All APBIO Ch. 1-55 (Pretty EPIC)

Poly A Tail

The modified end of the 3' end (adenine base pairs) of an mRNA molecule consisting of the addition of some 50 to 250 adenine nucleotides., mRNA degradation typically begins with shortening of this.

Opsin

The protein part of the visual pigment molecule, to which the light-sensitive retinal molecule is attached.

Root Pressure

The upward push of water within the stele of vascular plants, caused by active pumping of minerals into the xylem by root cells, Usually happens at night when transpiration is very low to zero.

Bioremediation

The use of organisms to remove pollutants from soil, air , or water.

Placenta

The vascular structure in the uterus of most mammals providing oxygen and nutrients for and transferring wastes from the developing fetus

Cardiac Output

The volume of blood per minute that the ventricle pumps OUT into the SYSTEMIC cicuit. Depends on 2 Factors(the heart rate, and Stroke volume). Can increase by as much as 5 during excercise.

Xylem

The woody part of plants: the supporting and water-conducting tissue, consisting primarily of tracheids and vessels

Zone of Cell Division

The zone of primary growth in roots consisting of the root apical meristem and its derivatives. New root cells are produced in this region.

Zone of Maturation

The zone of primary growth in roots where cells complete their differentiation and become functionally mature.

Zone of Elongation

The zone of primary growth in roots where new cells elongate, sometimes up to ten times their original length.

Lamark's Evolution

Theory published in 1809 which proposed two incorrect mechanisms for evolution(Use and Disuse) and (Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics.)

Activation synthesis theory

Theory that dreams reflect inputs from random brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story

The Founder Effect

Name for what occurs after a few individuals become isolated and establish new population. Accounts for a large amount of inherited disorders among isolated populations.

Aldose

Name of polysaccharide when carbonyl compound is at the end of a C-skeleton; glucose is an ex.

Ketose

Name of polysaccharide when carbonyl compound is within the C-skeleton; fructose is an ex.

Derivatives

New cells that are displaced from an apical meristem and continue to divide until the cells they produce become specialized.

Inflammatory Response

Nonspecific defense against infection, characterized by redness, heat, swelling, and pain

Byrophytes

Nonvascular plants - examples are liverworms, hornworts, and mosses.

Carbohydrates

One of the 4 main classes of biological molecules, Organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms usually in the proportion of 1:2:1.

Dendritic Cells

One of the 4 types of white blood cells(leukocyes) , Can ingest microbes by phagocytosis, but their main function is to stimulate the development of aqcuired immunity.

Heterotrophs

Organisms that need at least one organic molecule, to make other organic compounds

Autotrophs

Organisms that need only CO2 as a carbon source.

Chemotrophs

Organisms that obtain energy from chemicals

Phototrophs

Organisms that obtain energy from chemicals

Obligate Anaerobes

Organisms that use O2 for cellular respiration, and cannot grow without it.

Facultative Anaerobes

Organisms that use O2 if it is present -but can also grow by fermentation in an anaerobic environment.

Photoheterotrophs

Organisms that use light for energy, but must also obtain carbonic in organic form.

Thermophiles

Organisms which are adapted to high temperatures, such as in hot springs and geysers, smoker vents on the sea floor, and domestic hot water pipes.

Endothermic

Organisms with bodies that are warmed by heat generated by metabolism. This heat is usually used to maintain a relatively stable body temperature higher than that of the external environment.

Exothermic

Organisms with bodies where the main source of body heat is the absorption external energy.

Exoparasites

Organisms, such as fleas, that live in the exterior of another organism (the host) and obtain food from it.

Prostaglandins E

Prostaglandins that reacts antagonistically to Prostaglandins F, it signals the muscle cells to relax, which then dilates the blood vessels serving the lungs.

Mutations

Random errors in gene replication that lead to a change in the sequence of nucleotides; the source of all genetic diversity

Salatory conduction

Rapid conduction of impulses when the axon is myelinated since depolarizations jump from node (of Ranvier) to node

G3P

Raw material from which plants and other producers assemble glucose...this molecule is a product of the calvin cycle.

Cisternal Maturation Model

Recent model for the Golgi apparatus that says cisternae of the Golgi progress from the cis to trans face, dynamically modifying their contents. These also means some vesicles transport proteins back to the Golgi to recycle enzymes.

Nociceptors

Receptors in the skin that give rise to the sense of pain; they respond to various forms of tissue damage and to temperature extremes.

Endocrine Glands

Refered to as ductless glands because they secret chemical messengers DIRECTLY into extracellular fluid, then they diffuse into circulation.

Dikaryotic

Referring to a fungal mycelium with two haploid nuclei per cell, one from each parent. As it grows the two nuclei divide in tandem without fusing

Phosphorylated

Referring to a molecule that has been the recipient of a phosphate group, and usually undergoes a conformational change.

Dioecious

Referring to a plant species that has staminate and (Arrowhead)carpellate flowers on separate plants.

Malnourished

Referring to an animal whose diet is missing one or more essential nutrients(DO not confused with undernourishment(refers to calories), is much more common as well.

Density Dependent

Referring to any characteristic that varies according to an increase in population density. (Negative Feedback Loop)

Homosporous

Referring to plants in which a single type of spore develops into a bisexual gametophyte having both male and female sex organs. (Most Seedless Vascular Plants)

Substrate Molecule

Refers to an organic molecule generated during the catabolism of glucose.

Biodiversity

Refers to the biological diversity, and has 3 main components, Genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity

ATP Cycle

Regenerates ATP. Energy is stored in the high-energy bond extending to the last phosphate. Heat is given off when ATP breaks into ADP (adenosine diphospate) and P (phosphate). The energy released when ATP->ADP +P is transferred to endergonic reactions through coupling

Photic Zone

Regions of a body of water where light penetrates, enabling photosynthesis, the depth of this is an important factor in a regions primary production, along with limiting nutrients.

Body Posture

Related to the extent to which we face or lean toward or away from others, is more important than weight in mammals and birds.

Fossils

Remains or traces of organisms frorm the past, usually found in sedimentary rocks.

Redundancy

Repetition of messages to reduce the probability of errors in transmission, found in mRNA base sequences

Water Potential

Represented by Greek letter psi (ψ). Is the combined effects of solute concentration and physical pressure. Determines the direction of movement of water. However water that is not bound to solutes moves from regions of higher water potential to regions of lower water potential.

Gametes

Reproductive cells, have only half the number of chromosomes as body cells(23)

Diapsids

Reptiles possessing a skull with two pairs of openings behind each eye socket; includes squamates, birds, crocodiles, and dinosaurs

Endospores

Resistant cells formed by some bacteria when essential nutrients are lacking in the environment. The original cell first produces a copy of its chromosome and surround it with a tough wall. Water is removed and metabolism stops, and the original cell then disintegrates

Anaerobic Respiration

Respiration in which other substance other than O2 are used to accept electrons at the downhill end of ETC.

Pain receptors

Respond to tissue damage; triggered by mechanical, electrical, thermal or chemical energy

Polyploidy

Result of an accident in cell division which results in an extra set of chromosomes.

Evolutionary Adaptation

Result of natural selection, an accumulation of inherited characteristics which enhance organisms ability to survive and reproduce.

Overnourishment

Results from excessiver food intake.

Meiosis 1

Results in 2 haploid daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the original cell, the daughter cells have a set of chromosomes and alleles that are different from each other an from the original diploid cell

Cones

Retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. (6 million) Less sensitive., MOST DENSE in the fovea. Consist of retinal bounded to an opsin . 3 classes red green, blue RGB.

Rods

Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond. (125 Million) Mainly concentrated in the peripheral part of the retina., and NOT found in the fovea. Consist of retinal bounded to an opsin.

Peristalsis

Rythmic waves of contractions by smooth muscle in the wall of the canal that helps move food.

Hermann Muller

Scientist(s) who demonstrated that mutations and hereditary changes can be caused via radiation.

James Hutton

Scottish geologist and farmer who proposed that geologic features could be explained in terms of gradual mechanisms that were currently operating.

Ammonites

Shelled cephalopod animals that were the dominant invertebrate predators for millions of years ending with the mass extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous period.

Cardiac Muscle

Striated, involuntary muscle found only in the heart, generates its own electrical signals.

Disulfide Bridges

Strong covalent bonds formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer which rivets parts of proteins together.

Histone Methylation

The addition of methyl groups (-CH3) to histone tails(N Terminus), promotes condensation of the chromatin and in effect discourages (discourages transcription)

DNA Methylation

The addition of methyl groups (—CH3) to bases of DNA after DNA synthesis(DIFFERENT from Histone Methylation); may serve as a long-term control of gene expression. Serves to limit expression, may act with other enzymes to recriut deacetylation enzymes, thus giving dual repression.

Technology

The advance of this enables biologists to study life at different levels, starts in 1590 with the invention of the microscope, and today with modern supercomputers

Shoot System

The aerial portion of a plant body, consisting of stems, leaves, and (in angiosperms) flowers. Main Photosyntheistic components take place here.

Alteration of Generations

The aleration of multicellular haploid and diploid forms, exhibited by plants and some species of algae

N Terminus

The amino end of the methionine(START) in an RNA. The amino end

32 or 34

The amount of ATP produced in total by oxidative phosphorylation (ETC and Chemiosmosis). Number depends on the carrier that shuttle electrons from NADH to the cytosol, so is not exact

4

The amount of ATP produced in total by substrate level phosphorylation (Gylcolysis and the Kreb Cycle)

36 or 38

The amount of ATP released per molecule of glucose. Is Substrate level phosphorylation + oxidative phosphorylation.

Tidal Volume

The amount of air a mammal inhales and exhales with each breath. Averages about 500 mL in resting humans.

Stroke Volume

The amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle in each contraction(Avg is about 75 mL.)

10^5

The amount of cells that need to be present sothat they can be seen on an agar plate.

Secondary Production

The amount of chemical energy in consumers' food that is converted to their own new biomass during a given time period

53 Kcal

The amount of energy drop( change in G) that occurs for electrons traveling from NADH to oxygen.

7.3 kcal/mol

The amount of enrgy released by each ATP molecule.

64

The amount of possible base code words( 4 ^3), enough to code for the 20 amino acids known. 61 code for things while 3 are either start or stop codons.

Cotransport

The coupling of the "downhill" diffusion of one substance to the "uphill" transport of another against its own concentration gradient. Is responsible for the Uptake of Surose by plant cells

Plasmodesmata

The mesophyll cells of a C4 plant export their 4 carbon compound to the bundle sheath cells through __________

Mesoderm

The middle primary germ layer of an early embryo that develops into the notochord, the lining of the coelom, muscles, skeleton, gonads, kidneys, and most of the circulatory system.

Activation Energy

The minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction, holds back glucose from spontaneously reacting with oxygen.

Nonequilibrium Model

The model of communities that emphasizes that they are not stable in time but constantly changing after being buffeted by disturbances.

Artificial Selection

The modification of species by humans over many generation by selection and breeding individuals that posses desired traits.

Sem Inferior Ovary

Whaen an ovary is on the same line as stamen, petals, and sepals

Cetaceans

Whales and porpoises are called _____. They also have large convulated neocortices

Sunlight

What all energy in an ecosystem enters as before being converted by autotrophs into chemical energy which is used by heterotrophs in the organic compounds of food, and then dissapated of heat.

Wind

What amplifies the effects of enviromental temperature by increasing heat loss due to evaporation and convection, also increases rate of evaporative cooling in animals.

Hemolyph

What blood is termed in an open circulatory system.

Oxaloactetate

What compound does acetyl CoA combine with in order to join the kreb cycle, forms citrate when combined. (KREB)

Dilute Urine

What do many freshwater animals, including perch excete in large amounts in order to maintain a water balance?

Urea

What do sharks maintain a high concentration of inside thier body in order to make sure that they do not experience a lage osmotic water loss. (Is a Nitogenous base, which requires the shark to use TMAO to protect its body, is also a reason why you have to soak it in water before you cook it.

Carbon Dioxide

What epresents the fragments of oxidized organic molecules after the kreb cycle.

Unsaturated lipids

What helps a membrane increase its overall fliudity by making more kinks avaliable to it at lower temperatures? Also explains why some plants have more of these in the autumn than the summer.

Nitric Oxide

What is found in the lysozymes that help posion engulfed microbes.

CO2

What is lost from alpha-Ketoglutarate( after 1st CO2 is removed, resulting in oxidization of the compound and the reduction of NAD+ to NADH, this is also the step where the resulting compound is attatched to coenzyme A by an unstable bond(Forming succinyl CoA). (KREB)

CO2

What is lost from the isocitrate, oxidizing the resulting compound and reducing NAD+ to NADH. The next step of the cycle also involves the removal of this.(In Total 2 are lost per cycle). (KREB)

Glucose

What is oxidized in the chemical process of cellular respiration. (Means that it is the reducing Agent)

Oxygen

What is reduced in the chemical process of respiration. (Means that is tis the oxidizing Agent)

Amines

What is removed from proteins before they are used for fuel? Ends up being removed as waste in animals. (In the form of Uric Acid, Urea, or Ammonia) Depending on the animal.

Sunlight

What is the main source of energy for life on Earth?

2

What is the net gain of ATP from glycolysis, 2 ATP are spent in the energy invesment phase in order to convert glucose and then cleave it into 2 ( 3 carbon sugars).

Lewy Bodies

What is the term for the round intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusions containing ɑ-synuclein found in the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra?

Positive Feedback

What is the type of feedback between the innate and aquired immune system. Contributes to a coordinated, effective response to infection.

Technology

What keeps on increasing humans carrying capacity, however all populations must stop growing sooner or later.

Channel Proteins

What kind of proteins open passageways through the membrane for certain hydrophilic substances such as polar and charged molecules? It is a type of transport protein.

Equilibrium Potential

When the net diffusion of an ion down its conc. gradient slows, and then stops, because of the potential difference. Nernst equation converts the concentration difference of an ion into a voltage measurement.

Phenotypic Polymorphism

When two or more distinct morphs are represented in high enough frequencies to be readily identifiable.

Paracrine signaling

Where a molecule secreted by one cell binds to a receptor on or inside (neighboring cells), thereby inducing a pathway for signal transduction to the cell(s) receiving the secreted molecule.

The Bottleneck Effect

Where a natural disaster drastically reduces the size of the population and makes gene pool not reflective of original populations gene pool. Does not depend on fitness of individuals.

Viral Neutralization

Where antibodies bind to antigens and block their activity by covering surface proteins that may hook to host cell

Opsonization

Where bound antibodies increase macrophage attatchement to the microbes and thus increase phagocytosis.

Golgi Apparatus

Where the gylcoproteins from the ER is modified and stored and then sent to other places, like ER it consists of cisternae( although it is flattened. The cisternae stacks have a distinct polarity( cis(Recieving) located near the ER and trans (Shipping) which gives rise to ves., new researrch has determined this structure to be more dynamic. Is NOT continous.

IgE class

Which class of the 5 types antibodies most often involve allergies.

Vitamin D

Works with calcium and phosphorus to build bones and teeth, is a steriod derived molecule obtained from food or synthesized in the skin. Active form acts directly on the intestines stimulating the uptake of Ca2+ from food.

Tannins

Wide variety of chemical compounds. May interfere with DI tracts of insect herbivores and inhibit microbial growth.

XIST

X is inactive in specific transcript. Transcribed only from the inactive X. It is located in teh XIC. RNa is 17kb lond, but never leaves the nucleaus and does not code for a protein. Non-coding RNa, that coats the inactive X. Required for X activation.

Domain Bacteria

a domain of prokaryotic bacteria the consists of cocci, bacilli, and spirilli shaped cells organized into strepto- and staphlo- groups

Centromere

a specialized condensed region of each chromosome that appears during mitosis where the sister chromatids are held together to form an X shape

Threatened Species

a species that could become endangered in the near future

Keystone Species

a species that is critical to the functioning of the ecosystem in which it lives because it affects the survival and abundance of many other species in its community

Endangered Species

a species that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range

Ecosystems

a specific biological community and its physical environment interacting in an exchange of matter and energy.

System

a specific portion of matter in a given region of space that has been selected for study during an experiment or observation

Thrombus

a stationary clot. When it has grown enough to close off a blood vessel, this dangerous event is a thrombosis

Correlation

a statistical relation between two or more variables such that systematic changes in the value of one variable are accompanied by systematic changes in the other

T DNA

a strech of DNA found in a Ti plasmid, INJECTED IN THE CHROMOSOMAL dna of its host.

Ovary

a structure containing egg cells; the base of a pistil in a flower

Renal Pelvis

a structure shaped like a funnel in the outlet of the kidney into which urine is discharged before passing into the ureter

Ovule

a structure that develops within the ovary of a seed plant and contains the female gametophyte

Substrate

a substance on which an enzyme acts during a chemical reaction

Tetanus

a sustained muscular contraction resulting from a rapid series of nerve impulses

Hydrogenation

adding hydrogen to unsaturated fatty acids, forcing the liquid to solidfy, creates trans fat(which are worse than saturated fats)

Tracheids

Tube shaped cells that carry water and minerals up from the roots. Are actually dead cells- only the walls remain and provide a system of microscopic water pipes.

Porocytes

Tubular cells that allow water to flow from the outside of the sponge to its central cavity

Muscularis

Two layers of muscle surrounding the digestive tube that produce wavelike, rhythmic contractions, called peristalsis, that move food material. Found beneath the Submucosa. 3rd layer

GTP

Two molecules of _______ are required for Codon recognition, and it also increases the accuracy and efficency, one more _____ is hydrolyzed to provide energy fro the translocation step.

Semiconservative Model

Type of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the old molecule, and one newly made strand. (RIGHT). Tested by Matheson and Stahl

Binary Fission

Type of asexual reproduction in prokaryotes which an organism replicates its DNA and divides in half, producing two identical daughter cells

Glandular Epithelia

Type of epithelia that absorbs and secretes chemical solutions(like the ones found in the lumen of the digestive and respitory tracts forms a mucous membrane.

Hay Fever

Type of fever that occurs when plasma cells secrete IgE antibodies specific for antigens on the surface of pollen grains.

Stabilizing Selection

Type of selection that act against extreme phenotypes and favours intermediate variants. Works to reduce variation and mantain status quo.

Phloem

Vascular tissue responsible for the transport of nutrients and the carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis

Microsporocytes

found in microsporangium; divides by meiosis, producing 4 haploid microspores; which then develops into a pollen grain (a male gametophyte enclosed within the pollen wall). These are also called Microspore Mother Cells

Tissue Specific proteins

found only in a specific cell type and give the cell thats characteristic structure and function.

Macromolecules

four main classes of large biological molecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) Have a mass of over 100, 000 daltons.

Adenohypophysis

anterior portion of the pituitary gland, develops from a fold of tissue at the roof of the embryonic mouth, consists of cells that synthsize at least 6 chemicals directly into the blood.

Catecholamines

hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla that affect the sympathetic nervous system in stress response like (epinephrine, norepinephrine)

Expressed Sequence Tags

certain short sequences that correspond to sequences present in known mRNA, are catalouged in a computer, which identifies sequences that are new product coding genes.

Demographic Transition

change in a population from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates ( is associated with a n increae in basic health care , are the most dramatic in China)

Translocation

change to a chromosome in which a fragment of one chromosome attaches to a nonhomologous chromosome

Temporal Heterogeneity

changes in competitive dominance over time because interactions are dynamic and environment fluctuates.

Genetic Drift

changes in the gene pool of a small population due to chance. Tends to reduce genetic variation.

Catalysts

chemical agents that selectively speed up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction and lower activation energy.

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Radiation

energy that is radiated or transmitted in the form of rays or waves or particles

Active Transport

energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference

Ampullae

enlargement at the base of each semicircular canals. at the base is where the receptors are found

X 0 System

how gender is determined in grasshoppers and cockroaches, male has one X and a female has two X's

Cell Lineage

entire ancestry of every cell in the body of an adult (Like that of C. Elegens), usually represented over time in a pedigree.

Craig Venter

entreprenuer who worked for Celera. Developed the "Shotgun" sequencing method, wanted people to pay to view genes in database, raced against Francis Collins to Finish Genome

Chimeras

eukaryotes are genetic ____, they havae combined genomes of at least three different prokayroyes.

Mullerian Mimicry

evolution of two species both of which are unpalatable and have poisonous stingers or some other defense mechanism to resemble each other, leads into the gain of successive advantage .

Macroevolution

evolutionary change above the species level that can be used to define higher taxa.

MSG

excites receptors in the brain; synthetic; people sensitive to it have problems when ingested, can act as agonist for AMPA and NMDA receptors

Inner Renal Medulla

inner part of the nephron includes the loop of henle and the collecting duct

Saturated Fat

fat in which all three fatty acid chains contain the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms, cannot by hydrogenated( Carbon single bonds)

Selective Permeability

feature of the plasma membrane that maintains homeostasis within a cell by allowing some molecules into the cell while keeping others out

Reproductive Table

fertility schedule- age specific summary of reproduction rate in a population

Pericylce

first layer of cells (outermost) within the vascular cylinder, Where lateral roots arise from by puching through the cortex.

Cotyledons

first leaf or first pair of leaves produced by the embryo of a seed plant

Archaeopteris

first trees. they had wood which allowed them to grow taller, and they could grow far away from water, did not bear seeds, was a transistional species known as a progymosperms.

Endothelial Cells

flattened cells that line every blood vessel

Concurrent Exchange

flow is in the same direction

gill circulation

flow of blood through gills, fish have a two chambered heart. Picks up oxygen and disposes of CO2 acros capillary walls.. Blood must pass through 2 capillary beds.

Inflorescences

flower clusters, borne together on a stem (as opposed to roses, which have one flower per stem))

Community Ecology

focus on how interactions between species, such as predation, competition and symbiosis affect community structure and organization

Transgene

foreign gene that is transferred into target cell or tissue

Amygdalin

found in bitter almonds and many fruit pits, Yields hydrogen cyanide when mixed with acids or hydrolytic enzymes

Ovalbumin

found in egg whites and is a good ex of a protein that, when denatured, will never return to its original state, estrogen in birds helps stimulate the production of this.

Gustation

or taste, provides information about the food and liquids that we consume.

Umami

recently recognized and only defined as "savory", "meaty", "delicious"; when certain AA (glutamate, aspartate, MSG) bind to specific receptor proteins

Sensory Transduction

receptor cell converts exposure from stimulus into a change in electrical potential across its membrane

Oncogenes

research on tumor viruses led to the discovery of cancer-causing genes called ___________ in certain retroviruses

Thermoreceptors

respond to changes in temperature. They conduct sensations along the same pathway that carry pain sensations.

