded that being anonymous makes one less

self-conscious, more group-conscious, and more responsive to cues present in the situation, whether negative (Klan uniforms) or positive (nurses' uniforms)

Those made self-aware, by acting in front of a mirror or a TV camera, exhibit increased _______________, and their actions more clearly reflect their attitudes

self-control

a relationship where trust displaces anxiety and where we are free to open ourselves without fear of losing the other's affection (Holmes & Rempel, 1989). Such relationships are characterized by what the late Sidney Jourard called

self-disclosure

If however, helping in a communal relationship threatens our_________________, we are less likely to help than we would in an exchange relationship.

self-esteem

Steven Fein and Stephen Spencer found that threats to _____________ tend to increase prejudicial responses.

self-esteem

Internalizing negative stereotypes can often lead to _____________________

self-fulfilling prophecies

This is but one of many situations in which "belief creates reality."When we hold strong beliefs or stereotypes about other people, our actions toward them often causes them to behave in ways that validate our original assumptions.

self-fulfilling prophecy

A tendency to ____________________ inclines people to deny the wrong of their evil acts. ("You call that hitting? I hardly touched him!")

self-justify

The ___________________ leads individuals and groups to accept credit for their good deeds and shirk responsibility for bad deeds

self-serving bias

seeds of such misperception

self-serving bias self-justify fundamental attribution error preconceptions polarize group think ingroup bias negative stereotypes

The _________________ to which adolescents are exposed suggest that the traditional female role is to resist the male's sexual advances and the male's role is to be persistent.

sexual scripts

In one Pew Research Center (2007b) survey, "________________" ranked third (after "faithfulness" and a "happy sexual relationship") among nine things that people saw as marks of successful marriages

sharing household chores

Social facilitation experiments

show that groups can arouse people

social loafing experiments

show that groups can diffuse responsibility.

If others have _____________ opinions, we feel rewarded because we p resume that they like us in return. Moreover, those who share our views help validate them. We especially like people if we have successfully converted them to our way of thinking

similar

Studies indicate that we are more likely to help those who we regard as____________ to us, people who we regard as "ingroup" members vs. "outgroup" members.

similar

there is reason to believe that repeated exposure to X-rated "________________—which are extremely violent but less sexually explicit than pornographic films— has more damaging effects than nonviolent X-rated films

slasher" films

We are more prone to ingroup bias when our group is_____________ in status relative to the outgroup

small and lower

Stereotypes are activated and perpetuated by a number of cognitive processes

social categorization illusory correlation effect

Aggression is an optional strategy. It is determined by the animal's previous ______________, as well as by the specific _______________ in which the animal finds itself.

social experiences, social context

Self-concept—our sense of who we are— contains not just a personal identity (our sense of our personal attributes and attitudes) but also a ________________

social identity

seeing a person behave aggressively served as an impetus for them to engage in innovative aggressive behavior. We call this process _________________

social learning.

Philip Zimbardo, whose "Heroism Project" aims to strengthen people's courage and compassion, contends that the first step to becoming a hero is recognizing _____________that might deter your bystander action

social pressures

If the anticipated rewards exceed the costs, we help

social-exchange theory

For men, physical attractiveness trumped __________________; so long as a woman was attractive he did not care much about her apparent status or background.

socioeconomic status

When a member of a group behaves inconsistently with our expectation, we may interpret or explain away the behavior as due to _______________

special circumstances

Roy Baumeister and Sara Wotman (1992) report that, months or years later, people recall more pain over ______________than over having been spurned. Their distress arises from guilt over hurting someone, from upset over the heartbroken lover's persistence, or from uncertainty over how to respond

spurning someone's love

The arousal-cost model of prosocial behavior

states that helping is motivated by a need to reduce our own distress (arousal)

Walter Lippmann, coined the term

stereotype

This apprehension can actually generate enough anxiety for some members of minority groups that it creates a self-fulfilling prophecy

stereotype threat

T he negative evaluations that mark prejudice often are supported by negative beliefs, called __________________

stereotypes

Ingroups and outgroups are phenomena associated with _______________________

stereotyping and prejudice

one study found that subjects confronted with inconsistent information about their stereotypes of women tended to break their stereotypes down into _______________. Common subcategories that they used were women as "housewives," "career-oriented," "athletic," "feminist," and "sexy." Thus, rather than give up their generic stereotype of women, they simply created new subcategories of stereotypes and tried to fit women into one of those subcategories.