Growth Cone

responsive region at the leading edge of a growing axon

Interoreceptors

sense internal environment; monitor inside world; such as glucose and oxygen levels in the blood

Exteroreceptors

sensitive to stimuli arising outside body (touch, pressure, pain receptors)

Stretch Receptor

sensory receptor in a muscle that responds to stretching of tissue; send information to CNS concerning lengths and tensions of muscle fibers

Chemoreceptors

sensory receptor that detects the presence of a specific chemical

Superior Ovary

sepals, petals, stamens attached below the ovary

Ecological Succession

series of changes in the species in a community, often following a disturbance

Germination

series of events that results in the growth of a plant from a seed

Hox Genes

series of genes that controls the differentiation of cells and tissues in an embryo

Food Chain

series of steps in an ecosystem in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten

Hemophilia

sex-linked recessive disorder defined by the absence of one or more proteins required for blood clotting

snRNA

short for small nuclear RNA and found within snRNPs. It can remove introns during the process: RNA splicing

Cilia

short structures projecting from a cell and containing bundles of microtubules that move a cell through its surroundings or move fluid over the cell's surface

Bulbs

short, underground stem that's surrounded by leaves that contain stored food (occurs in tulips, lilies and onions)

Climatograph

shows profiles of precipitation and temperature for various biomes to show the impact of climate on the distribution of organism. Remember it is based on the AVERAGE and the pattern of climatic variation.

Spores

single-celled reproductive bodies highly resistant to cold and heat damage; capable of new organisms

Codominance

situation in which both alleles of a gene contribute to the phenotype of the organism

Corticosteroids

steroid produced by the cortices of the adrenal glands, cortisol, aldesterone

Stigma

sticky portion at the top of the style where pollen grains frequently land

Rumen

stomach chamber in cows and related animals in which newly swallowed plant food is stored and processed by bacteria.

Vascular Bundles

strands of vascular tissue that run the length of the stem

Neurospora crassa

studied by Beadle and Tatum using X-Ray , a common bread mold that grows on a very simple medium containing sugar and simple inorganic salts

Genomics

study and comparison of genomes within a single species or among different species

Thermodynamics

study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter

Essential Nutrients

substances the body requires for normal growth and health but cannot manufacture in sufficient amounts: they must be obtained in the diet.

Secondary Succession

succession following a disturbance that destroys a community without destroying the soil. Yellowstone Fire in 1988 for example.

Fleshy

succulent and watery at maturity, ie tomato

Stephen Hales

suggested that conserving green plants preserved rainfall. His ideas were put into practice in 1974 on the Caribbean island of Tobago, where about 20% of the land was marked as 'reserved in wood for rains' (1)

Histone Acetylation

the attachment of acetyl groups (-COCH3) to certain amino acids(lysine, arginine) of histone proteins at the N Terminus, this neutralizes the positive charges(so less binding to necolosomes, the chromatin becomes less compact, and the DNA is more accessible for transcription

cerebellum

the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance, metencephalon

Template Strand

the DNA strand that provides the pattern, or template, for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an RNA transcript using DNA Polymerase.

Self incompatability

the ability of a plant to reject its own pollen and sometimes the pollen of closely related individuals, Usually involves S Genes

Bioremediation

the act of treating waste or pollutants by the use of microorganisms (as bacteria) that can break down the undesirable substances

Gene Expression

the activation or "turning on" of a gene that results in transcription and the production of mRNA

Ecological Capacity

the actual resource base of each country

Cardiac Cycle

the alternating contractions and relaxations of the heart

Primary Production

the amount of LIGHT energy converted to chemical energy (organic compounds) by autotrophs in an ecosystem during a given time period, sets the limit for the budget of the entire ecosystem.

Critical Load

the amount of added nutrient, usually nitrogen or phosphorus, that can be absorbed by plants without damaging ecosystem integrity. Anything that is over this runs into other ecosystems choking waterways and killing fish

Amplification

the amount of increase in signal power or voltage or current expressed as the ratio of output to input

Gross primary production

the amount of light energy that is converted to chemical energy by photosynthesis per unit time, more than net primary production because of inefficency. (GPP) Equation is NPP + R = GPP

Actual Evapotranspiration

the amount of water annually transpired by plants and evaporated from a landscape, usually measured in millimeters.

Nitrogen Fixation

the assimilation of atmospheric nitrogen by soil bacteria and its release for plant use on the death of the bacteria, some is also fixed by lightning

Per Capita Rate of Increase

the average contribution of each individual to population on growth. "per person" ( r ) to calculate: 100 individuals, 50 births, 20 deaths 50-20=30: net increase 30/100=0.3

Temperature

the average kinetic energy of the individual particles, in a terrestrial environment it along with moisture are the main factors affecting primary production.

Cell

the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms, Or the simplest functional part that can truly LIVE.

N Terminus

the beginning of an amino acid chain, identified by a free amino group, in the histones it protrudes outwards from the nucleosome, which are sometimes modified by the addition or removal of chemicals( acetylation, methylation)

Genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes;the segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

Species Area Curve

the biodiversity pattern, first noted by Alexander von Humboldt, that illustrates that the larger the geographic area of a community, the greater the number of species (ceteris paribus).

Perilymph

the bodily fluid that fills the space between the bony labyrinth and the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear

Endocrine System

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Nervous System

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication system, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Morphology

the branch of biology that deals with the structure of animals and plants

Energy

the capacity of a physical system to do work

Tube Cell

the cell from a male plant that grows down the style to the opening of the micropyle; grows a pollen tube

Zygote

the cell resulting from the union of an ovum and a spermatozoon (including the organism that develops from that cell)

Middle Ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

Morphogenesis

the change in form of an organism resulting from cell differentiation

Postsynaptic potential

the change in the membrane potential of a neuron that has received stimulation from another neuron, (postsynapse)

Therapeutic Cloning

the cloning of human cells by nuclear transplantation for therapeutic purposes, such as the generation of embryonic stem cells

Transcription Initiation Complex

the completed assembly of transcription factors and RNA polymerase bound to the promoter

Kinetic Energy

the mechanical energy that a body has by virtue of its motion. KE=1/2 mv squared.

Potential Energy

the mechanical energy that a body has by virtue of its position. PE =mgh

Midbrain

the middle division of brain responsible for hearing and sight; location where pain is registered; includes temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and most of the parietal lobe

Mesencephalon

the middle part of the brain between the diencephalon and the pons; also called the midbrain(part of brainstem)

Turnover

the mixing of waters as a result of changing water-temperature profiles in a lake, helps brig nutrient rich water through Spring and August

Enhancers

the more distance distal control elements, groups of which are called ________, may be thousands of nucleotides upstream or downstream of a gene or even within an intron

Neocortex

the more recently evolved portions of the cortex of the brain that are involved with higher mental functions and composed of areas that integrate incoming information from different sensory organs., consists of 6 parellel layers of neurons running tangential to the brain surface, large convulusions. Consists largely of association areas.

Phase Changes

the morphological changes that arise from transitions in shoot apical meristem activity

Atherosclerosis

the most common form of CVD; a disease characterized by fatty plaques (atheromas) along the inner walls of the arteries.

Zeatin

the most prevalent cytokinin(a cell division stimulant in higher plants that also act with auxin) (e.g. coconut endosperm has a lot)

Negative Chemotaxis

the movement away from a toxic substance.

Dispersal

the movement of individuals away from their area of origin or from centers of high population density

Passive Transport

the movement of materials through a cell membrane without using energy or by diffusion (the concentration gradient itself acts as potential energy) .

Positive Chemotaxis

the movement towards nutrients or oxygen

Style

the narrow elongated part of the pistil between the ovary and the stigma

Acetylcholine

the neurotransmitter substance that is released at the synapses of parasympathetic nerves and at neuromuscular junctions, acts to activate muscles by releasing Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Species Diversity

the number and relative abundance of species in a biological community

Species Richness

the number of different species in a community

Abundance

the number or amount of something., In Ecology questions relating to this are of prime importance

Adrenal Cortex

the outer part of the adrenal gland that secretes many hormones, including Gluccocorticoids, and mineralocorticoids.(Endocrine System)

Nitrification

the oxidation of ammonium compounds in dead organic material into nitrates and nitrites by soil bacteria (making nitrogen available to plants)

Respiratory surface

the part of an animal where gases are exchanged with the environment

Water

the part of the earth's surface covered with water (such as a river or lake or ocean)

Metencephalon

the part of the hindbrain that develops into the pons and the gives rise to the cerebellum

Aphotic Zone

the part of the ocean beneath the photic zone, where light does not penetrate sufficiently for photosynthesis to occur.

Genotype

the particular alleles at specified loci present in an organism

Concentration Gradient

the path molecules travel when an imbalance between separated molecule concentrations exists

Antiparallel

the pattern that describes the formation of DNA; the two sugar-phosphate backbones run in opposite 5' >> 3' directions from each other, somewhat like a divided highway

Fredrick Sanger

the pioneer in determining the amino acid sequence of proteins, through his use of Dideoxy Chain Termination Method for Sequencing DNA .

Diencephalon

the posterior division of the forebrain that includes the a Thalumuses amd the Pineal gland, evolved earliest in vertebrate history

Neurohypophysis

the posterior lobe of the pituitary body, extension of the hypathalamus that grows downward during embryonic development.Releases 2 Oxytocin, and Antidiuretic Hormone

Hindbrain

the posterior portion of the brain including cerebellum and brainstem, containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum

Cannibalism

the practice of eating the flesh of your own kind, helps limit the Dungeness Crab

Cochlea

the snail-shaped tube (in the inner ear coiled around the modiolus) where sound vibrations are converted into nerve impulses by the Organ of Corti

Locus

the specific site of a particular gene on its chromosome

Horizons

through weathering soil will form a series of horizontal layers known as what?

Thrum Flowers

thrum (high male...caleb) pin (stigma high...everything else low...low female...coco) a mechanism to avoid self-fertilization

Transcription Factors

to initiate transcription, eukaryotic RNA polymerase requires the assistance of proteins called _________ _________, which usually contains a TATA box

Forebrain

top of the brain which includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex; responsible for emotional regulation, complex thought, memory aspect of personality

Tendons

tough connective tissue that joins skeletal muscles to bones For Example (Achilles Tendon)

Mutant Phenotypes

traits that are alternatives to the wild type are called ________ _____ because they are due to alleles assumed to have originated as changes (mutations) of the wild-type allele

Oceanic Zone

vast open ocean from the edge of the continental shelf outward

Malaria

vectored disease spread by mosquitoes that carry the malaria parasite in their saliva and which kills approximately 150,000 children in the global periphery each month, reason why sickle cell disease is so common in African Descent.

Rods and Cones

visual receptors that transduce light neural impulses. The rods are concentrated in the periphery of the retina, the cones in the fovea.

Larynx

voice box; passageway for air moving from pharynx to trachea; contains vocal cords

Excretion

waste matter (as urine or sweat but especially feces) discharged from the body (4TH STEP)

Megapascals

water potential is measured in what, 1 MPa is equal to about 10 atmospheres of pressure

NMR

way to study protein structure, gives spectra that shows atoms resonating at certain ranges, family of conformations

Phenotype

what an organism looks like as a consequence of its genotype

Positive Feedback

when a change in some condition triggers a response that intensifies the changing condition (EX: warmer Earth - snow melts - less sunlight is reflected & more is absorbed, therefore warmer earth)

Zero Population Growth

when a population is stable, neither growing nor decreasing. globally, this would occur when the birth rate and the death rate are the same (ZPG)

Hypertonic

when comparing two solutions, the solution with the greater concentration of solutes, will lose water shrivel and then die. Can be accomplished by adding salt

Pyrophosphate

when each monomer of dATP joins DNA strand it looses two phosphate groups creating this molecule, and drives the polymerization of DNA.

Meteors

when meteoroids enter Earth's atmosphere, are the only exterrestrial source of new matter.

Potential Range

where a species could live if transplanted plus its actual living area.

Progestins

which include progesterone, are primarily involved in preparing and maintaining the uterus, which supports the growth and development of an embryo.

Interspecific Interactions

interactions between 2 or more different types of species (includes competition, predation, herbivory, and symbiosis

Shivering

involuntary contrctions of skeletal muscles initiated when the core body temp falls below its central setpoint, resulting in an increase in heat production, started by ATP hydrolysis.

Ecdysozoans

member of the group of animal phyla with protosome development that some systematsts hypothesize form a clade, including many molting animals

Oval Window

membrane at the enterance to the cochlea through which the ossicles transmit vibrations

Trachea

membranous tube with cartilaginous rings that conveys inhaled air from the larynx to the 2 bronchi

Douglas Fir

n. A tall evergreen timber tree (Pseudotsuga menziesii formerly P. taxifolia) of northwest North America, having short needles and egg-shaped cones.

Steno

narrow/contracted

Chromosome Theory of Inheritance

A basic principle in biology stating that genes are located on chromosomes and that the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis accounts for inheritance patterns.

Nitric Oxide

A biologic effector molecule with a broad range of activities that, in macrophages, function as a potent microbicidal agent that kills ingested organisms, and also increases blood flow.

Nitric Oxide

A biologic effector molecule with a broad range of activities that, in macrophages, function as a potent microbicidal agent that kills ingested organisms.

Temperate Broadleaf Forest

A biome located throughout midlatitude regions( and also in small places in Australia) where there is sufficient moisture to support the growth of large, broadleaf deciduous trees. Precipitation is 70-120 cm( equally throughout all seasons). Few Epiphytes, most common in NA is decidous while in Aussie it is Eucalyptus. Most of the original types of these biomes have been destroyed by over logging.

Fibrinogen

A blood protein essential to blood clotting. The conversion of fibrinogen to its active form (fibrin) is among the final steps in clot formation, and is triggered by thrombin.

Exoskeleton

A body covering made of the polysaccharide chitin and layers of protein, that provides support and protection.

Silent Spring

A book written to voice the concerns of environmentalists. Launched the environmentalist movement by pointing out the effects of civilization development. By Rachel Carson.

Phylogenetic Tree

A branching diagram that depicts hypotheses about evolutionary relationships

Negative pressure breathing

A breathing system in which air is pulled into the lungs.(humans)

Gametophore

A bud with apical meristems that is produced by protomema in favorable conditions.

Ecological Footprint

A calculation that shows the productive area of Earth needed to support one person in a particular country (uses arable land, pasture, oceans, built up land ,and fossil energy)

Malignant Tumor

A cancerous tumor that is invasive enough to impair the functions of one or more organs., usually either poliferate to much , metastaze or have an abnormal amount of chromosomes.

Epiglottis

A cartiliginous flap that blocks the glottis(the opening) of the trachea when we swallow.

Substrate Level Phosphorylation

A catabolic mechanism that occurs when an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a SUBSTRATE molecule to ADP, rather than adding an inorganic phosphate of ADP as is done in oxidative phosphorylation.

Glycolosis

A catabolic process that occurs in the cytosol, and begins the whole degredation process by breaking up glucose into molecules of a compound called pyruvate.

Citric Acid Cycle

A catabolic process that takes place in the mitochondrial matrix, it completes the breakdown of glucose by oxidizing a derivative of pyruvate and making carbon dioxide. Also called the citric acid cycle. Only 2 ATP is gained from this.

Norepinephrine

A catecholamine precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and also released at synapses, hormone stimulates the sympathetic nervous system; speeds up heart rate, in CNS and PNS

Epinephrine

A catecholamine secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress (trade name Adrenaline), breaks down glucose to glucose 1 phosphate which the cell converts to glucose 6 phosphate (can be used as an intermediate for glycolysis or its phosphates can be released and glucose can go directly into the bod as fuel,, (Collectively explains why it helps mobolize fuel reserves).

Causation

A cause and effect relationship in which one variable controls the changes in another variable.

Eukaryotic

A cell characterized by the presence of a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. can be unicellular (protists) or multicellular (fungi, plants and animals). The image on top is of a B-Cell

Generative Cell

A cell of the male gametophyte or pollen grain in seed plants that divides to give rise directly or indirectly to sperm.

Ribosomes

A cell organelle constructed in the nucleolus and functioning as the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm; consists of rRNA and protein molecules, which make up two subunits, act as the sites of translation, and facilitate the orderly linking of amino acids into polypeptides.

Alveolata

A clade of protists that are characterized by alveoli (membrane bound sacs under the plasma membrane). Scientist hypothesize that the alveoli may help stabilize the cell surface or regulate water and ion csontent. Include 3 groups: a group of flagellates (dinoflagellates), a group of parisites (apicomplexans), and cilia moving protists (ciliates).

Open Circulatory System

A circulartory system in which fluid called hemolymph bathes the tissue and organs directly and there is no distinction between the circulating fluid and the interstitial fluid.

Double Circulation

A circulatory system consisting of separate pulmonary and systemic circuits, in which blood passes through the heart after completing each circuit.

Closed Circulatory System

A circulatory system in which blood is confined to vessels and is kept separate from the interstitial fluid.

Monocots

A clade consisting of flowering plants that have one embyonic seed leaf, or cotyledon. Flower parts in multiples of 3. Parellel Vein Structure

Cuticle

A covering on the epidermis of many plants made out of polysters and waxes,helps waterproof the plant while at the same time providing some protection from microbial attacks,

Welwitschia

A curious plant of arid regions of southwestern Africa having a yard-high and yard-wide trunk like a turnip with a deep taproot and two large persistent woody straplike leaves growing from the base

Cell Cycle control system

A cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle. is regulated at certain "checkpoints" like G1, G2 and M1.

Vascular cambium

A cylinder of meristematic tissue in woody plants that adds layers of secondary vascular tissue called secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem.

Cork cambium

A cylinder of meristematic tissue in woody plants that replaces the epidermis with thicker, tougher cork cells.

Calmodulin

A cyoplasmic Ca2+-binding protein that is particularly important in smooth muscle cells, where binding of Ca2+ allows for the activation of a myosin light-chian kinase, the first step in smooth muscle cell contraction.

Release Factor

A cytoplasmic protein that binds to a stop codon where it appears in the A-site of the ribosome. modify the peptidyl transferase activity of the ribosome, so that a water molecule is added to the end of the completed protein. This releases the finished protein from the final tRNA, and allows the ribosome subunits and mRNA to disassociate.

Vascoconstriction

A decrease in the diameter of superficial blood vessels triggered by nerve signals that contract the muscles of the vessel walls.

Barr Body

A dense object lying along the inside of the nuclear envelope in female mammalian cells, representing an inactivated X chromosome, reactivated in the cells that give rise to the ova.

Deuterostome Development

A developmental mode in animals characterized by the development of the anus from the blastopore, enterocoelous development of the body cavity and by radial indeterminate cleavage.

Protostome Development

A developmental mode in animals with the development of the mouth from the blastopore, schizocoelous development of the body cavity and spiral cleavage indeterminate cleavage.

Pyramid of Numbers

A diagrammatic representation of the number of individual organisms present at each trophic level in an ecosystem

Nerve Net

A diffuse web of inconnected nerve cells which control nervous responses in cnidarians

Disturbance

A discrete event that disrupts an ecosystem or community. Examples are fires, hurricanes, tornadoes, droughts, and floods. Examples of human-caused disturbances include deforestation, overgrazing, and plowing.

Gene

A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).

Trehalose

A dissacharide sugar that might help prevent agianst dehydration and make anhydrobiosis possible. Some insects also use it as an antifreeze protectant.

Protists

A diverse assortment of tiny unicellular organisms. Used to be classified (In the 5 Kingdom system) as its own kingdom, however systematics has determined that is is in fact paraphyletic and the kingdom crumbled.

Ecosystem Engineer

A dominant species that influences its community by creating, modifying, or maintaining physical habitat for itself and other species.

Cell Plate

A double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis. Actually derived from vesicles of the golgi apparatus which move to the middle os the cell wall and then coalesce forming the __________.

Disaccharide

A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis(also called a glycosidic linkage .

Extinction Vortex

A downward population spiral in which positive-feedback loops of inbreeding and genetic drift cause a small population to shrink, and unless reversed, become extinct.

Penicillin

A drug whose effectiveness lies in its inhibition of peptidoglycan cross linking thus preventing formation of functional cell wall, particularly in gram positive bacteria.

Thymus

A ductless glandular organ at the base of the neck and above the heart that produces lymphocytes and aids in producing immunity. If lymphocytes travel from the bone marrow to the thymus they become T- Cells.

Sporopollenin

A durable polymer mainly found in charophyceans that prevents the zygote from drying out.

Basal Body

A eukaryotic cell organelle consisting of a 9 + 0 arrangement of microtubule triplets; may organize the microtubule assembly of a cilium or flagellum; structurally identical to a centriole.

Plastids

A family of closely related plant organelles, which include chloroplasts, amyoplasts(colorless and store amylose in tubers) and chromoplasts (pigmented) to give friuts its color.

Restoration Ecology

A goal-directed science that applies ecological principles in an effort to return degraded ecosystems to conditions as similar as possible other natural, predegraded state.

Cline

A graded change in a trait along a geographic axis. (May represent graded region of overlap where individuals of neighbouring populations are interbreeding.

Unsaturated Fat

A lipid made from fatty acids that have at least one cis double bond between carbon atoms which creates a kink in the struccture.

Phospholipid

A lipid made of a phosphate group and two fatty acids; consists of a hydrophilic polar head and two non-polar hydrophobic tails; forms cellular membranes.

Sieve-Tube members

A living cell that conducts sugars and other organic nutrients in the phloem of angiosperms. They form chains called sieve tubes., lack nucleus, ribosomes, and a distinct vacoule, the sieve plates on the end facilitate the flow of fliud

Nitric Oxide

A local regulator that is a gas, when blood oxygen falls, endothelial cells in the blood vessels synthesixe and release this gas, which then activates an enzyme which relaxes the neibhoring smooth muscles, which in turn will dilate the vessels and improve blood flow to tissues. (Also plays a role in male sexual function, Viagra works because of this) It also functions as a neurotransmitter and helps kill bacteria and cancer cells in body fliuds.

Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project

A long term project that has focused on the effects of logging within the amazon basin , they have discovered that species that have adapted to the interior show the greatest declines in the smallest fraagments.

Bohr Shift

A lowering of the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, caused by a drop in pH; facilitates the release of oxygen from hemoglobin in the vicinity of active tissues.

Nuclear Lamina

A netlike array of protein filaments lining the inner surface of the nuclear envelope; it helps maintain the shape of the nucleus.

Nuclear Lamina

A netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope

Protonephridium

A network of dead end tubules lacking internal openings, they branch throughout the enire body, found mainly in flatworms,rotifers,some annelids, larvae of molluscs, and lancelets. Made of (flame bulb, cillia, nephidopore)

Cytoskeleton

A network of fibers extend throughout the cytoplasm, help motolize, regulate and give structural support to the cell. Far more dynamic than a animal skeleton.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood. Appears in lower than normal levels in depressed persons, only in CNS

Acetlycholine

A neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory, is released and depolarizes the muscle fiber causing an action potential which then spreads to the transverse tubules

Carbon monoxide

A neurotransmitter that is synthesized by the enzyme heme oxygenase, In the brain it regulates the release of hypothalmic hormones and acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter , and in the PNS it acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter that hyperpolarizes intestinal smooth muscles.

Complementary Strand

A newly synthesized strand of RNA or DNA that has a base sequence complementary to that of the template strand

Endergonic Reaction

A non-spontaneous chemical reaction, in which free energy is absorbed from the surroundings.

Forbs

A non-woody, non-grass species of plant feound in broadleaf forests.

Centrosome

A nonmembrane organelle that functions throughout the cell cycle to organize the cell's microtubules , and is for that reaswon that it is also called the (microtubule-organizing center), usually has a pair of centrioles in the middle of it (although these are not essential for reproduction)

Albizzia procera

A nonnative plant( to Puerto Rico) that thrives in nitrogen poor soils and colonize roadsides and was used in the biological augmentation.

GTP

A nucleotide composed of guanine, ribose, and three linked phosphate groups. It is incorporated into the growing RNA chain during synthesis of RNA and used as a source of energy during synthesis of proteins

Endosperm

A nutrient-rich tissue formed by the union of a sperm cell with two polar nuclei during double fertilization, which provides nourishment to the developing embryo in angiosperm seeds.

Endosperm

A nutrient-rich tissue formed by the union of a sperm cell with two polar nuclei during double fertilization, which provides nourishment to the developing embryo in angiosperm seeds. Triplod

Cohort

A population group unified by a specific common characteristic, such as age, and subsequently treated as a statistical unit.

Ciliary Body

A portion of the vertebrate eye associated with the lens. It produces the clear, watery aqueous humor that fills the anterior cavity of the eye, and together with the lens it separates the eye into two cavities.

LSD

A powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide). Produces feelings of euphoria that bind to serotonin and dopamine brain receptors.

Negative Feedback

A primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a physiological variable that is being monitored triggers a response that counteracts the initial fluctuation.

Primary Electron Acceptor

A specialized molecule sharing the reaction center with the pair of reaction-center chlorophyll a molecules; it accepts an electron from one of these two chlorophylls.

Synaptic Signaling

A specialized type of local signaling that occurs in an animals nervous system. Where an electronic signal triggers the secretion of a chemical signal in the form of neurotransmitter molecules, which then diffuse across the (synapse) to the target cell which is then stimulated and so on and so forth.

Facilitators

A species that has a positive effect of the survival and reproduction of other species in a community and that contributes to community structure.

Checkpoint

A specific point where stop and go signals can regulate the cell cycle.

a helix

A spiral shape constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific pattern of hydrogen bonding between very 4th amino acid.

Spliceosomes

A spliceosome is a complex of specialized RNA (snRNPs) and protein subunits that removes introns from a transcribed pre-mRNA (segment. This process is generally referred to as splicing.

Exergonic Reaction

A spontaneous chemical reaction in which there is a net release of free energy.

Microspore

A spore from a heterosporous plant species that develops into a male gametophyte. As it undergos mitosis and cytokinesis it produces two separate cells, (The Generative Cell and Tube Cell)

Megaspores

A spore from a heterosporous plant that develops into a female gametophyte bearing archegonia.

Microspores

A spore from a heterosporous plant that develops into a male gametophyte with antheridia.

Grana

A stacked portion of the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast, function in the light reactions of photosynthesis

Grana

A stacked portion of the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast. Grana function in the light reactions of photosynthesis

Ecdysone

A steroid hormone, secreted by the prothoracic glands, that triggers molting in arthropods.

Cholesterol

A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids.

Capsule

A sticky layer of polysaccharides or protein. Enables prokaryote to adhere to their substrate or to other individuals in a colony. Can also shield prokaryotes from attacks from hosts immune system.

Capsule

A sticky layer that surrounds the cell walls of some bacteria, protecting the cell surface and sometimes helping to glue the cell to different surfaces. First form of defense for a bacterium.

Ephedrine

A stimulant added to look-alikes and diet pills, and found in herbs such as ma huang; has caused heart attacks, strokes, seizures, and death, especially combined with caffeine. Alos a decongestant

Radula

A straplike rasping organ used by many mollusks during feeding

Cardiac Muscles

A striated involuntary muscle that is found in the heart.

Casparian Strip

A water-impermeable ring of wax around endodermal cells in plants that blocks the passive flow of water and solutes into the stele by way of cell walls

Cuticle

A waxy covering on the surface of stems and leaves that acts as an adaptation to prevent desiccation in terrestrial plants.

Contour Tillage

A way of planting that is planted going around anr round instead of up and down.

Sphagnum

A wetland moss genus(peat moss) that forms extensive deposits of partially decayed organic material known as peat. Has resistant phenolic compounds which it secretes that limit bacterial growth and in its cell walls that impede decay. There are about 400 billion tons of this which help stabilize global atmospheric CO2 concentrations

Fringe Wetland

A wetland occurring along the coasts of large lakes and seas, where water flows back and forth because of rising lake levels or tidal action (thus it includes both freshwater AND marine biomes).

Riverine Wetland

A wetland that develops along shallow and periodically flooded rivers and streams.

Basin Wetland

A wetland that develops in a shallow basin, ranging from upland depressions to filled in lakes and ponds.

Natural Killer Cells

Abbreviated (NK) cells, patrol the body and atack virus infected body cells and cancer cells. There are surface receptors on this cell that recognize general features on the surface of its targets. Releases chemicals that lead to apoptosis.

Light Microscopes

Abbreviated LMs, is an instrument where visible light is passed through a specimenand then through glass lenses, where the visible light is then refracted(bend) the light in such a way that magnifies the image of the specimen, limited by the length of shortest wavelength (about 2 micrometers) or 200 nanometers(size of small bacteria). There are 6 different methods: Brightfield(unstained), Brightfield(stained), Phase Comtrast, Nomarski, Fluorescence, and Confocal

Heliobacyer Pylori

Acid tolerant bacteria found in the stomach, which cause the majority of gastric ulcers.

Sensations

Action potentials that reach the brain via sensory neurons

Bleaching

Activation of rods by light bleaches photopigment (changes wavelengths absorbed by rhodopsin) - no longer respond at particular light intensities

Ubiquinone

Acts as proton (H+) carrier , lipid soluble so can pass thru membrane easily (w/ H+ ions) only one in the ETC that is not a protein.

Cephalization

An evolutionary trend toward the concentration of sensory equipment at the anterior end of the body. Greater ___________ usually means greater, more complex neurological structures.

Ced -3

C. elegan caspase protein that causes apoptosis via the ced-3/ced4 complex which is upregulated by inhibitor ced-9.

Carbonyl group

C=O, an organic molecule, a functional group consisting of a carbon atom linked to a double bond to an oxygen atom, can either form an aldehyde or ketone depending on location.

Postsynaptic Cell

Cell recieveing the neurotransmitter, so that sodium ions can go in and Action potenital may occur

Bundle sheath cells

Cells in the leaves of C4 plants in which the four-carbon acids produced during carbon fixation are broken down to three-carbon acids and CO2.

Parietal Cells

Cells in the stomach that secrete HCl.

Mucus Cells

Cells in the stomach that secrete mucus which lines and lubricates the wall of the stomach.

Chief Cells

Cells in the stomach that secrete pepsinogen(an inavtive form of pepsin.

Vascular Tissue

Cells that are joined into tubes that transfer water and nutrients throughout the plant body

Adipose Cells

Cells that humans and other mammal stock their long-term food reserves (fats); also serve as cushioning and, when found in subcutaneous layer, as insulation

Ameobocytes

Cells that move using pseudopods and perform different functions in different animals and wander in the mesohyl within the body wall of a sponge and crawls around and delivers nutrients from choanocytes to the rest of the body.

Initials

Cells that remain as wellsprings of new cells in the meristem are called ---.

Fusiform Initials

Cells within the vascular cambrium that produce elongated cells such as trocheids, vessel elements, fibers, and sieve-tube members.

Ray Initials

Cells within the vascular cambrium that produce xylem and phloem rays, radial files that consist mostly of parenchyma cells.

Punctuated Equilibrium

Championed by Stephen Jay Gould and describes periods of apparent stasis punctuated by sudden change.

Microevolution

Change in genetic make-up of a population from generation to generation

Point Mutation

Change of one base in a gene. Usually harmless because of redundancy of genetic code.

Evolution

Change over time in the genetic composition of a population. Can also mean the gradual appearance of all biological diversity.

Mutations

Changes in nucleotide sequence of DNA. Usually harmful but can be harmless or beneficial.

Aquaporins

Channel proteins that ficilitate the passage of water molecules through biological membranes, does not effect gradient or direction, but the RATE at which water diffuses down its water potential gradient.

Ecological Species Concept

Characterization of a species based on ecological niche(role in biological community)

Paleontological Species Concept

Characterization of a species based on morphologically distinct species known ONLY from fossil record.

Phylogenetic Species Concept

Characterization of a species based on unique genetic history. Made by comparing its physical characteristics or its molecular sequence with those of other organisms. Sometimes reveal existence of sibling species.

Morphological Species Concept

Characterization of a species by body shape, size, structure and other features. In practice it is how most scientists distinguish species.

Voltage

Charge difference

On The Origin of Species

Charles Darwin published this book on 24 November 1859. Main idea is that evolution account for lifes diversity and that natural selection is a cause of adaptive evolution.

Micronutrients

Chemical elements that organisms need in small or even trace amounts to live, grow, or reproduce. Examples are sodium, zinc, copper, chlorine, and iodine. Compare macronutrients. Fuction mainly as cofactors

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect only target cells.

Pheremones

Chemical signals released by organisms to communicate with other members of their species. ________ are often used by animals as sexual attractants.

Hormones

Chemical signals that coirdinate the growth of organisms, produced by one part of the body then transported to another. Even small amounts can produce tremondous changes in the organisms.

Brassinosteriods

Chemically similar to steroids, induce cell elongation nd division in stem segments..(CHORY)., Growth promoting capacity, influence seed germination, flowering, absission, maturation and senescene, confers resistance to plants against abiotic stress

Secondary Compounds

Chemicals synthesized by plants that are the product of secondary metabolic pathways,usually poisonous, irritating, or bad-tasting.

Chaetae

Chitinous, bristle-like structures embedded in the body wall of oligochaetes and polychaete annelids which provide traction for burrowing.

P680

Chlorophyll a molecules that serve as the reaction center of Photosystem II, transferring photoexcited electrons to a primary acceptor; named by their absorption peak at 680 nm. If missing an electron it is the strongest biological oxidizing agent knwn.

Vibrio cholerae

Cholera, colonizes the lining of the small intestine and produces a toxin that chemically modifies a G protein involved in regulating salt and water secretion, the G protein is unable to hydrolyze GTP to GDP and remains in its active form , continually stimulating adenylyl cycase to make cAMP, which causes the intestinal cells to secreate a large amount of water and salt into the intestines which causes extreme diaherra and water loss which can kill you.

Turner Syndrome

Chromosome disorder in females. a x chromosome is missing or part of one x is deleted. short stature and webbed neck.

Autosomes

Chromosomes that are not directly involved in determining the sex of an individual 22/23 in gametic cells.

Homologous Chromosomes

Chromosomes that have the same sequence of genes, that have their centromeres in the same posistion, staining power , and that pair during meisosis

Stramenopila

Clade consisting of heterotrophs and certain groups of algae. Usually has hairy flagellum paired with fine flagellum. In some stramenopiles, the only flagellated cells are motile reproductive cells. Include Oomycetes,Diatoms,Golden Algae, and Brown Algae.

Cercozoa

Clade which conatians organisms formely called amoebas. Those belonging to this clade have a threadlike pseudopodia. Include Foraminiferans, Chlorarachniophytes

Graves Disease

Multisystem autoimmune disorder characterized by pronounced hyperthyroidism usually associated with enlarged thyroid gland and exophthalmos (abnormal protrusion of the eyeball)

Glycolytic Fibers

Muscle fibers w/ a little mitochondria and myoglobin, a lot of glycolytic enzymes and glycogen, and surrounded by few blood vessels, (WHITE)

Oxidative Fibers

Muscle fibers with many mitochondria, a lot of myoglobin, and a high capacity of oxidative phosphorylation, surrounded by many small blood vessels (to deliver O2)

Coleoptera

Class of Insects , Largest group of species, front wings are hard and leathery, antennae have many segments, chewing mouthparts are very large, complete metamorphosis. (Beetles)

Hemiptera

Class of Insects, (True Bugs) front wings are thick, hind wings are membranous, have triangles on back, piercing or sucking mouthparts, undergo incomplete metamorphosis. (Bed bugs, chinch bugs)

Hymenoptera

Class of Insects, Highly social insects, two pairs of membranous wings, mobile head, and chewingt or sucking mouthparts. Females have posterior stinging organ. (Ants, Bees, Wasps)

Diptera

Class of Insects, One pair of wings. The second pair of wings are modified to help balance and are called halteres, large and mobile head, mouthparts are adapted for sucking, piercing or lapping. (Fly)

Discrete Characters

Colors such as red, blue, green, or white (usually determined by single gene locus with different alleles that produce distinct phenotypes.

Fanwort

Common aquatic plant of eastern North America having floating and submerged leaves and white yellow-spotted flowers

Concurrent Multiplier Systems

Concurrent Systems that expend energy in order to create concentration gradients.

Van Helmont

Conducted an experiment to find out if plants grew by taking material out of the soil; concluded that most of the mass was gained from the water--he was partially right (WRONG) CO2

Fibroblasts

Connective tissue cells that secrete fibrous components of extracellular matrix like collagen and elastin

Cicadarian Rythms

Cycles lasting about 24 hours And 11 minutes and common to all eukaryotic life. Is endogenous

CDK

Cyclin-dependent kinases. A protein kinase that is active only when attached to a particular cyclin. Activity rises and falls depending on the concentration of the cyclin partner.

Watson- Crick Model

DNA consists of two nucleotide strands; strands run in opposite directions 5'=>3' and 3'=>5' (think of 2 magnets together). Strands held together by hydrogen bonds between bases. A binds with T with 2 hydrogen bonds and C with G with three hydrogen bonds. Molecule is a double helix

Restriction Fragment Analysis

DNA fragments produced by restriction enzyme digestion of a DNA molecule are sorted by gel electrophoresis; is useful for comparing two different DNA molecules such as two allels for a gene; used to prepare pure samples of individual fragments

Recombinant DNA

DNA in which one or more segments or genes have been inserted, either naturally or by laboratory manipulation, from a different molecule or from another part of the same molecule, resulting in a new genetic combination.

Restriction Fragments

DNA segment resulting from cutting of DNA by a restriction enzyme at a restriction site (Usually Many

Euchromatin

DNA that is loosely packed around histones. This DNA is more accessible to enzymes and the genes in euchromatin can be activated if needed. (True Chromatin)

Translocation

During protein synthesis, the third stage in the elongation cycle when the RNA carrying the growing polypeptide moves from the A site to the P site on the ribosome

Multinucleate Cell

During the first 10 quick mitotic divisions in an Drosophila melanogaster, there are S and M phases only with no growt, so the amount of cytoplasm does NOT change, making it a _____________.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

Dutch tradesman and scientist who is known as the first micobiologist and discovered protists.

Homeostasis

Dynamic metabolic equilibrium actively maintained by several complex biological mechanisms that operate via the autonomic nervous system to offset disrupting changes. Started by Claude Bernard constant internal milleu"

Lateral Inhibition

Exaggerates the sense of contrast that occurs when light hits the photoreceptors. Occurs when an illuminated cone or rod stimulates a horizontal cell, which then inhibits more distant photoreceptors.

Amphipathic Molecule

Example Phospholipid, , a molecule that has both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region

Suckling

Example of positive feedback.

Autoimmune Diseases

Failure of immune tolerance;an immunological disorder in which the immune system turns against itself. activated T cells and antibodies attack the body's own tissue.

Duodenum

First 10 to 12 inchesof small intestines, most digestion takes place, chemicals released from liver, gall bladder, and pancreas

Prophase

First and longest phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and take up positions on the opposite sides of the nucleus

Parareptiles

First major group of reptiles to emerge, mostly large, stocky quadrupedal herbivores; died out in the late Triassic period

Genus

First part of binomal system (to which to species belong)

Extremophiles

First prokaryotes to be classified into the kingdom Archaea. Include Extreme Halophiles, Methanogens, Thermophiles

Pterosaurs

First tetrapods to exhibit flight, wings consisted of bristle covered membranes stretched between the trunk or hind leg and a very long digit on the foreleg. Well preserved fossils suggest that pterosaurs could dynamically adjust their membranes to assist their flight.

Systemic Mycoses

Fungal infection deep within the body that cause very serious illnesses For Example: Coccidioidomycetes..

Skin Mycoses

Fungal infections that appear as circular red areas on the surface of the skin.

Endomycorrhizal Fungi

Fungi that extend their hyphae through the root cell wall and into tubes formed by invagination of the root cell membrane.

Ectomycorrhizal Fungi

Fungi that form sheaths of hyphae over the surface of a root and also grow into the extracellular spaces of the root cortex

Coenocytic Fungi

Fungi that lack septa, and consist of a continuous cytoplasmic mass containing hundred or thousands of nuclei. This results from the repeated division of nuclei without cytoplasmic division.

Angiosperms

Huge clade consisting of all flowering plants, seeds develop within chambers called ovaries, which originate within the flowers and mature within fruit.

Hemocytes

Immune cells that circulate within the hemolymph (insect equivalent of blood). Ingest bacteria and other foreign substances by phagocytosis, or they form a vellular capsule around large parasites.

Prezygotic Barriers

Impedes mating between species or hinder fertilization.

Ecosystem Services

Important environmental benefits, such as clean air to breathe, clean water to drink, and fertile soil in which to grow crops, that ecosystems provide

Gene Duplication

Important source of variation. Usually involves the duplication of chromosomes(which are often harmful). But if the duplicated segment does not have severe effects it can persist over generations and exon shuffling might produce new genes. (Example is what happened to Olfactory Receptor Genes in mammals)

Robert Hooke

In 1665 he was the first to observe "small chambers" in cork and call them cells.

Tubulin

In Anaphase, kinetochore microtubules shorten at their kinetochore ends NOT at their spindle pole ends, because as a microtubule depolarizes at its kineochore end it releases _______ subunits.

Rectal Gland

In Chondrichthyans(cartilaginous animals, Sharks) this organ along with the gills excretes most of the salt.

Nucleic Acid Probe

In DNA technology, a labeled single-stranded nucleic acid molecule used to locate a specific nucleotide sequence in a nucleic acid sample. Molecules of the probe hydrogen-bond to the complementary sequence wherever it occurs; radioactive or other labeling of the probe allows its location to be detected.

RNA Pol 2

In Eukaryotes it is the RNA polymerase that transcribes DNA template strand when signaled by promoter

Tardive Dyskenia

Involves involuntary, repetitive movements manifesting as a side effect of long-term or high-dose use of dopamine antagonists, usually antipsychotics used to treat diseases like Bipolar Disorder and schizophrenia, treatment of these disease with these drugs end up giving the patients symptoms similar to Parkinsons.

Stretch-gated ion channels

Ion channelss found in cells that sense strecth and open when the membrane is mechanically deformed

Lord Kelvin

Irish physicist(developed basis of absolute zero) who also resisted on the basis of energy calculations involving the age of the sun. At that time the principles of radioactive decay were not known. His idea was later refuted because of principle of radioactive dacay.

Tertiary Structure

Irregular contortions of a protein molecule due to interactions of side chains involved in hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges. (Making Up the 3-D Structure)

Parathion

Irreversible anticholinesterase. Excessive stimulation of nicotinic receptors - muscle weakness and paralysis. Excessive parasympathomimetic effects - salivation, bronchoconstriction, miosis, bradycardia, increased GIT motility and tone. The potentially fatal adverse effect is paralysis of the respiratory muscles. Posioning by this drug can be treated with pralidoxime or atropine.

Nuclear Envelope

Is a DOUBLE membrane(lipid bilayer) which are continous with each other and have certain proteins which is perforated by pores that encloses the nucleus and seperates it from the plasma membrane. Regulated by the "pore complex". Lined by the nuclear lamina.

B cell receptor

Is a Y shaped molecule consisting of 4 polypeptide chains(2 identical heavy chains and 2 identical light chains) linked by disulfied bridges. often called membrane antibodies.

Life Cycle

Is a generation to generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism, from conception to production of its own offspring.

Amylose

Linear (unbranched) polymer of D-glucose units. This polysaccharide is one of the two components of starch, making up approximately 20-30% of the structure. The other component is amylopectin, which makes up 70-80% of the structure. Slower breakdown.

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath of the axons of peripheral neruons. Action potentials can 'hump' from node to node, thus increasing the speed of conduction (saltatory conduction).

LacZ

Gene part of the lac operon. If gene is intact, produces a product that can break down lactose and Xgal, and the colony WILL be blue. If not intact, it will NOTbreak down Xgal, colony will be white.

Reduced Hybrid Viability

Genes of different parent species interact and impair hybrid's development.

Linkage Mapping

Genes on a chromosome are arranged in a linear array, and the physical distance between them dictates the frequency of crossing over between them. The greater the physical distance, the greater the frequency of crossing over. Made after a cytogenic maps are constructed by in situ hybridization.

Extranuclear Genes

Genes that are found in organlles in the cytoplasm; mitcohondria, chrlorplasts. Inherited maternally

Homeotic Genes

Genes that control of placement and spatial organization of body parts.

Pair Rule Genes

Genes that define the modular patterns in terms of pairs of segments in Drosophila. Mutations in these genes result in embryos with half the normal segment number because every other segment fails to develop.

Gene Flow

Genetic additions or subtractions from a population resulting from the movement of fertile gametes. Tends to reduce differences between populations

Recombinant DNA

Genetically engineered DNA made by recombining fragments of DNA from different organisms

Humboldt

German naturalist who explored Central and South America and provided a comprehensive description of the physical universe (1769-1859)

Walther Flemming

German scientist who in 1882 developed dyes that allowed him to observe the behavior of chromosomes during mitosis and cytokinesis,

Oligodendrocytes

Glia Cells provide myelination in CNS, elctrically insulates certain axons, & speeds up rate of electrical signals, MS targets these.