subcategories

Latane and Darley (1970) proposed a five stage model of how people decide whether to help in an emergency

subject must notice the event interpreted as an emergency assuming responsibility knowing how to help deciding to implement help

minimal group paradigm

subjects are randomly assigned to groups and then given a group label. In one study, Taijfel told subjects that based on their art style they were either in the "Klee style" group or the "Kandinski style" group. This was all bogus since subjects were merely randomly assigned to groups and the art styles were fictitious. However, based on group membership alone, the subjects rated members of their own group more highly. They also tended to use the "ultimate attribution error" when rating members of their own group and the other group. According to the ultimate attribution error, success of the in-group members is due to internal stable causes (e.g., talent, intelligence, etc.) but success in the out-group members is due to external unstable causes (e.g., luck, being in the right situation at the right time, etc.).

Elaine paradigm ( Empathy-Altruism model of helping )

subjects watched Elaine (a confederate of the experimenter) receive painful shocks. It was clear that Elaine was having difficulty continuing with the experiment. Subjects were asked if they would be willing to trade places with Elaine since she was having difficulty continuing. Subjects with high empathy levels were willing to trade places with Elaine even if they could easily escape to lower their arousal levels, whereas subjects with low empathy levels chose to escape (leave the situation) when escape was easy.

Modern prejudice often appears ____________, in our preferences for what is familiar, similar, and comfortable

subtly

realistic group conflict theory

suggests that prejudice arises when groups compete for scarce resources

one psychological benefit of prejudice, or of any status system, is a feeling of ______________

superiority

Computer-averaged faces and bodies also tend to be perfectly __________________ —another characteristic of strikingly attractive

symmetrical

Physical attractiveness

taps into a stereotype called "what is beautiful is good." It seems to be the predominate factor in first impressions

as Allport (1954) suggests, when six conditions are met, the contact theory can work. These six conditions are

task interdependence, common goals, group members with equal status, informal interpersonal relations between group members, multiple inter-group contacts between members, and social norms in society that promote equality

Our ____________— how intense and reactive we are—are partly brought with us into the world, influenced by our sympathetic nervous system's reactivity (Kagan, 1989; Wilkowski & Robinson, 2008). A person's temperament, observed in infancy, usually endures

temperaments

Asians

tend to focus less on personal feelings and more on the practical aspects of social attachments they are less vulnerable to disillusionment. less prone to the self-focused individualism that in the long run can undermine a relationship and lead to divorce

own-race bias

tendency to recognize and differentiate between faces of our own race more easily than faces of another race. This explains why someone might think that members of another racial or ethnic group "all look alike."

examples of instrumental aggression

terrorism wars bullies

"Bart Simpson effect"—

that homely children are less able and socially competent than their beautiful peers

right-wing authoritarian

that there are individuals whose fears and hostilities surface as prejudice. Their feelings of moral superiority may go hand in hand with brutality toward perceived inferiors. tend to be "equal opportunity bigots." Different forms of prejudice—toward Blacks, gays and lesbians, women, Muslims, immigrants, the homeless— do tend to coexist in the same individuals (Zick & others, 2008). authoritarian tendencies, sometimes reflected in ethnic tensions, surge during threatening times of economic recession and social upheaval

social-responsibility norm

that we should help those who really need it, without regard to future exchanges. When we pick up the dropped books for the person on crutches, we expect nothing in return

reciprocity norm

that we should return help to those who have helped us. Thus we expect that those who receive favors (gifts, invitations, help) should later return them

examples of Shifting Perception

the "bloodthirsty, cruel, treacherous, buck-toothed little Japs" of World War II soon became—in North American minds (Gallup, 1972) and in the media—our "intelligent, hardworking, self-disciplined, resourceful allies." The Germans, who after two world wars were hated, then admired, and then again hated, were once again admired—apparently no longer plagued by what earlier was presumed to be cruelty in their national character. So long as Iraq was attacking unpopular Iran, even while using chemical weapons to massacre its own Kurds, many nations supported it. Our enemy's enemy is our friend. When Iraq ended its war with Iran and invaded oil-rich Kuwait, Iraq's behavior suddenly became "barbaric." Images of our enemies change with amazing ease

example of social traps

the Prisoner's Dilemma and the Tragedy of the Commons

consummate love

the blending of passion, intimacy and commitment

"system justification"—

the human tendency to approve the way things are.