Histones

Globular protein molecule around which DNA is tightly coiled in chromatin, helps in the regulation of the first level of DNA packing

Tubulin

Globular protein that comes in alpha and beta varieties, that composes microtubules

Monogenea

Group of Platyhelminthes, Marine and freshwater parasites, most infect external surface of fish, simple life history, ciliated larva starts infection on host.(Monogeneans)

Turbellarians

Group of Platyhelminthes, mostly marine, commonly called planarians, body surface ciliated.(Free living flatworms)

Cestoda

Group of Platyhelminthes, parasite of vertebrates, scolex attaches to host, proglottids produce eggs and break after fertilization, no head or digestive system, life cycles with one or more intermediate hosts.(Tapeworms)

Trematoda

Group of Platyhelminthes, parasites of vertebrates, have two suckers that attach to host, most life cylces include intermediate hosts.(Flukes)

Synapsids

Group of amniotes that have single temporal fenestra, a hole behind the eye socket on each side of skull (Humans, Mammals)

Anthozoa

Group of cnidarians, all marine , no medusae stage, mostly sessile and colonial.(Sea anemones, most corals, sea fans)

Cubozoa

Group of cnidarians, all marine, box shaped medusae, complex eyes, (Box Jellies, Sea Wasps)

Hydrozoans

Group of cnidarians, mostly marine, both polyp and medusa stages, polyp stage is often colonial. Can reproduce asexually by budding in unfavorable conditions. (Portuguese Man of War, Hydras)

Scyphozoans

Group of cnidarians,all marine, polyp stage is greatly reduced, free swimming medusae is up to 2 m in diameter. (Jellies,sea nettles)

Ratites

Group of flightless birds with small wings and flat breastbones - red meat like beef. Ostrich, Emu, Rhea

Phylum Pterophyta

Group of seedless vascular plants(Ferns and their relatives), can be broken down into 3 groups (Psilotum nudum(Whisk Fern) , Stenophyta (Horsetails), and pterophya(ferns)

Organs

Group of tissues that carry out specialized jobs within an organ system.

Tissues

Groups of cells with a common structure and function.(Derived from the Latin word meaning Weave. 4 main subdivisions.

Triple response

Growth maneuver that enables the shoot to avoid an obstacle; includes (1) slowing of stem elongation, (2) thickening of the stem, and a (3) curvature that causes the stem to start growing horizontally. Caused by the gas hormone (ETHYLENE)

Positive Phototropism

Growth of a shoot towards light. Mainly known from gras seddlings(oats)

Primary Growth

Growth produced by apical meristems, which lengthen stems and roots.

Secondary Growth

Growth produced by lateral meristems, which thickens the roots and shoots of woody plants, increasing the girth by making periderm.

Acid Growth Hypothesis

H comes into nest of microfibrils, pH up, connections broken, reduced turgor pressure, allows H2O into cell, also activates expansins which break down the cross links(hydrogen bonds) between cellulose.

Phylum Anthocerophyta

Hornworts; a gametophyte seedless plant that has horn-shape saprophytes and has to get its own water.Has longer and larger gametophytes than sporophytes. Mainly grows horizontally.

Endotoxin

Lipopolysaccharide components of the outer membrane of gram negative bacteria. Only released when prokaryote dies.

Lateralization

Literally, sidedness. The specialization in certain functions by each side of the brain, with one side dominant for each activity. The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa

Eudicots

Member of a clade consisting of the vast majority of flowering plants that have two embryonic seed leaves, or cotyledons.

Eudicots

Member of a clade consisting of the vast majority of flowering plants that have two embryonic seed leaves, or cotyledons. Taprrot System, lateral root divergence, vascular bundles arranged in a ring. Multiple of 5

Melanosomes

Membrane bound vesicles that move around the cell, containing melanin that can block other colors

Glycolipids

Membrane carbohydrates bound to lipids, take part in cell-cell recognition

Epithelial Tissue

Membranous tissue covering internal organs and other internal surfaces of the body.Closely joined, many of these are riveted together in tight junctions.Also acts against mechanical injury, microbes, and fluid loss.

Law of independent assortment

Mendel's second law, stating that each allele pair segregates independently during gamete formation; applies when genes for two characteristics are located on different pairs of homologous chromosomes.

Uric Acid

Metabolic nitrogenous base produced by Insects, most reptiles(including birds), nontoxic, insoluble in water , helps maintain water, but more expensive to produce than urea or ammonia.

Myofibrils

Micorsopic, fiber-like structures that occupy most cytoplasm in skeletal muscle cells, composed of two myofilaments( thin filaments and Thick filaments

B Horizon

Middle layer in a soil profile, less evolved soil, lighter in color, less life, less weathering than A horizon and above C Horizion

Jejunum

Middle portion of the small intestine between the duodenum and illieum

Dispersive Model

Model that says each strand of both daughter molecules contains a mixture of old and newly synthesized DNA (WRONG) Tested by Matheson and Stahl using istopes of Nitrogen

RNA processing

Modification of RNA transcripts(pre mRNA), including splicing out of introns, joining together of exons, and alteration of the 5' and 3' ends

Floral Organs

Modified leaves because of -genetic manipulation of FLORAL GENES -Similar architecture between some floral organs and leaves

Sporophylls

Modified leaves that bear sporangia, an evolutionary milestone, in a cluster they produce clusters known as Sori usually on the bottom side, may also form cones(strobili)

Positional Information

Molecular cues that control pattern formation in an animal or plant embryonic structure by indicating a cell's location relative to the organism's body axes. These cues elicit a response by genes that regulate development.

Nucleoside triphosphate

Molecule consisting of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and three phosphate groups, e.g., adenosine triphosphate (ATP) only difference is in the sugar(deoxirbose) compared with ribose. Is what is actually added to a growing neuclotide strand by DNA Polymerase

Flavoprotein

Molecules in the electron transfer chain that has a prosthetic group called flavin mononucleotide in Complex 1.

Enzymes

Molecules, usually proteins or nucleic acids, that act as catalysts in biochemical reactions.

Malpighian Tubules

An excretory organ that is unique to insects, empties into digestive tract and removes metabolic nitrogenous wastes from the hemolymph, also plays a role in osmoregulation.

Malpighian Tubules

An excretory organ that is unique to insects, empties into digestive tract and removes nitrogenous wastes from the hemolymph, also plays a role in osmoregulation.

Zoned Reserves

An extensive region of land that includes one or more areas undisturbed by humans surrounded by lands that have been changed by human activity and are used for economic gain

Glycogen

An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch. Most branched fastest possible breakdown time. Depleted every day if not replenished by food.

Glycogen

An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch., When broken down it is released in the form of the sugar glucose 1 phosphate, which is then converted by the cell into glucose 6 phosphate, which can be used by the liver in glycolysis.

Density - dependent Inhibition

An external physical factor and phenomena that explains why crowded cells stop dividing, means that the amount of growth factor and nutrients per cewll are more important than number of cells, and when the population of a group of cells reaches a certain density it becomes insufficientto allow cell growth and divison.

Trilobites

An extinct arthropod that lived in the Paleozoic Era with pronounced segmentation and appendages that varied little from segment to segment.

Dinosaurs

An extremely diverse group of ancient reptiles varying in body shape, size, and habitat, that died out 65 million years ago.

Metaphase Plate

An imaginary plane during metaphase in which the centromeres of all the duplicated chromosomes are located midway between the two poles

Passive Immunity

An impermanent form of acquired immunity in which antibodies against a disease are acquired naturally (as through the placenta to an unborn child) or artificially (as by injection of antiserum)

Ctenophora

Animal phylum that includes comb jellies that are diploblastic. Have a set of 8 combs of cilia that propel them through the air.

Cnidaria

Animal phylum that includes corals, jellies, and hydras. Have distinct body plan that includes gastrovascular cavity with a single opening that serves as both mouth and anus.

Brachiopoda

Animal phylum that includes lamp shells. Have unique stalk that anchors them to their substrate

Echinodermata

Animal phylum that includes radially symmetrical marine invertebrates starfish and sea urchins and sea cucumbers. They move and feed by using a

Annelida

Animal phylum that includes segmented worms. For example: Earthworms. Found in marine and freshwater.

Mollusca

Animal phylum that includes snails,clams, squids, and octopuses. Have a soft body that is usually protected by a hard shell. Visceral mass, muscular foot, and mantle.

Arthropoda

Animal phylum to which the vast majority of known animal species belong. Include insects, crustaceans, and arachnids. All have segmented exoskeleton and jointed appendages.

Rotifera

Animal phylum with specialised organ systems (alimentary cannal [digestive tract]). They feed on microorganism suspended in water.

Nemertea

Animal phylum, that include proboscis worms. Lack a true coelom, but they have an alimentary canal.

Australian Hopping Mice

Animal that can produce urine at 9,300 mosm/L 9 times as concentrated as seawater and 25 times as concentrated as the animals body fliud.

Avg. Mutation Rates

Animals and plants 1 in ever 100,000. In microogranisms is much larger .

Euryhaline

Animals that CAN tolerate a substantial shange in external osmolarity. (Can be both isoconformers/ regulators.) Examples are some types of Salmon, Tilapia

Stenohaline

Animals that can NOT tolerate a substantial shange in external osmolarity. (Can be both isoconformers/ regulators.

Seed Predators

Animals that chew up or digest plant seeds

Bulk Feeders

Animals that eat relatively large amoun of food at onw time,have adapted diverse instruments(fangs, claws jaws, teeth/

Tertiary Consumers

Animals that feed on animal-eating animals. They feed at high trophic levels in food chains and webs. Examples are hawks, lions, bass, and sharks.

Exothermic

Animals that gain heat by external sources, requires much less energy.Think Lizards,Can deal with a greater variation in internal environment.

Invertebrates

Animals that lack a backbone. Account for 95% of all known species and all but one of the 35 animal phyla.

Substrate Feeders

Animals that live in or on the food source

Homeotherm

Animals that mantain relatively stable internal environments.This has fallen out of use and endo/ecto therm is perfered. REMEBER Ecto/Endo Therms are not classified by internal temperatutre, BUT by the SOURCE of the heat.

Hermaphrodites

Animals that produce sperm and egg in the same body and function as both a male and female. Most sponges can sequentially function as this.

Suspension Feeders

Animals that shift food particles from water, example humback whale uses (baleen) to strainsmall animals andinvertebrates from large amounts of water.

Fluid Feeders

Animals that suck neutrient fliuds from a living host. (Think Mosquitos) ,and Aphids

Endothermic

Animals warmed by the heat generated by their metabolisms and whose body temperatures stay within a narrow range. Is a high energy strategy permitting intense long duration activity over a large range of enviromental conditions. Think birds, humans

Poikilotherm

Animals whose internal temperatures vary widely. This has fallen out of use and endo/ecto therm is perfered. REMEBER Ecto/Endo Therms are not classified by internal temperatutre, BUT by the SOURCE of the heat.

Embryophytes

Another name for land plants, recognizing that land plants share the common derived trait of multicellular, dependent embryos.

Egg Polarity Genes

Another name for maternal effect genes, these genes control the orientation (polarity) of the egg, one group sets up the anterior posterior axis, while the other sets up the dorsal ventrtal axis.

Fur

Another thing that provides insulation for certian organisms, though this effect depends on how much hair is trapped, and if it is not wet(because the transfer of heat to air is 50 to 100 times slower than the transfer of heat to water. ,

Biennials

Anthophyte that flowers only after two years of growth. Beets and Carrots

Taxol

Anti-cancer drug found in the pacific yew that prevents depolymerization of microtubules.

Taxol

Anti-cancer drug that prevents depolymerization of microtubules whish effectively stops the cell cycle., found in the bark of pacific yew trees.

Lyzozyme

Antibacterial enzyme that will digest and breakdown the peptidoglycan bonds found in most bacterial cell walls.Found in saliva, tears, mucus

ampR

Antibiotic resistance gene, found in vectors derived from natural episomes (plasmids) and bacterial genome.

Monoclonal antibodies

Antibodies produced by a single clone of B lymphocytes and that are therefore identical in structure and antigen specificity.

Plasma cells

Antibody secreting B cells .

Cytoprotectants

Antifreeze compounds used by some ectotherms in order to better acclimatize.

Somatic Cells

Any cell in multicellular organism EXCEPT an egg or sperm(gametes), they each contain 46 chromosomes made up of two sets of 23.

Antigen

Any foreign molecule that is specifically recognized by lymphocytes and elicits a response from them. Most of the time they are large molecules, either proteins or polysaccharides. Has an epitope(antigenic determinant)

Mycoplasmas

Bacteria that lack the outer membrane as well as the cell wall. their envelope is made up of the cytoplasmic membrane only, Thet are the SMALLEST CELLS.

Gram Negative

Bacteria with more structurally complex(have outer membrane with lipopolysaccharides).Have relatively less peptidoglycan. Generally more threatening in termx of pathogenic ability.

Gram Positive

Bacteria with simpler walls and a very large amount of peptidoglycan.

T2

Bacteriophage consisting of only DNA and protein. Replicates by invading bacteria(like E- Coli) and using its cellular components to produce progeny. Used in hershey and Chases expiriments.

Suspensory Ligaments

Bands of collagen that connect the lens to the ciliary muscles(near sight relax), (far sight pull against lens)

Nucleosomes

Basic structural unit of chromatin; core of four types of histone ( H2A, H2B, H3, H4)(2 of each) wrapped in DNA, and prevalent during Interphase, also called beads on a string, they are linked together by linker DNA, some parts are tightly condensed(Telomeres and Centromeres), 10nm.

Kidney

Bean shaped organ about 10 cm long(is a pair in all mammals), principal site of water balance and salt regulation. Only contains 1% of body weight but recieves 20% of its blood.

Males

Because _____ have only one locus, the term homozygous is useless(hemizygous) instead , any ____ receiving a recessive sex linked gene from the mother will inherit it.

Optimal Conditions

Because an enzyme is a protein, it is affected by pH and Temperature, and as a consequence works best in ________________ that favor the most active conformation of the enzyme molecule.

Nuclei

Because bacteria lack _____, their DNA is not segregrated from ribosomes and the other protein synthesizing equipment.

Pure Behavior

Behavior that relates to either pleasure or pain.

Young Earth Theory

Belief that the earth was only a few thousand years old, and had been populated by forms of life that were created.(Was very popular in Darwin's time).

Neurofibrillary tangles

Tangled bundles of fibers seen in the cytoplasm of abnormal neurons in those areas of the brain (hippocampus, cerebral cortex) most affected by Alzheimer's disease.

Insulin

Hormone secreted , supresses apppettite by acting on the brain.

Insulin

Hormone secreted by the isles of Langerhans in the pancrea ,released in response to high blood glucose following a meal. Insulin promotes the use and storage of glucose by the body's tissues (Protein) (Endocrine System) (Regulated by Glucose levels in blood)

ghrelin

Hormone that is secreted by stomach wall that triggers feeling of hunger as maltime approaches

PYY

Hormone that is secreted from the small intestine after every meal and works to suppress appettite and counters appettite stimulant ghrelin.

Scala Naturae

Life forms arranged in order from lesser to increasing complexity.(Based of Aristotle)

Mixotrophs

Organisms that combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition.

Genetics

The scientific study of heridity and its variation.

Sucrase

an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose

Voltage gated ion channels

A specialized ion channel that opens or closes in response to changes in membrane potential

Mantle Cavity

A water-filled chamber that houses the gills, anus, and excretory pores of a mollusc.

Parenchyma

"Typical Plant Cells" less specialization, relatively thin, flexible primary plant cell walls(most LACK secondary cell walls), Perform most of the metabolic functions of the plant.(photosynthesis within chloroplasts), colorless plastids that store starch, fleshy tissue, retain ability to differentiate.

Aldosterone

"salt-retaining hormone" which promotes the retention of Na+ by the kidneys. na+ retention promotes water retention, which promotes a higher blood volume and pressure

Sclera

"the outermost layer is the tough connective tissue": maintains the shape of the eye: also referred to as the 'white' of the eye, cornea is the outermost part of it in the front of the eye.

Deletion

(1) A deficiency in a chromosome resulting from the loss of a fragment through breakage. (2) A mutational loss of one or more nucleotide pairs from a gene.

Edward Lewis

(1) studied developmental mutations in organisms and linked them to specific genes, (2) first researcher to notice mutations in Drosophila that affected the correct placement of body parts and therefore had to be mutants in the development process, (3) when he performed test crosses with antennapedia mutants, he found that the mutation was inherited as a recessive trait

Aldo Leopold

(1888-1948) founder of the enviromental change, going green, turned chicken shed in shack for family to live in, wrote "Sand Country Almanac", caught own food, passion about nature.

Loop of Henle

(2nd Section of 3), The long hairpin turn, with a descending and ascending limb, of the renal tubule in the vertebrate kidney; functions in water and salt reabsorption., dips downward into the renal medulla and sets up a concentration gradient in the kidney such that from the cortex to the renal pelvis osmolarity INCREASES, The descending limb is permeable to water, but not to sodium whereas the ascending limb is permeable to sodium, but not to water (and in fact, actively transports sodium out of the filtrate).

Karoo

(360-260mya) caused by initial expansion of first forests that depleted large amounts of atmospheric CO2, is a semi desert located in South Africa

Electron Microscope

(EM) Introduced in 1950, this tool revolutionized science. It focuses a beam of electrons through a specimen or onto a surface, and since resolution is invesely related to wavelength of the radiation it is much more better. Unveils the "cell ultrastructure" (2 BASIC types : SEM and TEM.)

Drug Resistance

(Fill in the blanks) Drugs do not create ______ ________ it selects for resistant individuals already present in the population.

Photosystem 2

(Functions 1st) Reaction Center is P680(red), a light reaction in which ATP and NADPH are formed

Photosystem 1

(Functions 2nd) Reaction Center is P700(far red), Uses Light to excite electrons and converts NADP to NAPDH, It has light dependent reactions, also spilts water to make Oxygen.

HGH

(Human growth hormone) also known as somatotrophic hormone is responsible for the growth of long bones, muscles and viscera.

Van Niel

(Last name) Hypothesized that oxygen was released from water, not carbon dioxide, by using the fact that some bacteria use H2S instead of Water for photsynthesis., 20 years after scientists used a oxygen 18 as a radiotracer.

Cowbird

(Molothrus ater), an example of an eged adapted species that lays eggs in the nests of others brds, poarticulary migratory songbirds and makes them take care of their young. Increasing parasitism of this bird is correlate with declining population of the brirds host species.

Suprachiasmatic nucleus

(SCN) A cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus in the brain that governs the timing of circadian rhythms

Signal Recognition Particle

(SRP), a protein-RNA complex that recognizes a signal peptide as it emerges from a ribosome and helps direct the ribosome to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) by binding to a receptor protein on the ER

Beldings Ground Squireell

(Spermophilus beldingi) A favorite animal used to research hibernation, lives in the mountains of california and is active only during spring and summer.

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

(TSH) Produced by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland & bind to receptors on cells of the thyroid gland, which in turn stimulates the synthesis of thyroxin. Regulated through a negative feed back loop. (Glycoprotein) (Endocrine System) Regulated by Thyroxine (T3)

Grizzly Bear

(Ursus arctos horribilis) The bear considered to probably be the most dangerous animal in North America, the first population viabilty anaylses was performed in 1978 by Mark Schaffer of Duke University in Yellwstone National Park..

Tardigrades

(WATER BEARS) animal that can live without water for up to 10 years; it accomplishes anhydrobiosis

Pneumatophores

(air roots) produced by trees that inhabit tidal swamps. By projecting above the water's surface, they enable the root system to obtain oxygen.

Plastocyanin

(connects 2 photosystems) small diffusable protein that receives e-'s from photosystem II and transfers to photosystem I

Distal Control Elements

(groups are called enhancers), can be far away (downstream) from gene or even located in an intron.

miRNA

(microRNA) about 20 nucleotides long, a small, single-stranded RNA molecule, generated from a hairpin structure on a precursor RNA transcribed from a particular gene, it associates with one or more proteins in a complex that can degrade or prevent translation of an mRNA with a complementary sequence, up to 1/3 of all human genes may be regulated by ______

Small Nuclear Ribonucleoproteins

(snRNPs) recognize splice sites; are composed of RNA, protein molecules at the end of introns, they are located in the cell nucleus, the RNA within it is called a (snRNA) or small nuclear RNA, forms part of spliceosomes

Aquaporins

(water channel proteins that facilitate the amount of diffusion)A transport protein in the plasma membrane of a plant or animal cell that specifically facilitates the diffusion of water across the membrane (osmosis).

Pierre Broca

*French neurosurgeon *Was convinced that the measured shape of the skull was the best indicator of quality of the brain

Phosphate Group

-OPO3^-2; organic phosphates; contributes neg charge to mc of which it is a part (like DNA); has potential to react with water releasing NRG

Analogy

...

Outer Renal Cotex

...

Secondary Endosymbiosis

...

Littoral Zone

..., a shallow zone in a freshwater habitat where light reaches the bottom and nurtures plants

Benthos

..., organisms (plants and animals) that live at or near the bottom of a sea

Overexploitation

0ne of the 4 major major threats to biodiversity ,practice of harvesting or hunting to such a degree that remaining individuals may not be able to replenish the population, large organisms with low reproductive rates are especially susceptible.

Introduced Species

0ne of the 4 major major threats to biodiversity,a species moved by humans, either intentionally or accidentally, from its native location to a new geographic region; also called an exotic, invasive, or nonnative species.

Indolamines

1)Serotonin= inhibits pain pathways, promotes sleep, and helps control mood 2) Histamine= potent vasodilator released by mast cells of CT and basophils, prozac elevates the concentration of serotonin by inhibiting its uptake after release

Animal Phylogeny Agreement

1. All animals share a common ancestor 2. Sponges are basal animals 3. Eumetazoa is a clade with true tissues 4. Most animals phyla belong to the clade Bilateria 5. Vertebrates and some other phyla belong to the clade Deuterostomia.

The Central Dogma

1. DNA is the genetic material, containing the genes that are responsible for the physical traits (phenotye) observed in all living organisms 2. DNA is replicated from existing DNA to produce new genomes 3. RNA is produced by reading DNA in a process called transcription 4. this RNA serves as the message used to decode and transmit the genetic information and synthesize proteins according to the encoded information. This process of protein synthesis is called translation.

Myofibrils

100's to 1000's per cell; cylidrical (1-2 mm in diameter); attached to sarcolemma at each end; contraction shortens entire cell; made of myofilaments (protein fibers) actin and myosin

Jan Baptista van Helmont

1643 "Willow tree experiment" studied plant growth by weighing a small tree, some soil, and a pot, then he planted he small tree in the dirt in the pot and water the tree regulary, after several years he removed the tre and reweighd, he concluded that plants only need water to growz(FALSE), CO2

Phineas Gage

1823-1860; Field: neurobiology; Contributions: 1st person to have a frontal lobotomy (by accident), his accident gave information on the brain and which parts are involved with emotional reasoning

Prophase 1

1st Phase of Meiosis 1, and the longest (90%), chromosomes begin to condense , and homologous proteins line up along their lengths which precisely line up gene by gene. DNA crosses over and nonsister chromatids break and rejoin to the others DNA, there is also a movement of centrosomes, breaksown of the nuclear envelope and dispersal of nucleoli.

Prophase

1st Phase of the mitosis where chromatin fiber becomes tightly coiled condensing into chromosomes, the nucleoli disappear, the mitotic spindle begins forming(composed of centrosomes and microtubules), and the centrosomes begin to move away from each other

Ingestion

1st act of food processing(first stage)

Anton Von Leeuwenhoek

1st scientist to observe cells using a simple microscope, also in 1679 he provided the first estimate of the Global Carrying Capicity of the human population at 13.4 billion.

Prophase 2

1st stage in Meiosis 2, A spindle apparatus forms, and chromosomes move towards metaphase plate.