exchange relationships

the people involved are concerned about making sure that some sort of equity is achieved, that there is fairness in the distribution of the rewards and costs to each of the partners. In this kind of relationship, if there is a major imbalance, both people become unhappy; the person on the short end usually feels angry or depressed, and the person on the long end usually feels guilty.

Social psychologists Bibb Latané and John Darley (1970) were unconvinced. They staged ingenious emergencies and found that a single situational factor—______________—greatly decreased intervention.

the presence of other bystanders

right-wing authoritarians

there are individuals whose fears and hostilities surface as prejudice. Their feelings of moral superiority may go hand in hand with brutality toward perceived inferiors. Altemeyer also concludes that right-wing authoritarians tend to be "equal opportunity bigots." Different forms of prejudice—toward Blacks, gays and lesbians, women, Muslims, immigrants, the homeless— do tend to coexist in the same individuals

example of stereo typical threat

there is a gender stereotype that women have less math ability than men. Spencer and Steele (1996) told subjects that they would be taking a math test. One group was told that the math test was important for determining their intellectual ability in math. Another group was told that the test was a non-valid math test. When the math test was emphasized as indicating math ability, women scored lower than men on the test. However, when the same test was labeled non-valid, men and women scored equally on the math test. The interpretation of the findings is that women in the "math ability" test were anxious about confirming a negative stereotype and their anxiety caused them to not do as well which created a self-fulfilling prophecy. However, when there was no stereotype threat (the non-valid math condition), the anxiety levels of men and women were equal and therefore their performance was equal.

instrumental aggression

there is an intention to hurt the other person, but the hurting takes place as a means to some goal other than causing pain.

"narcissists"

those more focused on their own desires and image—enter relationships with less commitment and less likelihood of long-term relational success

In The Nature of Prejudice, Allport catalogued 15 possible effects of victimization. Allport believed these reactions were reducible to two basic types—

those that involve blaming oneself (withdrawal, self-hate, aggression against one's own group) and those that involve blaming external causes (fighting back, suspiciousness, increased group pride).

. Compared to women, men are ______________ times more likely to commit suicide and be murdered

three

Males

three times more likely to commit suicide and be murdered. They are nearly all the battlefield and death row casualties. They die five years sooner. And males represent the majority with mental retardation or autism, as well as students in special education programs

For a starving rat or a starving person, a bowl of dry cereal is a reward, and it is a reward during the day or during the night, in winter or in summer, if offered by a man or by a woman, and so on. Similarly, for a drowning person, a rescue launch is a reward under all circumstances. That is, such rewards are___________________.

transsituational

Operant conditioning theories can explain some helping behavior. For example,

true altruism, giving unselfishly, is typically not present in preschoolers. Most helping at this stage is prompted by adults and is merely an act of conformity and response to verbal reinforcement than an act of altruism.

Conflict researchers report that a key factor is ___________ . If you believe the other person is well intentioned, you are more likely to divulge your needs and concerns

trust

an example of an integrative agreement

two sisters who quarreled over an orange (Follett, 1940). Finally they compromised and split the orange in half, whereupon one sister squeezed her half for juice while the other used the peel on her half to make a cake. If the sisters had each explained why they wanted the orange, they very likely would have agreed to share it, giving one sister all the juice and the other all the peel. integrative agreements are more enduring. Because they are mutually rewarding, they also lead to better ongoing relationships

According to this theory, being aroused by any source should intensify passionate feelings—provided that the mind is free to attribute some of the arousal to a romantic stimulus

two-factor theory of emotion

Many gay youth—______________ of gay secondary school students in one national British survey—have reported experiencing homophobic bullying

two-thirds

people tend to make attributions consistent with their prejudices. Thomas Pettigrew has dubbed this the _______________

ultimate attribution error.