Sensory Input

1st stage of information processing by Nervous System, where nervous system receives information from environment through stimuli (inside and outside of the body) which is then sent to the CNS via Sensory Neurons.

Microfilaments

2 intertwined strands made out of actin, with each polymer being an actin subunit, are useful in cell shape(tension bearing elements, changes in cell shape, cytoplasmic streaming, cell motility (Pseudopodia), cell divison( cleavlage furrow formation), and muscle contraction. Smallest in terms of size (7 nm)

20

Amount of amino acids animals need to make protein, essenial ones must be obtained from their diet.

Integration

2nd Stage of information processing by Nervous System(and the complex), where interneurons analyse and interpet the sensory input taking into account the immediate context as well as what has happened in the past.

Depolarization

2nd Stage, Where a stimulus opens the activation gates on some Na+ channels, which depolarize, if the depolarization can reach the threshold then it can trigger the action potential.

1,3 biphosphoglycerate

2nd Step of Calvin Cycle a molecule produced by the phosphorylation(taken from ATP) of 3-phosphoglycerate. Thens the electrons from NADPH reduce the carboxyl group of this to make the aldehyde group of G3P.

Phylum Cycadophyta

2nd largest group of gynosperms, they have large cones and palmlike leaves, only about 130 species survive but this species thrived in the mesozoic era.

Dermis

2nd outerist skin layer, supports the epidermis, contains hair follicles, oil and sweat glands, musclus, nerves, and blood vessels.

Prometaphase

2nd phase of mitosis, where the nucleur envolope fragments, microtubules go through nucleur area and interact with chromosomes, each of the chromatids of the chromosomes has a kinetochore at the centromere which attacth to the microtubules, amd nonkinetochore microtubules interact with those on opposite pole of spindle.

Methaphase 2

2nd stage in Meiosis 2 ,chromosomes are posistioned on metsphase plate, and crossing over insures that each chromosme is not alike, also the kinetochores of sister chromatis are attatched to microtubules extending from opposite poles

Digestion

2nd stage of food processing, process of breaking down food into molecules small enough for body to ansorb.(Think Cleaves)

Elongation

2nd stage where amino acids brought by tRNAs are joined together by the ribosome in the order determined by the mRNA

Carboniferous Period

300 MYA, CO₂=200ppm dropped by a factor of 5 causing global cooling that resulted in widespread glacial formation., woody plants, cold, high O₂, formation of fossil fuels, the formation of the first very large trees, whisk ferns are living fossils from this peroid.

Spinal Nerves

31 pairs of nerves arising from spinal cord, all contain sensory and motor neurons which function in sensory input and motor output.

Rising Phase

3rd Phase, where depolarization opens activation gates on most Na+ channels, while K+ stay closed, the influx of Na+ makes the inside of the membrane positive with respect to the outside,

Anaphase 1

3rd Stage of Meiosis 1, stage where the chromosomes move toward the poles guided by the spindle apparatus

Absorption

3rd Stage of food processing, the animal cell absorbs small molecules such as anubo acids and simple sugars from the digestive compartment.

Motor Output

3rd and final stage of information processing by Nervous System, where motor neurons take the signal from the interneurons and transmitt them into effector cells (muscle or endocrine cells).

Metaphase

3rd phase of mitosis, and the longest lasting about 20 minutes, the centrosomes are now at opposite ends of the cell, the chromosomes have now convened at the metaphase plate(imaginary plane that is equidistant between the spindles 2 poles) each chromosomes kinetochore is connected to kinetochore microtubules coming from opposite poles, the entire apparatus is now called a spindle because of its shape.,

Anaphase 2

3rd stage in Meiosis 2, the centromeres of each chromosome finally separateand the sister chromastids come appart, which now move as two differentchromosomes towards different poles

Ventricles

4 of them , are a series of interconnected cavities within the cerebral hemispheres and brainstem filled with cerebrospinal fluid

Anaphase

4th Phase of mitosis, and the shortest lasting a few minutes, begins when the two sister chromatids suddenly part, making each one a seperate chromosome, which then begin to move to opposite sides of the cell by making their kinetochore microtubules shorten (centromere first), and the cell elongates, and by the end of this phase the two ends hav equivalent and complete collections of chromosomes.

Telophase/ Cytokinesis

4th and last stage of Meiosis 2, Where the nuclei form , chrmosomes begin decondensing and cytokinesis occurs

Elimination

4th and last stage of food processing, Undigested material passes out of digestuve compartments(in the form of feces)

Falling Phase

4th(2nd to last) phase, Where the inactivation gates on most Na+ are close blocking Na + influx, while most K+ channels are open permitting K+ efflux, making the inside of the cell negative again.

Telophase

5th and Final phase of mitosis, where two daughter nuclei start to form , and nuclear envolopes begin to form from the fragments of the parents cell's nuclear envolope and other portion of the endomembrane system, the chromosomes also become less condensed and mitoisis is complete.

Undershoot

5th and Last stage, where both Na+ gates are closed but the actication gates on some K+ gates are open , as these gates cose the inactivation gates open omn Na+ channel, and the membrane returns to resting state.

Homeobox

A 180-nucleotide sequence within a homeotic gene encoding the part of the protein that binds to the DNA of the genes regulated by the protein., and specifies a 60 amino acid homeodomain.

X-Gal

A Chemical similar to lactose that turns dark blue when cleaved by beta-galactosidase

Bacterial Plasmid

A Circular DNA molecule found in bacteria which can be inserted with foreign DNA. Used to mass produce insulin and human growth hormone.

Complementary DNA

A DNA molecule made in vitro using (mRNA) as a TEMPLATE and the enzyme reverse transcriptase . Also called (cDNA) molecules , they corresponds to a gene, but LACK the introns present in the DNA of the genome. Useful for studying the specialized function of a particular cell type.

TATA Box

A DNA sequence in eukaryotic promoters crucial in forming the transcription initiation complex

Domain Archaea

A Domain of various single-celled prokaryotes genetically distinct from bacteria, often thriving in extreme environmental conditions

G protein

A GTP-binding protein that relays signals from a plasma membrane signal receptor, known as a G-protein-linked receptor, to other signal transduction proteins inside the cell. When such a receptor is activated, it in turn activates the G protein, causing it to bind a molecule of GTP in place of GDP. Hydrolysis of the bound GTP to GDP inactivates this.

Substance P

A Neuropeptide neurotransmitter involved in pain perception throughout both the CNS and PNS.

Chitin

A Nitrogenous carbohydrate (because of amino group) that forms part of the exoskeleton of arthropods and other organisms, such as Insects, Crustaceans, Fungi, and some Algae

d2

A Specific Dopamine receptor than drugs frequently block in order to treat schizophrenia

Gene

A _______ is a region of DNA whose final product is either a polypeptide or an RNA molecule.

Agrobacterium

A bacterium that forms Galls in plants and transfers some of its genes into plant chromosomes through conjugation

Pseudomonas

A bacterium that is used in the process of bioremediation to help clean up oil spills on beaches.

Cytoplasmic Streaming

A circular flow of cytoplasm within cells, especially common in large plant cells, speeds up the distrubution of materials within the cell.

G-protein-linked receptor

A cell surface receptor associated with an intracellular protein that binds and hydrolyzes GTP. When GTP is bound, the protein is active, and can regulate the activity of adenylyl cyclease; this modifies the intracellular levels of second messenger cAMP. When the GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP, the protein becomes inactive again. 60 % of all medicines use this pathway. (smell, vision, embryonic development), (botulism, cholera, pertussis(whooping cough)

Diploid

A cell that contains two haploid sets of chromosomes

Progenitor cells

A cell that has lost the capacity for self renewal and is committed to the generation of a particular cell lineage

Secondary cell wall

A cell wall deposited in several laminated layers with a durable matrix which offers protection and support; primary component of wood. Come only after the primary cell wall.

Podocytes

A cell with branching tentacle-shaped extensions that constitutes the barrier through which blood is filtered in the glomerulus of the kidney. Filtrate will contain salts, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, urea, and other small molecules.

Genome

A cell's total endowment of DNA, in eukaryotes this consists of a large number of DNA molecules, while in prokaryotes it is just a single long molecule.

CD8

A cell-surface glycoprotein on some T cells that recognize antigens presented by MHC class I molecules. CD8 binds to MHC class I molecules on the antigen-presenting cell and acts as a co-receptor to augment the T-cell's response to antigen.

Pseudopodia

A cellular extension of amoeboid cells used in moving and feeding, is an example of Microfilaments importance in cell motility.

Gastrovascular Cavity

A central cavity with a single opening(funcions as both mouth and anus) in the body of certain animals that functions in both the digestion and distribution of nutrients.

Transformation

A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell (Coined by Griffith) . (DO not confuse with other transormation)

Response

A change in the cell behaviors.

Shared Primitive Character

A character that is shared beyond the taxon we are trying to define.

Shared Derived Character

A character that is unique to a particular clade. Example (Hair for the Mammalian Clade)

Dissociation Curve

A chart showing the relative amounts of oxygen bound to hemoglobin when the pigment is exposed to solutions varying in their partial pressure of dissolved oxygen, pH, or other characteristics.

Punnet Square

A chart that shows all the possible combinations of alleles that can result from a genetic cross.

Retinal

A chemical derived from vitamin A found in the pigment proteins of the rod photoreceptors of the retina. Retinal changes conformation when it absorbs light, triggering a series of reactions that ultimately result in an action potential being sent to the brain.

Phosphate Group

A chemical group consisting of a phosphorus atom covalently bonded to four oxygen atoms; important in energy transfer., , -OPO3^-2; contributes neg charge to molecule of which it is a part ; has potential to react with water releasing NRG

Local Regulators

A chemical messenger that influences cells in the vicinity. Can act in milliseconds

Local Regulators

A chemical messenger that influences cells in the vicinity., For Example: Growth Factors

Hydrolysis

A chemical process that lyses, or splits, molecules by the addition of water, functioning in disassembly of polymers to monomers. Opposite of a dehydration reaction.

Hormone

A chemical signal that is secreted into the circulatory syystem(usually the blood) and communicate regulatory messages within the body. May reach all cells , BUT only target cells are equiped to respond.

Pittsburgh Compound-B

A chemical that was synthesized by scientists at the Univ. of Pittsburgh. Helps detect the Beta- amyloid plaques when marked with short lived isotopes, and test the effectiveness of drugs that are used to treat the disease.

Slit

A chemorepellent protein secreted by midline cells that allows axons attracted by netrin to stop moving toward it, also released by floor plate.

Aneuploidy

A chromosomal aberration in which one or more chromosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient in number.

Polyploidy

A chromosomal alteration in which the organism possesses more than two complete chromosome sets.

Trisomic

A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has an extra copy of one chromosome, instead of the normal two; the cell is said to be _______ for that chromosome.

Monosomic

A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has only one copy of a chromosome, instead of the normal two; the cell is said to be ________ for that chromosome.

Recombinant Chromosomes

A chromosome created when crossing over combines the DNA from two parents into a single chromosome

Lupus

A chronic autoimmune disease characterized by inflammation of various parts of the body. In this disease the body generates autoantibodies against a wide array of self molecules.(Ignore the Picture and the Joke( You will only get if you watch HOUSE, it is Lupus)

Rheumatoid Arthritis

A chronic systemic disease characterized by inflammation of the joints, stiffness, pain, and swelling that results in crippling deformities

Eurypterids

An early extinct carnivorous cheliceriform also called a water scorpion that grew up to 3 meters long.

Euglenozoa

A clade of protists that includes heterotrophs, autotrophs, and parasites, Main feature is the presence of a spiral or crystalline rod of unknown function inside its flagella. Also have disk shaped mitochondrial cristae. Include Kinetoplastids and Euglenids.

Parabasala

A clade of protists that lack plastids, and their mitochondria do not have ETC, DNA, or enzymes that are needed for the citric acid cycle. Has a undulating membrane(plasma membrane). Include protists called Trichomonads.

Diplomonadida

A clade of protists that lack plastids, and their mitochondria do not have ETC, DNA, or enzymes that are needed for the citric acid cycle. Have two equal sized nuclei and multiple flagella.

Ameobozoa

A clade that has a lobe shaped rather than threadlike pseudopodia. Include Gymnamoebes, entamoebas, and slime molds.

Hox Genes

A class of homeotic genes that provide positional information in animal embryo. Prompts structures to develop into structures appropriate for a particular location.

Heat Shock Proteins

A class of stress-induced proteins that rapidly accumulate when there is a larger temperature increase, help maintain the integrity of proteins that would otherwise be denatured.

Expression Vector

A cloning vector that contains the requisite bacterial promoter just upstream of a restriction site where a eukaryotic gene can be inserted, allowing the gene to be expressed in a bacterial cell. Allowing for the synthesis of many eukaryotic proteins in bacterial cells.

Agglutination

A clumping of bacteria ,viruses or red cells when held together by antibodies (agglutinins)

ATP Synthase

A cluster of several membrane proteins found in the mitochondrial cristea (and bacterial plasma membrane) that function in chemiosmosis with adjacent electron transport chains, using the energy of a hydrogen ion concentration gradient to make ATP. Provide a port through which hydrogen ions diffuse into the matrix of a mitrochondrion.

Callus

A cluster of undiferentiated cells

Fusin

A co-receptor protein found on all cell types infected by HIV.

Exons

A coding region of a eukaryotic gene. Exons, which are expressed except for the UTR, are separated from each other by introns.

NAD+

A coenzymes that recieves the hydrogen atoms from glucose (The Hydrogen is NOT directly transfered to the oxygen). Functions as an oxidizing agent during respiration(because it accepts electrons). Gets the electrons and the H+ with the help of dehydrogenases.

Metapopulation

A collection of populations that have regular or intermittent gene flow between geographically separate units

Transfer Cells

A companion cell with numerous ingrowths of its wall, increasing the cell's surface area and enhancing the transfer of solutes between apoplast and symplast.

Food Webs

A complex diagram representing the many energy pathways in an ecosystem

Reticular Formation

A complex neural network in the central core of the brainstem that contains over 90 separate clusters of cell bodies and is very important in regulating sleep and arousal, includes the RAS

Hippocampus

A complex neural structure (shaped like a sea horse) consisting of gray matter and located on the floor of each lateral ventricle, supports explicit recall of events

Light Harvesting Complex

A complex of proteins associated with pigment molecules (including chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids) that captures light energy and transfers it to reaction-center pigments in a photosystem.

Muscle contraction

A complex process in which nerve inpulses first reach a neuromuscular junction in the Sarcolemma, which causes the Ca2+ ions to be released; in turn, the Ca2+ ions causes myosin to bind to actin, which then allows the actin(microfilaments baby),myofilaments to slide past the myosin myofilaments; ATP is also needed to supply energy for this type of contraction

Solute potential

A component of water potential that is proportional to the number dissolved solute molecules in a solution and measures the effect of solutes on the direction of water movement; also called somotic potential, it can be either zero or negative.

Dimer

A compound whose molecules are composed of two identical monomers, (tryosine kinase) after dimerization.

Spatial Heterogeneity

A concept parallel to ecosystem productivity, the species richness of animals is directly related to the species richness of plants in a certain habitat.

Ester Linkage

A condensation (water-releasing) reaction in which the carboxyl group of a fatty acid reacts with the hydroxyl group of an alcohol. Lipids are formed in this way.

Polydactyly

A congenital anomaly caused by a DOMINANT allele characterized by the presence of more than the normal number of fingers or toes. 1 in every 400 have it.

Homeodomain

A conserved sequence of 60 amino acids used in the binding to DNA. Usually found in transcription factors, it is used to express genes that are related, more specifically in development to make tissues associated with one another.

Thylakoids

A flattened membrane sac inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy to chemical energy

West Nile Virus

A flavivirus infection is transmitted by mosquitoes and is relatively new to the United States and can cause flu-like symptoms that can result in encephalitis

Magnoliids

A flowering plant clade that evolved later than basal angiosperms but before monocots and eudicots. Extant examples are magnolias, laurels, and black pepper plants.

Florigen

A flowering signal, not yet chemically identified, that may be a hormone or may be a change in relative concentrations of multiple hormones.

Hydrostatic Skeleton

A fluid skeleton in many soft-bodied invertebrates, including annelids, that allows an organism to change shape but not volume.

Body Cavity

A fluid-containing space between the digestive tract and the body wall. The fluid helps prevent internal injury, and also enables the internal organs to grow independently of the outer body wall.

Blastocyst

A fluid-filled sphere formed about 5 days after fertilization of an ovum that is made up of an outer ring of cells and inner cell mass. THis is the structure that implants in the endometrium of the uterus.

Mantle

A fold of tissue that encloses the vital organs of a mollusk, makes the mollusk's shell(if one is present), and performs respiration

Achondroplasia

A form of human dwarfism caused by a single dominant allele; the homozygous and heterozygous condition is lethal, means that 99.99 % of people are homozgous recessive for the allele.

Biotechnology

A form of technology that uses living organisms, usually genes, to modify products, to make or modify plants and animals, or to develop other microorganisms for specific purposes.

Hydroxyl Group

A functional group consisting of a hydrogen atom joined to an oxygen atom by a polar covalent bond. Molecules possessing this group are soluble in water and are called alcohols.

Hydroxyl groups

A functional group consisting of a hydrogen atom joined to an oxygen atom by a polar covalent bond. Molecules possessing this group are soluble in water and are called alcohols.

Carboxyl Group

A functional group present in organic acids and consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group.

Amino Group

A functional group that consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms; can act as a base in solution, accepting a hydrogen ion and acquiring a charge of +1., -NH2

Mesohyl

A gelatinous region between the two layers of cells of a sponge

Maternal Effect Gene

A gene that, when mutant in the mother, results in a mutant phenotype in the offspring, regardless of the genotype. AKA egg polarity genes.

Linkage Map

A genetic map based on the frequencies of recombination between markers during crossing over of homologous chromosomes. The greater the frequency of recombination between two genetic markers, the farther apart they are assumed to be. See also genetic map.

Myoglobin

A globular protein found in muscle tissue that has the ability to bind oxygen. Myoglobin helps to store oxygen in the muscle for use in aerobic respiration (it does not move, just stays there). Muscles that participate in endurance activities (including cardiac muscle) have abundant supplies of myoglobin.

Myoglobin

A globular protein found in muscle tissue that has the ability to bind oxygen.Helps to store oxygen in the muscle for use in aerobic respiration (it does not move, just stays there). Muscles that participate in endurance activities (including cardiac muscle) have abundant supplies of of this(which is red)

Actin

A globular protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically about each other, forming microfilaments in muscle and other contractile elements in cells. Are in parelel in a muscle cell.

Proteoglycans

A glycoprotein consisting of a small core protein with many carbohydrate chains attached, found in the extracellular matrix of animal cells. A proteoglycan may consist of up to 95% carbohydrate. collagen is woven into this network

Collagen

A glycoprotein in the extracellular matrix of animal cells that forms strong fibers, found extensively in connective tissue and bone; the MOST abundant protein in the animal kingdom. Embedded in a network woven from proteoglycans

Mucin

A glycoprotein(carbohydrate-protein complex) dissolved in saliva that protects the soft lining of the mouth from abrasion/lubricates food

Action Spectrum

A graph that depicts the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in driving a particular process. 660 nm best. 730 nm (far red) INHIBITS germination. The LAST(Ultima) flash determined the seeds response.

Prostaglandins

A group of (local regulators) bioactive, hormone-like chemicals derived from fatty acids that have a wide variety of biological effects including roles in inflammation, platelet aggregation, vascular smooth muscle dilation and constriction, cell growth, protection of from acid in the stomach, and many more. Aabreviated (PGs)

Monocots

A group of angiosperms that have single cotyledons (embryonic seed leaf). Flower parts in 3s or multiples of 3s, vascular tissue in scattered bundles, fibrous root system, and leaves with parallel veins.

Dicots

A group of angiosperms with two cotyledons. Flower parts in fours or fives, vascular tissue in (distinct) bundles arranged in a circle, taproot system, leaves with netted veins. Now divided into 3 groups itself ,Basal, Eudicots, and Magnolids

Grade

A group of animal species that share the same level of organizational complexity. Not necessarily equivalent to clades.

Prostaglandins

A group of bioactive chemicals derived from fatty acids that are released from macrophages and other cells that cause smooth muscle contraction and pain, which leads to inflammation

Theropods

A group of bipedal saurischian dinosaurs. Included the T.Rex as well as the ancestors of birds.

Tissue

A group of cells with a common function or structure.

Mineralocorticoids

A group of hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex. They regulate electrolytes and fluid volume in the body. Aldosterone is an example of a mineralocorticoid. Promote reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+. (Endocrine System) Regulated by K+ in blood.

Community

A group of interdependent organisms inhabiting the same region and interacting with each other

Community

A group of interdependent organisms of all the species inhabiting the same region and interacting with each other

Basal Nuclei

A group of neutrons located deep within the white matter, are important centers for planning and learning movement sequences, damage at this region can prevent motor commands from being sent to the muscles which will render a person immobile.

Cyclins

A group of proteins whose function is to regulate the progression of a cell through the cell cycle and whose concentrations rise and fall throughout the cell cycle, attach to kinase(which are at constant concentration)

Schizophrenia

A group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions, treatment of this disease ceters on pathways that use dopamine as a neurotransmitter.

Schizophrenia

A group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions. Is an example of a disease that is mutlifactorial.

Heme Group

A group that is a large organic molecule with an iron atom at its center. It is made of heme, an oxygen transporter.

Polyphyletic

A grouping of several species that lack a common ancestor.

Gibberellins

A growth hormone that causes a wide variety of effects. One role is to stimulate growth of stems by promoting cell division. Farmers use it to make fruit grow larger.

Tropism

A growth response of a plant toward or away from a stimulus

Precautionary Principle

A guiding principle in making decisions about the environment, cautioning to consider carefully the potential consequences of actions. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.

Phylum Gnetophyta

A gymnosperm phylum consisting of 3 genera (Gnetum, Ephedra, and Welwitdchia, some of which are tropical while others live in deserts,

Lignin

A hard material embedded in the cellulose matrix of vascular plant cell walls that functions as an important adaptation for support in terrestrial species.

Endoskeleton

A hard skeleton buried within the soft tissues of an animal, such as the spicules of sponges, the ossicles of echinoderms, and the bony skeletons of vertebrates

Kudzu

A hardy vine that has compound leaves and purplish flowers and roots that contain a nourishing starch used medicinally. It is an invasive weed in the southeastern United States but is native to Asia. Was introduced in order to control erosion.

Tropomyosin

A helical protein that winds around actin helices in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells to form the thin filament of the sarcomere. In the absence of Ca2+, it covers the myosin-binding sites on actin and prevents muscle contraction. When calcium binds to a troponin complex, a conformational change in tropomyosin occurs so that the myosin-binding sites are exposed and muscle contraction can occur.

Albinism

A hereditary condition characterized by a partial or total lack of melanin pigment (particularly in the eyes, skin, and hair), caused by a reccesive allele.

Character

A heritable feature, like color that varies among individuals.

Amylopectin

A highly branced polysaccharide that makes up starch with short side chains of about 30 glucose units every twenty or thirty glucose units, makes up about 80% of the starch , the other 20% is amylose. Because it is branched it is quicker to be released.

Sarin

A highly toxic chemical nerve agent that inhibits the activity of cholinesterase by irreversibly binding to it, so the muscles are supplied with a continous amount of calcium and remain in a state of tetanus

Optic Disk

A hole in the retina where the optic nerve fibers (and visual information) exit the eye. Because you can not see the part of an image that falls on this hole, it is also known as the blind spot.

Prolactin

A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that targets the mammary glands stimulating them to produce breastmilk.(Protein) (Endocrine System) Regulated by hypothalamic hormones. Abreviated (PRL).

Brain Hormone

A hormone, produced by the neurosecretory cells in the insect brain, that promotes development by stimulating the prothoracic glands to secrete ecdysone.

Lophophore

A horseshoe-shaped or circular fold of the body wall bearing ciliated tentacles that surround the mouth.

24

A human cell usually undergoes one divisipn every ______ 24 hours. Of this time M phase would last 1 hour, S phase 10-12 hours, and the rest would be split between G1 and G2.

Tay- Sachs disease

A human genetic disease caused by a RECCESIVE allele for a dysfunctional enzyme (lysosomes) , leading to accumulation of certain lipids in the brain. Seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor and mental performance usually become manifest a few months after birth. Very Rare

Huntington's Disease

A human genetic disease caused by a dominant allele(near chromosome 4); characterized by uncontrollable body movements and degeneration (which is both irreversible and fatal) of the nervous system; usually fatal 10 to 20 years after the onset of symptoms. 50 % chance of getting the disorder

Tay Sachs Disease

A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele for a dysfunctional enzyme, leading to accumulation of certain lipids in the brain. Seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor and mental performance usually become manifest a few months after birth. At the organismal level it is recessive, lipid metabolizing level(biochemical) it is intermediate(incomplete dominance), and at the molecular level(production of enzyme) they are (codominant)

Sickle Cell Disease

A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele that results in the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein; characterized by deformed red blood cells that can lead to numerous symptoms.

Hemophilia

A human genetic disease caused by a sex-linked recessive allele; characterized by excessive bleeding following injury due to an absence of the essential proteins allowed for clot formation, treated with intravenous injections of the protein.

Down Syndrome

A human genetic disease caused by presence of an extra chromosome 21; characterized by mental retardation and heart and respiratory defects. Often called Trisomy 21

Cystic fibrosis

A human genetic disorder caused by a recessive allele for a chloride(Cl-) channel protein; characterized by an excessive secretion of mucus and consquent vulnerability to infection; fatal if untreated (4% whites are carriers - most common lethal genetic disease), Pleiotropic

Mostly Male Hypothesis

A hypothesis proposed by Frochlich in which the ancestor of angiosperms had seperate pollen producing and ovule producing structures, but then a mutation ovules developed on some microphylls, which then evolved into carpels. Evidence inculdes comparisons of genes that give rise to flowers and cones

Tight Junctions

A junction where membranes of neighboring cells are actually fused forming continuous belts around cell to prevent leakage of extracellular fluid along a layer of epithelial cells.

Cooperativity

A kind of allosteric regulation whereby a shape change in one subunit of a protein caused by substrate binding is transmitted to all the others, facilitating binding of subsequent substrate molecules.

Cholesterol

A large amount of this in a phospholipid bilayer at High Temperatures reduces membrane fluidity, but at lower temperature prevents the membrane from solidifying.

Osculum

A large opening on a sponge through which filtered water is expelled.

Dyenin

A large protein that is composed of many polysaccharides, is the motor protei nextending from one microtuble doublet to the next. Responsible for the bending movements of cilia and flagella, which occur when ATP provides the enegy for it to grip the adjacen doublet.

Action Potential

A large transient depolarization event which goes past the threshold, and includes polarity reversal, that is conducted along the membrane of a muscle cell or a nerve fiber

Myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next, Mutiple Scedlrosis attacks this in PNS(Schwann Cells) .

Semelparity

A life history in which adults have but a single reproductive opportunity to produce large numbers of offspring, such as the life history of the Pacific salmon, Agaves ; also known as big-bang reproduction. Also called BIG BANG REPRODUCTION or one shot, is favored in environments that are unpredictable because it increases the chances that some will survive.

Iteroparity

A life history in which adults produce large numbers of offspring over many years; also known as repeated reproduction. (Lizards) Favored in more dependent environments.

Fibers

A lignified cell type that reinforces the xylem of angiosperms and functions in mechanical support; a slender, tapered sclerenchyma cell that usually occurs in bundles. (Flax, hemp)

Tumor

A mass of abnormal cells that are within otherwise normal tissue. Must secrete signal molecules that cause blood vessels to grow towards the tumor

Benign Tumor

A mass of abnormal cells that remains at the site of origin, do not cause serious problems.

Protonema

A mass of green, branched, one cell thick filaments typically produced by germinating moss spores. Has large surface area that enhances absorption of water and minerals, and in favorable conditions produces one bud per apical meristem.

Bicoid

A maternal effect gene that codes for a protein responsible for specifying the anterior(head) end in Drosophilia. A defect in this will lead to two posterior ends being formed, and is due to a gradient of the mRNA (morphogens) expressed in one part of the body.

Cytoplasmic Determinant

A maternal substance, such as protein or RNA, that influences the course of early development by regulating the expression of genes that affect the developmental fate of cells.

Fruit

A mature ovary of a flower that protects dormant seeds and aids in their dispersal. Only develops after fertilization

Map Units

A measurement of the distance between genes; one map unit is equivalent to a 1 percent recombination frequency. Can be a maximun vaalue of 50%

Mono-rails

A mechanism by which the cytoskeleton (microtubules) provides a way for vesicles containing neurotransmitters (might also be across a Ca2+ diffused channel) which help them migrate to the tips of axons

Signal Transduction Pathway

A mechanism linking a mechanical or chemical stimulus to a specific cellular response.(Usually in cellular protein.

Double Fertilization

A mechanism of fertilization in angiosperms in which two sperm cells unite with two cells in the female gametophyte (embryo sac) to form the zygote and endosperm.

Double Fertilization

A mechanism of fertilization in angiosperms, in which two sperm cells unite with two cells in the embryo sac to form the zygote and endosperm. Is supposed to synchronize the development of food storage in the seed with the development of the embryo.

Lateral Line System

A mechanoreceptor system consisting of a series of pores and receptor units (neuromasts) along the sides of the body of fishes and aquatic amphibians; detects water movements made by an animal itself and by other moving objects

Anthropoids

A member of a primate group made up of the apes (gibbon, orangutan, gorilla, chimpanzee, and bonobo), monkeys, and humans.

Vacuolar Membrane

A membrane that encloses the central vacuole in a plant cell, separating the cytosal from the vacuolar contents, called cell sap; also known as the tonoplast. (90%) of the protplasts volume

Food Vacuoles

A membranous sac (vacuole) formed by phagocytosis.

Lysosome

A membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that an animal cell uses to digest all kinds of macromolecules, works best in acidic solution (like the mouth, saliva tears) , the cytosol limits the effect of the enzymes released by being neutral, but a large amount of leakage can destroy a cell (apoptosis), most made by rough ER or from the budding from the trans face of the golgi apparatus, also carry out phagocytosis. Can also perform autophagy and recycle nutrients

Lateral Meristems

A meristem that thickens the roots and shoots of woody plants. The vascular cambium and cork cambium are lateral meristems.

Familial Hypercholesterolemia

A metabolic disorder that is caused by defective or absent receptors for LDLs on cell surfaces, that is marked by an increase in blood plasma LDLs and by an accumulation of LDLs in the body resulting in an increased risk of heart attack and coronary heart disease, and that is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait.

Photorespiration

A metabolic pathway that consumes oxygen, releases carbon dioxide, generates no ATP, and decreases photosynthetic output; generally occurs on hot, dry, bright days, when stomata close and the oxygen concentration in the leaf exceeds that of carbon dioxide.

Catabolic Pathway

A metabolic process that breaks down complex molecules into simpler compounds; example = cellular respiration because it breaks glucose into carbon dioxide and water; or fermentation the energy that is stored becomes available to do work within the cell

Hydroponic Culture

A method in which plants are grown without soil by using mineral solutions.

Eustachian Tube

A narrow tube between the middle ear and the throat(pharynx) that serves to equalize pressure on both sides of the eardrum

Dideoxy Chain Termination Method

A method of determining a sequence of nucleotides in any CLONED DNA fragments up to 800 base pairs in length which can be determined rapidly by using a nested set of DNA strands complementary to the original DNA fragment, each that starts with the same primer and ends with Dideoxyriboneuclotide.(ddNTP), which terminates a growing DNA strand because it lacks a (OH-), and because they are tagged with a flourescent label , it determines the ending of the sequence which can be then used to sequence the entire DNA. (Developed by Fredrick Snger)

Feedback Inhibition

A method of metabolic control in which the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway.

Feedback Inhibition

A method of metabolic control in which the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway. Is what regulates respiration.

Polymerase Chain Reaction

A method of producing thousands of copies of DNA segment using the enzyme DNA polymerase(Usually From Archaea), it is especially useful when the amount of DNA present is very scant or impure, because it is a quicker(a couple billion in a couple of hours) and more selective. Requires Double Stranded DNA containing target sequence to be copied, heat resistant DNA Polymerase, all 4 Nucleotides, and two short,single stranded DNA molecules which will serve as primers. Problem becose of occasional errors.

DNA microarray assays

A method to detect and measure the expression of thousands of genes at one time. Tiny amounts of a large number of single-stranded DNA fragments representing different genes are fixed to a glass slide. These fragments, ideally representing all the genes of an organism, are tested for hybridization with various samples of cDNA molecules.

Stomata

A microscopic pore surrounded by guard cells in the epidermis of leaves and stems that allows gas exchange and some water vapor exchange .

substantia nigra

A midbrain structure that provides dopaminergic projections to areas of the forebrain, especially the basal ganglia, in Parkinson's disease there has been cell death of neuron's in this region leading to less dopamine and an accumulation of protein aggregates containing alpha

PDGF

A mitogen( growth factor) that is made by blood cells called platelets,is required for the division of fibrolasts in culture(As they have these receptors (which are tryosine kinase) in their plamsa membrane

Conservative Model

A model based on the hypothesis that when a double helix replicates, the parent strands come back together and there is a completely new daughter strand. (WRONG) Tested by Matheson and Stahl

Bottom- up Model

A model of community organization in which mineral nutrients control community organization because nutrients control plant numbers, which in turn control herbivore numbers, which in turn control predator numbers N +o V +o H, +o P

Top Down Model

A model of community organization in which predation controls community organization because predators control herbivores, which in turn control plants, which in turn control nutrient levels; also called the trophic cascade model.

ABC Model

A model of flower formation identifying three classes of organ identity genes that direct formation of the four types of floral organs.

Sepal

A modified leaf in angiosperms that helps enclose and protect a flower bud before it opens

Tuber

A modified stem(think Potatoe)

Odorant

A molecule that activates an olfactory receptor and causes the transmission of information about a smell.

Aplysia

A mollusc that has specialized nerve cells that secrete hormones that help lay thousands of eggs and inhibit feeding and locomotion.

Bipolar Disorder

A mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. (Formerly called manic-depressive disorder.)

Parkinsons Disease

A motor disorder characterized by difficulty in initiating movements, slowness, and rigidity, masked facial expressions, muscle tremors, poor balance, and a shuffling gait.Also increases with the onset of old age, the symptoms of the disease result from the neurons in the midbrain nucleus called the substantia nigra which (normally release dopamine), and the buildup of protein aggregates containing a-synuclein

Smooth Muscle

A muscle that contracts without conscious control and found in walls of internal organs such as stomach and intestine and bladder and blood vessels (excluding the heart), have dense bodies to which thin filaments are attatched , contraction caused by Ca2+ binding to calmodulin.

Smooth Muscle

A muscle type that contracts without conscious control and found in walls of internal organs such as stomach and intestine and bladder and blood vessels (excluding the heart)

Insertions

A mutation involving the addition of one or more nucleotide pairs to a gene.

Frameshift Mutation

A mutation occurring when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three, resulting in the improper grouping of the following nucleotides into codons.

Nonsense Mutation

A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of the three stop codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein.

Axons

A part of a neuron that carries impulses away from the cell body.

Cytokines

A peptide/ protein local regulator, which plays a role in immune response., chemicals released by T helper cells that stimulate B cells

Interphase

A period between two mitotic or meiotic divisions during which the cell grows, copies its DNA, and synthesizes proteins

Mitotic Phase

A phase of the cell cycle that include both mitosis and cytokinesis, and is the shortest part of the cell cycle, alternates with interphase and is abreviated (M)phase.

Lignin

A phenolic polymer that strengthens or lignifies the cell walls of water conducting tissues.

Spatial Summation

A phenomenon of neural integration in which the membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell is determined by the combined effect of EPSPs or IPSPs produced nearly simultaneously by different synapses.

Phytochrome

A photoreceptor that is also found in the detiolation proscess. Occurs in the cytoplasm unlike most receptors which are found in the plasma membrane

Basidiomycetes

A phylum of fungi bearing sexually produced spores on a basidiocarp.Commonly called club fungi. The group includes puffballs, shelf fungi, rusts, smuts, and mushrooms.

Glomeromycetes

A phylum of fungi that is characterized by a distinct branching form of endomycorrhizae called arbuscular mycorrhizae. 90% of all plants have a symbiotic relationship with this phyla.

Zygomycetes

A phylum of fungi that is not very pathogenic; complex life cycle consisted on sexual and asexual fungal groups...fungi spend most of their time as haploids For Example: black bread mold;

Ascomycetes

A phylum of fungi whose sexual spores occur in even numbers. asexual spores (conidia) often are found in chains. They produce sexual spores in saclike asci, and are commonly called sac fungi. Also bear their sexual stages in fruiting bodies or ascocarps.

Phylum Ginkgophyta

A phylum of gynosperms taht has only has 1 species,(Ginkgo Biloba) has dedoucious leaves that turn gold in autumn,, tolerates air pollution well.

Acanthocephalan

A phylum of nonsegmented intestinal helminths characterized by having an anterior attachment organ (proboscis) covered with spines; also called spiny-headed worms. Alter behavior in crustaceans in a way that maximizes the probability of transmittance.

Torpor

A physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases. Is an adaptation that helps animals save energy.

karyotype

A picture of all the chromosomes in a cell arranged in pairs

Monoecious

A plant in which the staminate and pistillate flowers are separate, but borne on the same individual.(Maize)

Sugar Source

A plant organ in which sugar is being produced by either photosynthesis or the breakdown of starch. Mature leaves are the primary __________ of plants

Sugar Sink

A plant organ that is a net consumer or storer of sugar. Growing roots, shoot tips, stems, and fruits sugar sinks supplied by phloem.

C4 Plants

A plant that changes CO2 into a four carbon compound before entering the Calvin cycle for photosynthesis, is related to their unique leaf anatomy( 2 distinct bundle sheath cells and looselty arranges mesophyll cells), CO2 is incorporated into the mesophyll cells and PEP Carboxylase. (Sugarcane, Corn most Grasses)

C4 Plants

A plant that prefaces the Calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate CO2 into four-carbon compounds, the end product of which supplies CO2 for the Calvin cycle. Are outproduced by C3 plants in a very high oxygen environment.

CAM Plant

A plant that uses crassulacean acid metabolism, an adaptation for photosynthesis in arid conditions, first discovered in the family Crassulaceae. Carbon dioxide entering open stomata during the night is converted into organic acids, which release CO2 for the Calvin cycle during the day, when stomata are closed.

CAM Plants

A plant that uses crassulacean acid metabolism, an adaptation for photosynthesis in arid conditions, first discovered in the family Crassulaceae. Carbon dioxide entering open stomata during the night is converted into organic acids, which release CO2 for the Calvin cycle during the day, when stomata are closed. Different from C4 plants in that carbon fixation occur in the same place just at different times. (Pineapples, Cacti, most Succulent plants)

C3 Plants

A plant that uses the Calvin cycle for the initial steps that incorporate CO2 into organic material, forming a three-carbon compound as the first stable intermediate. (95% of the plants on Earth)

Survivorship Curve

A plot of the number of members of a cohort that are still alive at each age; one way to represent age-specific mortality obtained by constructing a Life Table.

Missense Mutation

A point mutation in which a codon that specifies an amino acid is mutated into a codon that specifies a different amino acid.

Silent Mutation

A point mutation in which a codon that specifies an amino acid is mutated into a new codon that specifies the same amion acid.

Polypeptide

A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.

Polypeptides

A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.

Positive Feedback

A primary mechanism of homestasis, whereby a variable change trigeers mechanisms that amplify the change. (Example baby's head pressure on receptors of Uterus wall heightens contractions and helps bring childbirth to completetion.

Gel Electrophoresis

A procedure used to separate and analyze DNA fragments by placing a mixture of DNA fragments at one end of a porous gel and applying an electrical voltage to the gel, the ones that are largest( or least negative) will move the slowest and farthest , while the smallest will do the exact opposite. These bands are NOT visible until a marker is added.

Drip Irrigation

A process by which precisely controlled amounts of water drip directly onto plants from pipes, thus preserving precious water resources in dry areas

Molting

A process in ecdysozoans in which the exoskeleton is shed at intervals, allowing growth by the production of a larger exoskeleton.

Ammonification

A process in the nitrogen cycle where soil bacteria convert organic nitrogen to ammonia

Photoprotection

A process in which carotenoids absorb and dissipate exessive light energy that would otherwise damage chlorophyll or interact with oxygen forming reactive oxidative molecules that are dangerous to the cell;

Endosymbiosis

A process in which certain unicellular organism engulfed other cells, which became endosymbionts and ultimately organelles in the host cell. FOR EXAMPLE (The first eukaryotes acquiring mitochondria by engulfing alpha proteobacteria)

Catabolic

A process in which large molecules are broken down into smaller ones, for example cellular respiration.Releases energy .

Anabolic

A process in which large molecules are built from small molecules (Steriods), they must consume energy in order to happen.

Cellular Respiration

A process in which oxygen us consumed as a reactant along with organic fuel. Similar to Combustion. C6H12O6 + 6 O2 ----|) 6 CO2 + 6H20 + ENERGY(ATP). Is a cumultative function of three metablic stages Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and oxidative phosphoralytion(ETC and chemiosmosis)

Cation Exchange

A process in which positively charged minerals are made available to a plant when hydrogen ions (secreted by a root hairs and cellular respiration) which then releases CO2 into the soil solution where it will react with H2O to form carbonic acid, and its dissociation adds H+ which displaces mineral ions from the clay particles.

Autophagy

A process were by lysosomes recycle the cells organic material, During this process a damaged organelle OR cytosol becomes surrounded by a membrane which then fuses with the lysosome and are dismantled. The Liver cell must recycle half of s macromolecuels per week. Problems with this process or the enzymes can lead to Tay- Sachs disease.

Nucleolus

A prominent undividing part of the nuclear membrane. Appears as a mass of densly stained granules and fibers adjoining part of the chromatin. This where rRNA (Ribosomal RNA) Is synthesized.from instructions in the DNA.

Calyptra

A protective cap of gametophyte tissue that protects the immature capsule, and is shed when the capsule becomes mature.

ATP Synthase

A protein complex in mandy copies that resides in the inner layer of the mithochondrion, makes ATP from ADP and (inorganic) phosphate., it works like an ion pump acting in reverse, by using the energy of an existing power gradient to power ATP synthesis.

Luteinizing Hormone

A protein hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates ovulation in females and androgen production in males. (Endocrine System) Regulated by Hypothalamic hormones.

Chaperonin

A protein molecule that assists in the proper folding of other proteins. Work by keeping the polypeptide "separated from bad influences.

alpha-synuclein

A protein normally found in the presynaptic membrane, where it is apparently involved in synaptic plasticity. Abnormal accumulations are apparently the cause of neural degeneration in Parkinson's disease.

Myosin

A protein present in muscle fibers that aids in contraction and makes up the majority of muscle fiber

Single Strand binding Protein

A protein that binds to the unpaired DNA strands during DNA replication, stabilizing them and holding them apart while they serve as templates for the synthesis of complementary strands of DNA.

Topoisomerase

A protein that breaks, swivels, and rejoins DNA strands. During DNA replication, topoisomerase helps to relieve strain in the double helix ahead of the replication fork.

Motor proteins

A protein that interacts with cytoskeletal elements and other cell components, producing movement of the whole cell or parts of the cell. Makes cell motility possible, like in cillia and flagella.

Pepsin

A protein-digesting enzyme secreted by the chief cells of the gastric glands. Pepsin is secreted in its inactive form (pepsinogen) and is activated by gastric acid. It is unusual in that its pH optimum is around 1-2; most of these enzymes in the body function best at neutral pHs

WAS Protein

A protien that is located slighly below the cell surface, it interacts both with microfilaments of the cytoskeleton and with different components of the cell signaling pathways. The absence of this protein leads to Wiskott- Aldrich Syndrome.

Cellular Slime molds

A protist in which the feeding stage is likely to consist of solitary fcekks that function individually. Haploid organisms with no flagellated stages.

Sodium Potassium Pump

A pump that actively maintains the gradient of sodium ions (Na+) and potassium ions (K+) across the plasma membrane of animal cells . K+ concentration is low outside animal cell and high inside the cell. Na+ concentration is high outside an animal cell and low inside the cell. Maintains these concentration gradients using the energy of one ATP to pump three Na+ out and two K+ in.

Entropy

A quantitative measure of disorder or randomness, symbolized by S.

Mold

A rapidly growing, asexually reproducing fungus. They can also reproduce sexually if they come in contact with proper mating types.

Sickle Cell Disease

A recessive disorder, sickle shaped cell form when there is a low amount of oxygen, can't carry oxygen and can clog blood vessels, can cause many problems including paralysis, also like cystic fibrosis it is pleitropic.

Depolarization

A reduction in the magnitude of the membrane potential (the inside of the membrane becomes more positive or less negative), may be due to the opening of Na+ channels which increase membrane permanbility and causes potential to approach ENa(+62 mV at 37 degrees celsius) is a graded potential

Histamine

A regulating body substance released in excess during allergic reactions causing swelling and inflammation of tissues, stored in the mast cells found in connective tissues.

Transcription Factor

A regulatory protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of specific genes.

Parasitism

A relationship in which one organims(the parasite ) benefits at the expense of the host.

Biodiversity Hot Spot

A relatively small area with an exceptional concentration of endemic species and a large number of endangered and threatened species

Primary Cell Wall

A relatively thin and flexible layer first secreted by a young plant cell. Between the layers of adjacent cell are the middle lamella, as the cell matures it will harden or the cells mights secrete a secondary cell wall.