Clark and Mills suggest that prenuptial agreements, in which people about to be married specify precisely what they expect from their partner, are more likely to _______________ than enhance the intensity of their feelings for each other.

undermine

Baumeister and his associates59 found that when people anticipate social rejection, they are also more likely to choose

unhealthy over healthy food (loading up on the Oreos!), procrastinate, and make impulsive, unwise decisions.

Nearly a century of research on romantic compatibility leads them to conclude that the formulas of online matchmaking sites are ______________ to do what they claim

unlikely

Misinterpretations are likely when someone expects an ___________ encounter with you

unpleasant

attractiveness better predicts happiness and social connections for those in _____________rather than rural settings

urban

There is more empirical evidence for the_____________than the "trust" hypothesis.

urban-overload hypothesis

a negative evaluation generally increases the admiration we feel for the evaluator so long as he or she is not evalutaing ________________!

us

As we have seen, one major cause of violence—in addition to obvious causes like intergroup hatred, revenge, or war—is ________________itself.

violence

James Dabbs and his colleagues found that naturally occurring testosterone levels are significantly higher among prisoners convicted of _____________ than among those convicted of nonviolent crimes.

violent crimes

Another eliciting condition that has been linked to the arousal aggression explanatory model is a specific type of pornography. The type of pornography that research shows is associated with increased aggression is what is characterized as _________________, such as pornography simulating rape

violent pornography

"In fact," note Daniel Kahneman and Jonathan Renshon (2007), all the biases uncovered in 40 years of psychological research are conducive to ___________________

war

The realistic conflict theory

was illustrated by the Robbers Cave studies. According to this perspective, when resources are scarce, groups compete more fiercely for these scarce resources. This competition breeds intergroup conflict and prejudice. There is some historical evidence indicating that during economic hard times there has been more prejudice between ethnic groups in America than during economic good times.

the propinquity effect

we are more likely to become friends with those who we see or interact with the most.

Turner (1947-2011) proposed social identity theory. Turner and Tajfel observed the following:

we categorize we identify we compare

illusory correlation effect

we tend to connect stimuli in the environment that are the most distinctive and capture our attention. the most perceptually salient person in a group is seen as the most causally influential, the one given more credit for group success than is merited and more blame for group failure than is merited.

More students in "culture of honor" states bring__________________ to school, and these states have had three times as many school shootings as others

weapons

In communal relationships (e.g., family relationships) we are more likely to help out of concern for the ______________ of the other

welfare

example of Noxious stimuli of aggression

when subjects were made to wait at a light after it turned green, they were more likely to honk their horns at the car in front of them on hot days when their windows were rolled down (presumably indicating they had no air conditioning) than on cooler days. Archival studies have found that homicide rates in Houston were higher on hot summer days than cold winter days. As predicted, non-violent crime showed no differences. Archival studies have also found that two-thirds more batters were hit by pitchers in professional baseball games when the temperature on the field was greater than 90 degrees

Catharsis

when we get rid of negative emotions by venting observing drama but also through our recalling and reliving past events, through our expressing emotions, and through our actions.

benevolent sexism

which appears favorable to women but actually is patronizing. hold stereo- typically positive views of women (e.g., that they are warmer, kinder, and more nurturing than men)

hostile sexism

which reflects an active dislike of women. hold stereotypic views of women that suggest that women are inferior to men (e.g., that they are less intelligent, less competent, and so on)

According to the evolutionary psychologist David Buss, women and men had different mating agendas in our ancient past. Men wanted to reproduce ___________, whereas women needed to reproduce wisely.

widely

In men, testosterone increases the facial width-to-height ratio. Sure enough, in the laboratory, men with relatively ______________faces display more aggression

wider

Researchers have also found that ______________ are often more willing to disclose their fears and weaknesses than are men

women

Some people—most of them ____________—are especially skilled "openers"; they easily elicit intimate disclosures from others, even from those who normally don't reveal very much of themselves

women

Most people like women more than men. They perceive women as more understanding, kind, and helpful. A favorable stereotype, which Eagly (1994) dubs the _________________, results in a favorable attitude.