Cross Pollination

A reproductive process in which pollen from one plant is transferred to the stigma of another plant, in order to insure that he could control what he was planting he removed the stamens of a plant before they reproduced pollen and then dusted pollen from another plant onto altered flowers stigma.

HIV

A retrovirus that gains entry into cells by making use of 3 proteins that participate in normal immune response(mainly CD4 molecule) but it also effects macrophages and brain cells. 2nd protein it requires is co-receptor

Iris

A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening, and in consequence the amount of light entering the eye

Taproot System

A root system common to eudicots, consisting of one large, vertical root (the taproot) that produces many smaller lateral, or branch, roots.

Lateral Roots

A root that arises from the outermost layer of the pericycle of an established root. Allso called branched roots they are usually on the outside of taproots in Eudicots.

Noncyclic electron flow

A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves both photosystems and produces ATP, NADPH, and oxygen. The net electron flow is from water to NADP+.

Cyclic Electron Flow

A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves only photosystem I and that produces ATP but not NADPH or oxygen. Makes up the differences in ATP required for the Calvin Cycle., and a rise in NADPH can contribute to a switch to this route.

Chagraff's rule.

A rule that thymine combines w/ adenine in equal amounts;and cytosine combines w/ guanine in equal amounts.

Peristalsis

A rythmic, wavelike motion that progressively moves through a tube organ such as the small intestine, or a type of movement produced by contracting the circular muscles and relaxing the longitudinal muscles.

Mark-Recapture Method

A sampling technique used to estimate the size of animal populations., Capture a few organisms, tag them, put the back into the environment, and then recapture and the # of tagged organisms caught helps tell total population, assumes that chances of being recaught are the same for every animal.

Internodes

A segment of a plant stem between the points where leaves are attached

Internodes

A segment of a plant stem between the points where leaves are attached.

Tonoplast

A selective membrane that encloses the central vacuole in a plant cell, separating the cytosol from the vacuolar contents, called cell sap; also known as the vacuolar membrane.

Mechanoreceptors

A sensory receptor that responds to mechanical disturbances, such as shape changes (being squashed, bent, pulled, etc.). Mechanoreceptors include touch receptors in the skin, hair cells, in the ear, muscle spindles, and others.

Membrane Potential

A separation of opposite charges across a membrane created by the pumping out of H+ ions out of a cell. Makes the inside of a cell negative and outer more positive. Also a form of potential energy. Contributes to the uptake of K+ ions by root cells.

Signal Peptide

A sequence of about 20 amino acids at or near the leading (amino) end of a polypeptide that targets it to the endoplasmic reticulum or other organelles in a eukaryotic cell.

Anticodon

A sequence of three bases of a tRNA molecule that pairs with the complementary three-nucleotide codon of an mRNA molecule during protein synthesis.

Weberian Apparatus

A series of bones that conduct the vibrations from the swim bladder to the inner ear.

Gastrulation

A series of cell and tissue movements in which the blastula-stage embryo folds inward, producing a three-layered embryo, the gastrula that will develop into adult body parts..

Metabolic Pathway

A series of chemical reactions that either builds a complex molecule (anabolic pathway) or breaks down a complex molecule into simpler compounds (catabolic pathway). In each step of the pathway an enzyme is used.

Movement Corridor

A series of small clumps or a narrow strip of quality habitat (usable by organisms) that connects otherwise isolated patches of quality habitat. Can be a deciding factor in preserving biodiversity, depending on whether or not they help tranport diseases as well.

Signal Transduction Pathway

A series of steps linking a mechanical or chemical stimulus to a specific cellular response. Similarities of these in yeast and animals suggest that early versions evolved well before first multicellular organsims.

Protein kinase A

A serine/threonine kinase which is activated by cAMP (immediate effect), which then phosphorylates other proteins depending on cell type.

Secretases

A set of enzymes believed to snip pieces off a longer protein producing fragments of amyloid protein that bunch up and create amyloid protein plaques in brain tissue (the pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's)

Genomic Library

A set of thousands of DNA segments from a genome, each carried by a plasmid, phage, or other cloning vector

Triplet Code

A set of three-nucleotide-long words that specify the amino acids for polypeptide chains.

Blood vessels

A set of tubes through which the blood moves ,one of the three requirements for the two types of circulatory system(along with blood, and a heart).

Anaphylatic Shock

A severe whole body allergic reaction which restricts air flow to the lungs. Develops when widespread mast cell degranulation triggers abrupt dilation of peripheral blood vessels causing a huge drop in blood pressure.

Conjugation

A sexual process in which two individuals exchange haploid nuclei. May help protists such as ciliates remove transposons and selfish DNA.

Coleoptile

A sheath that a shoot of a sprouting grass would be in. Charles Darwin and Son Francis Darwin did experiments like this.

Okazaki Fragments

A short segment of DNA synthesized away from the replication fork on a template strand during DNA replication, many of which are joined together to make up the lagging strand of newly synthesized DNA

Vessel Elements

A short, wide, water conducting cell found in the xylem of most angiosperms and a few nonflowering vascular plants. Dead at maturity, vessel elements are aligned end to form micropipes called vessels.

Motor Unit

A single neuron and all the muscle fibers it stimulates

Parabronchi

A site of gas exchange in bird lungs. Parabronchi allow air to flow past the respiratory surface in just one direction.

Allosteric Site

A site on an enzyme other than the active site, to which a specific substance binds, thereby changing the shape and activity of the enzyme.

Receptor Potential

A slow, graded electrical potential produced by a receptor cell in response to a physical stimulus

Ocellus

A small cup with light-sensitive surface backed by light-absorbing pigment, in contrast to compound eyes, which are image forming., Is only open in a particular directions ( one left and slightly forward and the other right forward) Used by planarians to avoid predators because they are then able to distinguish the direction of the light and move away from it.

Leaf Traces

A small vascular bundle that extends from the vascular tissue of the stem through the petiole and into a leaf.

Enviromentalism

A social movement dedicated to protecting the earths life-support systems for us and all other forms of life, NOT to be confused with Ecology.

Cell sap

A solution of sugars, amino acids and many other substances, found in the central vacuoles of plant cells

Terminator

A special sequence of nucleotides in DNA that marks the end of a gene. It signals RNA polymerase to release the newly made RNA molecule, which then departs from the gene

Sodium Potassium Pump

A special transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell against their concentration gradients.

Beta Amyloid plaques

A structural change in the cerebral cortex associated with Alzheimer's Disease, in which dense deposits of a deteriorated protein called amyloid develop, surrounded by clumps of dead nerve and glial cells, also called senile plaques, they seem to trigger the death of surrounding neurons.

Cellulose

A structural polysaccharide of cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by b-1, 4-glycosidic linkages. The MOST abundant organic compound on Earth. Arises from the beta ring structure for glucose, and gives it a never branched look which in plants is grouped into Microfibrils. When this compound is eaten by humans it cannot be broke down but instead abrades the digestive tract to produce mucus.

Nucleoside

A structure composed of a ribose molecule linked to one of the aromatic bases. In a deoxynucleoside, the ribose is replaced with deoxyribose. Does NOT contain the phosphate group.

Kinetochore

A structure of proteins that are associated with specific sections of chromosomal DNA, each of the 2 sister chromatids have one,=.

Ovules

A structure that develops within the ovary of a seed plant and contains the female gametophyte.

Axillary Bud

A structure that has the potential to form a lateral shoot, or branch. The bud appears in the angle formed between a leaf and a stem.

basilar membrane

A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells.

Morphogens

A substance that provides positional information in the form of a concentration gradient along an embryonic axis.

Noncompetitive Inhibitors

A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location remote from the active site, changing its conformation so that it no longer binds to the substrate.

Competitive Inhibitors

A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in place of the substrate whose structure it mimics. Can be overcome by increasing the concentration of substrate so that more active sites become available than inhibitor molecules.

Mitogen

A substance which increases mitosis; causes a general cell response to a growth signal, such as platelet derived growth factor(PDGF)

Life Table

A summary of how survival and reproductive rates in a population vary with the age of individuals; in species for which age is not informative or is difficult to measure, are often based on the size or life history stage of individuals. Best way to consturct one is by following a cohort

Mutualism

A symbiotic relationship in which both organisms benefit.

Commensalism

A symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits, while neither helping or harming the other organism in a significant way.

24D

A synthetic auxin that is used as a herbidicis, elimates eudicots in particuklar such as dandieloions. Auxin also produces secondary growth in vascular cambium and influences differentation of secondary xylem.

Vascular Tissue System

A system formed by xylem and phloem throughout a vascular plant, serving as a long distant transport system for water and nutrients, respectively.

Closed System

A system that allows the exchange of energy, but not matter, between the system and its surroundings.

Fever

A systemic response to infection, May occur when certain toxins released by pathogens and substances released by activated macrophages set the body at a higher temperature.

Aminoacyl tRNA

A tRNA with an amino acid attached. This is made by an animoacyl-tRNA synthetase specific to the amino acid being attache.d

Gram Stain

A technique developed physician Hans Christian Gram and is used to classify bacteria into two groups based on cell wall composition.

Chronic Villus Sampling

A technique of prenatal diagnosis in which a small sample of the fetal portion of the placenta is removed and analyzed to detect certain genetic and congenital defects in the fetus

Amniocentesis

A technique of prenatal diagnosis in which amniotic fluid, obtained by aspiration from needle inserted into the uterus(between 14-16), is analyzed to detect certain genetic and congenital defects in the fetus, such as Tay Sachs, results will be karyotyped. Another method is chronic villus sampling (cvs)

X- Ray Crystallography

A technique that depends on the diffraction of an X-ray beam by the individual atoms of a crystallized molecule to study the three-dimensional structure of the molecule.

X- Ray Crystallography

A technique that depends on the diffraction of an X-ray beam by the individual atoms of a crystallized molecule to study the three-dimensional structure of the molecule. Helped Watson figure out the double helix of DNA

Southern Blotting

A technique that enables specific nucleotide sequences to be detected in a sample of DNA. It involves gel electrophoresis of DNA molecules and their transfer to a membrane (blotting), followed by nucleic acid hybridization with a labeled probe. (Must use an alakine solutiojn, Gel, Nitrocellulose, and a heavy weight to pull the solution through the cell. Most useful application is its use to identify the heterozygote carriers of mutant alleles associated with genetic diseases.

Cell Fractionation

A technique that is used to isolate cell components(organelles) based on 2 factors(Size and Density). First the cells are homogenized in a blender, the cell homogenate is then entrifuged at various speeds and for certain periods, which by the end form a series of pellets. These pellets are then used to assign the specific part of acell a specific cell function.

In Vitro Mutagenesis

A technique to discover the function of a gene by introducing specific changes into the sequence of a cloned gene, reinserting the mutated gene into a cell, and studying the phenotype of the mutant. RNAi is more effective and faster.

Electroporation

A technique to introduce recombinant DNA into cells by applying a brief electrical pulse to a solution containing cells. The electricity creates temporary holes in the cells' plasma membranes, through which DNA can enter.

Freeze Fracture

A technique which splits a membrane along the middle of the phospholipid bilayer. When viewed with an electron microscope, protein particles are interspersed in a smooth matrix, supported the fluid mosaic model.

Consanguineous

A term meaning descended from the same parent or ancestor, increases the chance of harmfeul reccesive alleles being passed down. Indicated by a double line in a pedigree.

Heterosporous

A term referring to a plant species that has two kinds of spores: microspores that develop into male gametophytes and megaspores that develop into female gametophytes. (ALL Seed plants and a few seedless)

Cell Motility

A term that encompasses both changes in location and more limited movements of parts of the cell, requires the interaction of the Cytoskeleton with motor proteins.

Bolus

A term used to describe food after it has been chewed and mixed with saliva(usually into the form of a ball).

Tropical Forest

A terrestrial biome characterized by high levels of precipitation(seasonal) 200-400 cm and high temperatures year-round. Stratified and competition for light is very intense. Large amount of epiphytes cover the trees, but are less abundant in the dry versions of these, Exhibits the highest animal diversity of any terrestrial biome, rapid population growth and human expansion are now destroying this biome.

Dynamic Stability Hypothesis

A theory suggesting that food chain length is limited because longer food chains are less stable and higher level consumers would be at a higher risk of extinction( because predators would be slower to rebound after an ecological change.

Corpus callosum

A thick band of axons that enables the communication between the right and left cerebral cortices.

Microelectrode

A thin electrode made of wire or glass (with a salt solution) that can measure the electrical activity of a single neuron by using a micropositioner to insert an extemely fine tip into the cell, and then an oscilloscope or computer measuresa the voltage

Middle lamella

A thin layer of adhesive extracellular material, primarily pectins, found between the primary walls of adjacent young plant cells.

Microfibrils

A threadlike component of the cell wall, composed of cellulose molecules

Codons

A three-nucleotide sequence of DNA or mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid or termination signal; the basic unit of the genetic code. Written in 5` to 3` direction.

Root Hair

A tiny extension of a root epidermal cell, growing just behind the root tip and increasing surface area for absorption of water and minerals.

Transport Vesicles

A tiny membranous sac in a cell's cytoplasm and translational ER carrying molecules produced by the cell.

Chitin

A tough but flexible nitrogen containing polysaccharide in the cell walls of fungi and exoskeletons of arthropods.

Chitin

A tough structural polysaccharide, consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods.

Recessive

A trait that is masked by by the presence of a dominant trait( In Mendels case White)

Activator

A transcription factor that binds to an enhancer and stimulates transcription of a gene.

Savanna

A tropical grassland biome with scattered individual trees, large herbivores, and three distinct seasons based primarily on rainfall, maintained by occasional fires and drought. Plants are usually thorny with reduced leaf surface area. Warm all year round. Large Mammals like wildebeests and Zebras, Lions and Hyenes are common inhabitants, There is also evidence that the earliest humans lived in this biome, fires help mantain this biome while farming and overhunting is leading to a decline in large mammal population.

Tendrils

A twisting, threadlike structure by which a twining plant (vine) grasps an object for support (modified leaf)

Aurea

A type of "gold" tomatoe which has lower than normal levels of chlorophyll that scientist study in order to demonstrate the plants requirement for phytochrome, is a close relative of potatoe

mRNA

A type of RNA, synthesized from DNA, that attaches to ribosomes in the cytoplasm and specifies the primary structure of a protein; also called messenger RNA.

Pinocytosis

A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes.

Determinate Growth

A type of growth characteristic of most animals and some plant organs, in which growth stops after a certain size is reached.

Indeterminate Growth

A type of growth characteristic of plants, in which the organism continues to grow as long as it lives.

Complete Dominance

A type of inheritance in which the phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are indistinguishable.

Steroids

A type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four rings with various functional groups attached.These all have the same ring pattern: three six-sided rings and one five-sided ring.

Ligand- gated ion channel

A type of membrane receptor that can act as a "gate" when the receptor molecule changes shape, a signal molecule binds as a ligand to the receptor protein, which either allows or blocks the flow of ions "Ca2+, Na through a channel in the receptor. (Very important in the nervous system)

Batesian Mimicry

A type of mimicry in which a harmless species looks like a species that is poisonous or otherwise harmful to predators

RNA

A type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis and as the genome of some viruses.

Parasitoidism

A type of parasitism in which an insect lays eggs on or in a living host; the larvae then feed on the body of the host, eventually killing it

Bundle Sheath Cells

A type of photosynthetic cell arranged into tightly packed sheaths around the veins of a leaf. Usually consists of parenchyma.

Base Pair Substitution

A type of point mutation; the replacement of one nucleotide and its partner in the complementary DNA strand by another pair of nucleotides. Some are called silent mutations

Tetrahymena

A type of protists called ciliates; small, unicellular organisms that can be found in pond water, and object of self splicing rRNA

Hemocyanin

A type of respiratory pigment that uses copper as its oxygen-binding component. Hemocyanin is found in the hemolymph of arthropods and many molluscs.(Blue)

Tannins

A type of secondary compoun, found in black-eyed peas, grapes, lentils, red and white wine, tea Act as antioxidants; may inhibit carcinogenic activation and cancer promotion

Electrical Synapse

A type of syanpse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing ions (and therefore an action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell, usually in smooth and cardiac muscle. - compared to chemical synapse. (Minority)

Chemical Synapse

A type of synapse at which a chemical (a neurotransmitter) is released from the axon of a neuron into the ysnaptic cleft where it binds to receptors on the next structure in sequence, either another neuron or an organ.

Hydrophobic interaction

A type of weak chemical bond formed when molecules that do not mix with water coalesce to exclude the water usually found at the core of the protein, and van der Waals interactions hold them together .

Lymphocytes

A type of white blood cell that make antibodies to fight off infections in the immune system.

Chlorophyll b

A type of yellow-green accessory photosynthetic pigment that transfers energy to chlorophyll a.

Pneumoctyosis carinii

A ubiquitus(found everywhere) fungus that can cause severe pneumonia in people with AID, but it is succesfully rebuffed by individuals with healthy immune systems. Kaposi's sarcoma also occurs mainly in AIDS patient.

Yeasts

A unicellular fungus that lives in liquid or moist habitats, primarily reproducing asexually by simple cell division or by budding of a parent cell.

Atrioventricular Valve

A valve in the heart between each atrium and ventricle that prevents a backflow of blood when the Ventricles contract. Is anchored by strong fibers that [revent it from turning inside out.

Semilunar Valve

A valve located at the two exits of the heart, where the aorta leaves the left ventricle and the pulmonary artery leaves the right ventricle.

Stem

A vascular plant organ consisting of an alternating system of nodes and internodes that support the leaves and reproductive structures.

Hepatic Portal Vein

A vein connecting the capillary bed of the intestines with the capillary bed of the liver. This allows amino acids and gluocse absorbed from the intestines to be delivered first to the liver for processing before being transported throughout the circulatory system., vein that collects blood from the liver capillaries and returns it to the heart

Mast Cells

A vertebrate body cell that produces histamine and other molecules that trigger the inflammatory response. Trigger dilation and increased permeabilty of nearby capillaries, may also make macrophages nearby to relaease prostaglandins.

Wobble

A violation of the base-pairing rules in that the third nucleotide (5' end) of a tRNA anticodon can form hydrogen bonds with more than one kind of base in the third position (3' end) of a codon.

Rhodopsin

A visual pigment consisting of retinal and opsin. When rhodopsin absorbs light, the retinal changes shape and dissociates from the opsin, after which it is converted back to its original form.

Tracheids

A water-conducting and supportive element of xylem composed of long, thin cells with tapered ends and walls hardened with lignin.

Saccharomyces cerevisea

A yeast(Saccharomyces cerevisea) that scientists have tested for milenia to make bread wine and beer, they also identify their mates either a or alpha by signaling.

Scanning Electron Microscope

Abbreviated SEM, is one of the two basic types of EM along with the TEM, this one is useful if you would want to study the surface of a specimen, it SCANS the surface of the sample(which is usualkly coated with Gold)--- what a waste of money, the beam then excites electrons on the cell surface, and these electrons are detected by a device that translates the pattern of electrons into an electronic signal

Tunneling Electron Microscope

Abbreviated TEM, is one of the two basic types of EM along with the SEM, this one is used if you want to study the internal structure(ultrastructure) of an organism. It aims an electron beam through a very thin section of the specimen(which has been stained with heavy metals), which enhances the electron densities of some structures more than others, leading to less transmittance, and the image is created through the pattern of transmittance, and through electromagnets which focuse the image onto a screen.

LTER

Abbreviation of a long term ecological research that is taking place in forest ecosystems since 1963 in the Whit Mountains of New Hampshire.

Thymine Dimer

Abnormally chemcally bonded thymine bases in DNA resulting from ultra violet irradion damage. the cellular processes that repair often make errors that cause mutations

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone

Abreviated (ACTH), A peptide hormone released from the anterior pituitary, it stimulates the production and secretion of steroid hormones by the adrenal cortex.(Endocrine System)

Antidiuretic Hormone

Abreviated (ADH), hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary gland(produced in hypothalumus) to prevent the kidneys from expelling too much water(Negative Feedback)

Atrial Natriuretic Factor

Abreviated (ANF), opposes the RAAS(Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system), hormone that is secreted by atria reduces blood pressure, and inhibits the realease of renin from the JGA, which inhibits NaCl reabsorption by the collectingducts, and reduces aldosterone release from the adrenal glands.

Follicle Stimulating Hormone

Abreviated (FSH) released from the anterior pituitary gland to target the ovaries & testes. In females it stimulates the development of follicles in the ovaries and in males it promotes the development of sperm cells (and stimulates the interstitial cells of the testes to produce testosterone).(Glycoprotein) (Endocrine System)

Insulin Like Growth Factors

Abreviated (IGFs), These are produced by the liver, their production is stimulated by growth hormone. They are also called somatomines. They directly stimulate the growth in tissues. mainly in bones and cartilage

Juxtaglomerular Apparatus

Abreviated (JGA), located near the afferent arteriole, helps regulate blood pressure or volume when pressure drops in the afferent arteriole by realeasing renin which converts a plasma protein called angiotensinogen into angiotensin 2, which raises blood pressure by constricting arterioles

Megapascals

Abreviated (MPa). Are thye units in which water potential(ψ) are measured in. Pure Water = 0 MPa. 1 MPa = approximately 10 Atmospheres.

Parathyroid Hormones

Abreviated (PTH) A hormone produced by the parathyroid glands that regulates the amount of calcium(osteocysts) and phosphorus in the body. (Peptide) (Endocrine System) Regulated by calcium in blood. ACTS to increase blood calcium levels

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

Abreviated (RAAS), , Complex feedback circuit that functions in homeostasis to conserve salt and water by regulating blood pressure. (Good if you have diaherriaas the ADH will not be realesaed because osmorality will not change.

Diacylglycerol

Abreviated DAG, and produced by the cleavage of certain phospholipids in the plasma membrane(PIP2) by phospholipase C which activates an enzyme which phophorylates certain proteins

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Abreviated ER, , an internal membrane system (account for more than 50% of total membrane) in which components of cell membrane and some proteins are constructed, consists of a network of memranous tubules and sacs called cisternae, seperates lumen(internal) from the cytosol. 2 distinct parts: Smooth and Rough

Inositol triphosphate

Abreviated IP3, produced by the cleavage of certain phospholipids (PIP2) in the plasma membrane by phospholilase C, diffuses through the cytosol and binds to an IP3 gate calcium channel in the ER membrane allowing it to open.

Membrane Attack Complex

Abreviated MAC, formed by complement proteins that forms a pore in the membrane, Ions and water then ruch into the cell causing it to swell and lyse.

Trimethylamine oxide

Abreviated TMAO, it is found in Shark tissues and protects against the high Urea cojncentrataion that it must keep in the tissues in order to insure that it does not experience large osmotic water loss.

Messenger RNA

Abreviated mRNA, what a cell's DNA is transcribed and processes into, leaves the nucleus and is translated into specific proteins by ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

Outgroup

Added as a basis of comparison to a cladogram. Consists of species that are closely related to the ingroup(THE SPECIES THAT WE ARE STUDYING). However it is known to be less closely related then the members of the ingroup.