women-are-wonderful effect

Exclusion hurts longest for _____________ than older adults

younger

exampled of crowding

— the subjective feeling of not having enough space—is stressful. Crammed in the back of a bus, trapped in slow-moving freeway traffi c, or living three to a small room in a college dorm diminishes one's sense of control

Negative mirror-image perceptions have been an obstacle to peace in many places

• Both sides of the Arab-Israeli confl ict insisted that "we" are motivated by our need to protect our security and our territory, whereas "they" want to obliterate us and gobble up our land. "We" are the indigenous people here, "they" are the invaders. "We" are the victims; "they" are the aggressors" (Bar-Tal, 2004; Heradstveit, 1979; Kelman, 2007). Given such intense mistrust, negotiation is difficult. • At Northern Ireland's University of Ulster, Catholic and Protestant students viewed videos of a Protestant attack at a Catholic funeral and a Catholic attack at a Protestant funeral (Hunter & others, 1991). Most students attributed the other side's attack to "bloodthirsty" motives but its own side's attack to retaliation or self-defense. • Terrorism is in the eye of the beholder. In the Middle East, a public opinion survey found 98 percent of Palestinians agreeing that the killing of 29 Palestinians by an assault-rifl e-bearing Israeli at a mosque constituted terrorism, and 82 percent dis agreed that the killing of 21 Israeli youths by a Palestinian suicide-bombing constituted terrorism( Kruglanski & F ishman, 2006). Israelis likewise have responded to violence with intensified perceptions of Palestinian evil intent

Testosterone affects on aggression

• Drugs that diminish testosterone levels in violent human males will subdue their aggressive tendencies. • After men reach age 25, their testosterone levels and rates of violent crime decrease together. • Testosterone levels tend to be higher among prisoners convicted of planned and unprovoked violent crimes than of nonviolent crimes (Dabbs, 1992; Dabbs & others, 1995, 1997, 2001). • Among the normal range of teen boys and adult men, those with high testosterone levels are more prone to delinquency, hard drug use, and aggressive responses to provocation • After handling a gun, men's testosterone levels rise; and the more their testosterone rises, the more aggressive they are toward others (Klinesmith & others, 2006). • In men, testosterone increases the facial width-to-height ratio. Sure enough, in the laboratory, men with relatively wider faces display more aggression. The same is true in the hockey rink, where collegiate and professional hockey players with relatively wide faces spend more time in the penalty box . Other people also correctly guessed that wide-faced men would be more aggressive, and they were less likely to trust them (

book example of prisoner dilemma

• If Prisoner A confesses and Prisoner B doesn't, the DA will grant immunity to A and will use A's confession to convict B of a maximum offense (and vice versa if B confesses and A doesn't). • If both confess, each will receive a moderate sentence. • If neither prisoner confesses, each will be convicted of a lesser crime and receive a light sentence

Alcohol affects on aggression

• The Australian city of Melbourne saw a marked upswing in assaults during the 2000s, fueled primarily by alcohol consumption late at night (Eckersley & Reeder, 2008). • When asked to think back on relationship conflicts, intoxicated people administer stronger shocks and feel angrier than do sober people during lab experiments (MacDonald & others, 2000). • In 65 percent of homicides and 55 percent of in-home fights and assaults, the assailant and/or the victim had been drinking (American Psychological Association, 1993). Four in 10 prisoners convicted of a violent crime were drinking when they committed murder, assault, robbery, or sexual assault (Karberg & James, 2005). mye25454

Social psychologists also study the circumstances that enhance helpfulness. The odds of our helping someone increase in these circumstances

• We have just observed a helpful model. • We are not hurried. • The victim appears to need and deserve help. • The victim is similar to us. • We are in a small town or rural area. • There are few other bystanders

Helping often increases among people who are

• feeling guilty, thus providing a way to relieve the guilt or restore self-image; • in a good mood; or • deeply religious (evidenced by higher rates of charitable giving and volunteerism)

People usually stay married if they

• married after age 20. • both grew up in stable, two-parent homes. • dated for a long while before marriage. • are well and similarly educated. • enjoy a stable income from a good job. • live in a small town or on a farm. • did not cohabit or become pregnant before marriage. • are religiously committed. • are of similar age, faith, and education.