Mediator Proteins

Additional transcription factors that interact with proteins at the promoter to assemble the initiation complex

Anterior pituitary

Adenohypophysis. Derived from surface ectoderm (Rathke's pouch). FLAT PiG. FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, ProlatIn, GH. Also melanotropin.

Looped Domains

After nucleosomes condense and link the 30 nm fiber gathers into thick supercoiled loops (80-100 nm). Tethered to protein scaffold of the (nuclear matrix)- regulates degree of supercoiling. Seen during Prophase, can become 300 nm

Phragmoplast

Alignment of cytoskeletel elements and Golgi-derived vesicles across the midline of the dividing cell.

Sponges

All animals EXCEPT ________ have some type of nervous system, also they are they only phyla that are "not true tissue" animals.

Symbiosis

An ecological relationship between organisms of different species that are in direct contact.

Root System

All of a plant's roots, which anchor it in the soil, absorb and transport minerals and water, and store food, have root hairs that significantly increase surface area and thus making the water transport more massive and efficent.

Cephalization

An evolutionary trend toward the concentration of sensory equipment at the anterior end of the body, along with the central nervous system.

Resting Potential

An electrical potential established across the plasma membrane of all cells by the Na+/K+ ATPase and the K+ leak channels. IN most cells, the r__________ is approximately -70 mV with respect to the outside of the cell.

Somatic Cells

All the cells of your body except your sex cells(gametes)

Two characters

Allowed Mendel to derive the law of independent assortment ( like flower color , and seed shape)

1976 Toxic Substance Control Act

Allows for control and testing of chemicals that have potential negative impact to human life or the environment. Banned DDT and PCB's

Functional MRI

Allows researchers to scan areas of the brain while a participant performs a physical or cognitive task

Estrogen

Along with Progesterone, this hormone helped prove that receptors for some hormones are found inside target cells. The studies showed that these two hormones accumulated only in the nuclei of rats, not outside it.(The female sex hormone.)

Candace Pert

Along with Solomon Snyder( both of John Hopkins who discovered endoprhins when they found out that the opiates morphine and heroin bind to the same brain receptors.

Progesterone

Along with estrogen, this hormone helped prove that receptors for some hormones are found inside target cells.The studies showed that these two hormones accumulated only in the nuclei of rats, not outside it. (Helps uterine lining in females)

PCP

Also called Angel Dust is a synthesized drug now used as an animal tranquilizer that can cause stimulant, depressant, narcotic, or hallucinogenic effects similar to those suffered by those people with schizophrenia by blocking NMDA receptors.

Constant Regions

Also called C regions. They are below the variable regions located at the tip of the Y molecule. Amino acid sequence varies very little from cell to cell.(Found in B and T cell receptor)

Gap Junctions

Also called Communicating Junctions, provide cytoplasmisc channels from one cell to an adjacent cell. Consists of specialized membrane proteins that surround a pore, necessary for communicatio n in many cells including the heart and animal embryos.

Growth Regulators

Also called Plant Hormones , hormones and synthetic chemicals that inhibit or modify plant growth and development

Variable Regions

Also called V Regions. Located at the tips of the Y in B cell receptors, they are named because their amino acid sequences vary extensively from one B cell to another.(Found in B and T cell receptor)

Receptor

Also called a sensor, detects the stimulus and sends the information to the control center. Usually found in plasma membrane

Acquired Immunity

Also called adaptive immunity, it develops only after exposure to inducing agents like (toxins, microbes,). Highly specific.(Lymphocytes,antibodies, cytotoxic lymphocytes.

Complete Digestive Tract

Also called an alimentary canal,most animals have this digestive tract, , continuous tube with a separate mouth and anus where food only moves in one direction. Allows most animals to ingest additional foods before earlier meals have been completely digested.

BAC

Also called bacterial artificial chromosomes, which can clone much larger pieces of DNA but have lower copy number

Agaves

Also called century plants, are plant that grow in a semiarid environment, they grow for several years and then send up o huge flowering stalk, produce seeds and then die, the irregular water production may prevent seed production or seeding establishment for some time.

Sternum

Bone that lies on top of the heart .

cAMP

Also called cyclic adenosine monophosphate, or cyclic AMP, is converted from ATP to this molecule with the help of adenylyl cyclase, in response to an extracelular signal( In Sutherland's case epinephrine) but is also prominent for Glaucagon etc. .etc.

cGMP

Also called cyclic guanine monophosphate, is an important molecule involved in sight, smooth muscle relaxation and penis erection.(Helps increase blood flow to the heart)

Alzheimers Disease

Also called dementia ,characteristic physiologic changes are neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques (deposits of protein), found throughout the cortex, which interfere with cells' ability to transmit impulses, the rate of incidence is directly proportional to age, and as medicine has gotten better there have been an ever increasing number with AD

Type 1 Diabetes

Also called insulin dependent Diabetes,, a metabolic disorder characterized by an absence of insulin production and secretion from autoimmune destruction of the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.(Autoimmune disorder)

Type 2 Diabetes

Also called noninsulin dependent Diabetes,, a metabolic disorder characterized by the relative deficiency of insulin production and a decreased insulin action and increased insulin resistance. Excess body weight and lack of excercise significantly increases this risk. 90% of people with diabetes have this type.

Gastrodermal Cells

Also called nutrive muscular cells, they line the inside of the intestine and absorbs nutrients from the food digested in the lumen of the intestine

Restriction Enzymes

Also called restriction endonucleases, were first discovered in the late 1960' s and have made genetic engineering possible. They are found naturally in Bacteria and protect against foreign organisms. Is very specific and only recognizes a particular DNA sequence

Particulate Hypothesis

Also called the "Gene Idea", in this model parents pass on discrete heritable units that retain their separate identities in offspring, proven by Gregor Mendel.

Epitope

Also called the antigenic determinant. Is the small accessabe part of the antigen which lymphocytes sometimes bind to.

Posterior Pituitary

Also called the neurohypophysis it does not produce hormones (like oxytocin and ADH) but stores and releases, acts on the anterior pituitary

Osmotic Potential

Also called the solute potential because solutes affect the direction of osmosis. Adding solutes always lowers water potential because solutes bind to water molecules reducinf the number of free water molecules and lowering the capacity of the water to do work.

Immunization

Also called vaccination, a process of stimulates the body's immune system to defend against attack by particular contagious disease. a person may acquire these either naturally (by having the disease) or thorugh vaccination (by having an injection, wearing a patch swallowing, or inhaling)

Red Algae

Also known as Rhodophytes, are red because of Phycoerythrin which masks the green color ogf the chlorophylls

Coniferous Forest

Also known as Taiga(the largest terrestrial biome on Earth), precipitation goes from 30 to 70 cm( Although coastal coniferous forest gets up to 300 cm of annual precipitation. Winters are usually cold and long summers may be hot. Moose, Brown Birds, Tigers and insects (which occasionally outbreak and kill vast amount of trees), Old growth may start to disappear.

Ethylene

Also known as ethene(C2H4), is the simplest alkene. Is a gas that promotes fruit ripening and helps regulate growth, which can pass through cell walls

Thoriac Cavity

Also known as the chest cavity or thorax surrounds and protects the heart and lungs. Separated from the lower abdominal cavity by the muscular diaphragm.

Calvin Cycle

Also known as the dark reactions, , The second of two major stages in photosynthesis (following the light reactions), involving atmospheric CO2 fixation and reduction of the fixed carbon into carbohydrate by addition of electrons (Occurs in the Stroma)

Tonoplast

Also known as the vacuolar membrane. Regulates molecular traffic betwen the CYTOSOL and the VACUOLAR contents(cell sap), its protein pump expels H+ from cytosol into the vacoule, which is then used to move other ions across the vacuolar membrane by chemiosmosis.

Oswald Avery

American Bacteriologist who inspired by Grifith's experiment (Transofrmation), had several experiments that tested if DNA was the genetic material (It Was). Technically not given credit McCarty and Macleod(did announce) but (Hershey and Chase) are usually given credit.

Melvin Calvin

American scientist who worked out the details of the Calvin cycle

James Watson

American scientist. With Francis Crick, he elucidated the structure and function of the DNA double helix. He shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine with Crick and Maurice Wilkins. He served as the head of the Human Genome Research program from 1989 to 1992.

Xeroderma Pigmentosum

An Autosomal recessive disease , caused by a defect in the nucleotide excision repair system; Accumulation of damaged DNA; Risk of cancer, a rare genetic condition characterized by an eruption of exposed skin occurring in childhood and photosensitivity with severe sunburn (Mainly from UV )

Met-enkephalin

An Endorphin and neurotransmitter which is generally inhibitory; acts on mu receptor; causes euphoria, dependence, analgesia, and respiratory depression

Ribozymes

An RNA molecule that functions as an enzyme, catalyzing reactions during RNA splicing

Retroviruses

An RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its RNA into DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome; an important class of cancer-causing viruses.

Duplication

An aberration in chromosome structure resulting from an error in meiosis or mutagens; duplication of a portion of a chromosome resulting from fusion with a fragment from a homologous chromosome.

Inversion

An aberration in chromosome structure resulting from reattachment in a reverse orientation of a chromosomal fragment to the chromosome from which the fragment originated.

Chlorosis

An abnormally yellow color of plant tissue, resulting from partial failure to develop chlorophyll, caused by a nutrient deficiency

Carotenoids

An accessory pigment, either yellow or orange, in the chloroplasts of plants. By absorbing wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot, carotenoids broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis, and function in photoprotection

Proton Pump

An active transport mechanism in cell membranes that uses ATP to force hydrogen ions out of a cell, generating a membrane potential in the process. Main type in plant, fungi and bacteria.

Crassulacean acid Metabolism

An adaptation for photosynthesis in arid conditions, first discovered in the family Crassulaceae. In this process, a plant takes up CO2 and incorporates it into a variety of organic acids at night; during the day, CO2 is released from organic acids for use in the Calvin cycle.

Cloning Vector

An agent used to transfer DNA in genetic engineering. A plasmid from bacteria that moves recombinant DNA from a test tube back into a cell is an example , or it can be a virus that transfers recombinant DNA by infection.

Monocytes

An agranular leukocyte that is able to migrate into tissues and transform into a macrophage.

Primer

An already existing RNA chain bound to template DNA to which DNA nucleotides are first added during DNA synthesis.

Alternation of Generations

An alternation of multicellular haploid and diploid forms. This term only applies to life cylcles in which both haploid and diploid stages are multicellular.

Glutamate

An amino acid neurotransmitter, works to excite in the CNS and intermuscular junctions, also involved in memory and inin information transmission throughout the brain.

Aspartate

An amino acid that functions as a CNS excitatory neurotransmitter, also furnishes ammonia for Urea synthesis in mammals.

Glycine

An amino acid; an important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the lower brain stem and spinal cord(CNS).

Glycine

An amino acid; an important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the lower brain stem and spinal cord. Also the only one lacking an assymetric carbon.

Glycolysis

An anerobic metabolic process that breaks down carbohydrates and sugars through a series of reactions to either pyruvic acid or lactic acid and release energy for the body in the form of ATP, can suppurt about a minute of sustained contractions.

Acoelomates

An animal that lacks a coelom. Acoelomates, which include the flatworm, fluke, tapeworm, and ribbon worm, exhibit bilateral symmetry and possess one internal space, the digestive cavity.

Osmoregulator

An animal that must adjust its internal osmolarity, since its body fluids are not isoosmotic with the outside environment. Must discharge excess water if it lives in hypoosmotic environment

Coelomates

An animal that possesses a true coelom (a body cavity lined by tissue completely derived from mesoderm).

Pseudocoelomates

An animal whose body cavity is not completely lined by mesoderm, and is instead is formed from the blastocoel. The pseudocoelom is a fully functional cavity.

Streptomycin

An antibiotic produced by the actinomycete Streptomyces griseus and used to treat tuberculosis, works because of the differential sizes of rRNA in bacteria and humans.

Systems Biology

An approach to studying biology that aims to model the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems.

Opposable Thumb

An arrangement of the fingers such that the thumb can touch the ventral surface of the fingertips of all four fingers.

Graft versus host reaction

An attack against a patient's body cells by lymphocytes received in a bone marrow transplant, is limited if the MHC molecule of the donor and reciepent are well matched.

Reflexes

An automatic and often inborn response to a stimulus that involves a nerve impulse, is the simplest way to study nervous sytem

Primary Producers

An autotroph, usually a photosynthetic organism. Collectively, autotrophs make up the trophic level of an ecosystem that ultimately supports all other levels.

Hyperpolarization

An electrical state in which the inside of the cell is more negative relative to the outside than at the resting membrane potential. Mat be cause by the opening of K+ channels which cause the potential to reach Ek( -92 mV at 37 degrees celsius), is a graded potential

Seed

An embryo packaged with a supply of nutrients and a protective coat. Those plants having this can be divided into two groups: Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.

Myoblast

An embryonic cell that develops into a cell of muscle fiber

Gastrula

An embryonic stage in animal development encompassing the formation of three layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.

Phytoremediation

An emerging nondestructive technology that seeks to cheaply reclaim contaminated areas by taking advantage of the remarkable ability of some plant species(like alpine pennycress) to extract heavy metals and other pollutants from the soil and to concentrate them in easily harvested portions of the plant.

Sieve Plates

An end wall in a sieve-tube element, which facilitates the flow of phloem sap in angiosperm sieve tubes.

Creatine Phosphate

An energy storage molecule used by muscle tissue. The phosphate from creatine phosphate can be removed and attached to an ADP to generate ATP quickly.

Phenoloxidase

An enyme that is sometimes released by hemocytes. Converts phenols to reactive compounds that link together in large aggregates, which are deposited around parasites and wounded tissues.

Reverse Transcriptase

An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.

Enterokinase

An enzyme of the small intestine that converts trypsinogen to trypsin.

Carbonic Anhydrase

An enzyme present in erythrocytes (as well as in other places) that catalyzes the conversion of CO2 and H2O into carbonic acid (H2CO3).

Pepsin

An enzyme present in gastric juice that begins the hydrolysis of proteins. Is secreted in an inactive form(Pepsinogen) by cheif cells in the stomach. The activation of pepsinogen is an example of positive feedback.

PEP Carboxylase

An enzyme that adds CO2 to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to form oxaloacetate in C4 plants. It acts prior to photosynthesis.

PEP Carboxylase

An enzyme that adds CO2 to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to form oxaloacetate in C4 plants. It acts prior to photosynthesis. It is good because it has NO affinity for oxygen (less photorespiration)

DNA Polymerases

An enzyme that catalyzes the elongation of new DNA at a replication fork by the addition of nucleotides(Nucleoside triphosphate ) to the existing chain at and ONLY at the 3` end.

DNA Ligase

An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of covalent bonds that close up the sugar phosphate backbone after the sticky ends form complementary hydrogen bonds(because these are only temporary)

Telomerase

An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres. The enzyme includes a molecule of RNA that serves as a template for new telomere segments. Is not active in most cells but is in most of the germ cells which help result in the maximization length of a zygote

Kinase

An enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of major phosphate groups

Tyrosine Kinase

An enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of phosphate groups from ATP to the amino acid tyrosine on a substrate protein, can trigger more than one signal transduction pathway at once, helping regulate and cooridnate many aspects of cell growth and cell reproduction. If this enzyme is inactivated or abnormal it can lead to cancer.

Ligase

An enzyme that connects two fragments of DNA (their sugar phosphate backbones) to make a single fragment; also called DNA _____. This enzyme is used during DNA replication and is also used in recombinant DNA research.

Adenylyl cyclase

An enzyme that converts ATP to cyclic AMP in response to a chemical signal.

Nuclease

An enzyme that cuts DNA or RNA, either removing one or a few bases or hydrolyzing the DNA or RNA completely into its component nucleotides., after it does this the resulting gap is filled in by DNA Pol 1 and ligase which add and cement new nucleotides.

Adinosine Deaminase

An enzyme that is missing in some types of SCID, leading to an accumulation of substances that are toxic to B and T cells

Primase

An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template.

Kinase

An enzyme that phosphorylates something else. Are frequently used in regulatory pathways, phosphorylating other enzymes.

Dehydrogenases

An enzyme that remove a pair of hydrogen atoms from the substrate, thereby oxidizing it. THESE ENZYMES deliver the two electrons along with one proton to its coenzyme, NADH+. The other proton is released as H+ into the surrounding solution.

Mineral Nutrients

An essential chemical element absorbed from the soil in the form of inorganic ions.

Effective Population size

An estimate of the size of a population based on the numbers of females and males that successfully breed; generally smaller than the total population. The equation is ( 4 x M X F) / (M+F)

Heterochrony

An evolutionary change in the rate of timing of developmental events.

Protein Phosphatases

An important part of the phosphorylation cascade, they are enzymes that rapidly remove phosphate groups from proteins, in a process called dephosphorylation, which makes the protein kinases available to reuse.

Long Term Potentiation

An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory, and can last for days or weeks. LTP has been studied mainly at the synapses in the hippocampus where presynaptic neurons release glutamate.

Vasodilation

An increase in the diameter of superficial blood vessels(near body surface) triggered by nerve signals that relax the muscle of vessel walls. Alters the amount of blood flowing between body core and skin.

Autopolyploid

An individual that has more than two chromosome sets, all derived from a single species.

Wild Type

An individual with the phenotype most commonly observed in natural populations; also refers to the phenotype itself. +

Wiskott- Aldrich Syndrome

An inherited disorder where the absence of signak relay protein leads to a diverse effects such as abnormal bleeding, ezcema, and predispostion to infections and leukemia, which are thought to arise mainly from the absence of the proteins in the cells of the immune system,

Spectrophotometer

An instrument that measures the proportions of light of different wavelengths absorbed and transmitted by a pigment solution.

Herbivory

An interaction in which an herbivore eats parts of a plant or alga. +/- interaction

Human Genome Project

An international effort to map the complete human genetic code. This effort was essentially completed in 2001, though analysis is ongoing.

Deep Green

An international initiative focusing on the deepest phylogenetic branching within the plant kingdom to identify and name the major plant clades.

Mycelium

An interwoven mass of hyphae that functions as the feeding structure of a fungus by infiltrating the material on which the fungi feeds. Also acts to maximize surface to area volume.

Plasmodesmata

An open channel in the cell wall of plants through which strands of cytosol connect from adjacent cells

Root

An organ in vascular plants that anchors the plant and enables it to absorb water and nutrients from the soil. In Eudicots and Gymosperms(Taproot) ,and Most mono cots and seedless Vascular (fibrous)

Chloroplasts

An organelle found only in plants and photosynthetic protists that absorbs sunlight and uses it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water.

Coenzyme

An organic molecule serving as a cofactor. Most vitamins function as this in important metabolic reactions

Model Organism

An organism selected for intensive scientific study based on features that make it easy to work with (e.g., body size, life span), in the hope that findings will apply to other species.

Osmoconformer

An organism that allows its internal concentration of salts to change in order to match the external concentration of salts in the surrounding water(most marine animals).

Conformer

An organism that allows its internal conditions to vary with external conditions. Example Spider Cubs

Faculative Anaerobes

An organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present but that switches to fermentation under anaerobic conditions. (Humans)

Heterotrophs

An organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products, and are therefore consumers.

Regulator

An organism that uses internal control mechanisms to control its internal environment in the face of external fluctuations. Example Fish

Septic Shock

An overwhelming systemic inflammatory response, characterized by a very high fever and low blood pressure, common cause of death in hospitals.

Placozoa

Animal phylum that consists of only one species Trichoplax adhaerens, which consists of a few thousand cells arranged in a double-layered plate 2 mm across; can reproduce by budding

Peroxisome

An oxidative organelle that is not part of the endomembrane system, it imports most of its proteins from the cytosol. Is bounded by a single membrane. Contains enzymes that transfer hydrogen(H+) from various substrates to oxygen, producing (H202) as a by product. Use oxygen to break fatty acids down into smaller molecules that can be transported to mitochondria, where they serve as fuel for cellular respiration, in the liver it helps detoxify alcohols (COOH) by removing H+ and adding it to the oxygen, it does contain an enzyme that transfers H202 into water.

Chemiosmosis

An proscess involving a transmembrane proton gradient, which links energy releasing proscess to energy consuming proscesses in cells.

Transition State

An unstable grouping of atoms that exists momentarily in the course of a reaction, when a system is highest in energy.

Alcohol Fermentation

Anaerobic ATP-forming pathway. 2 Ste Pyrupsvate from glycolysis is degraded to acetaldehyde, which accepts electrons from NADH to form ethanol; NAD+ needed for the reactions is regenerated. Net yield: 2 ATP.

Denitrification

Anaerobic process in which fixed nitrogen compounds are converted back into nitrogen gas and returned to the atmosphere

Homoplasies

Analogous structures that have evolved independently.

Erwin Chagraff

Analyzed the base composition of DNA and saw that it varied from species to species(shows the diversity of species).He also found that the amount of A nucleotides approximately equaled the number of T nucleotides, and the number of C nucleotides approximately equaled the number of G nucleotides. . this became known as Chagraff's rule.

Thucydides

Ancient Greek historian, first described the Secondary immune response.

Nematoda

Animal Phylum commonly known as roundworms, are abundant and divers in the soil and aquatic habitats.Has a very tough cuticle that coats the body, and alimentary canal. Nutrients are transported though fliud in the pseudocoelom.

Kinorhyncha

Animal Phylum with organisms that are all less than 1 mm long, have a body consisting of 13 segments covered in plates, and a spine-ringed mouth that can be retracted into the body

Echinoderm

Animal phyla that has a nerve net in each arm conected by a radial nerve to a central nerve ring. Which allows this phylum to be more adept at making movements.

Chordata

Animal phylum in which more than 90% are animals with backbones. However it also includes 3 groups of invertebrates: tunicates, lancelets, and hagfishes.

Platyhelminthes

Animal phylum of flatworms (tapeworms, planarians, flukes)which have bilateral symmetry , a central nervous system. They have NO body cavity or organs for circulation.

Phorinida

Animal phylum of marine worms. they live in tunnels in the sea floor, and extend their tentacles out of the tunnel opening to trap food particles.

Cofactors

Any nonprotein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of an enzyme. Cofactors can be permanently bound to the active site or may bind loosely with the substrate during catalysis (Minerals)

Endorphin

Any of several hormones produced in the brain and anterior pituitary that inhibits pain perception

Penicillin

Any of various antibiotics obtained from penicillium molds (or produced synthetically) and used in the treatment of various infections and diseases. Works by binding to the active site of enzymes that many bacteria use to make their cell walls.

Juxtamedullary Nephrons

Approximately 20% of the nephrons, have well developed loops of Henle that extend deeply into the renal medulla. These Nephrons alone allow mammals to produce urine that wis hyperosmotic to body fluids. (Only Mammals and Birds have these Nephrons), the Nephrons of other vertebrates LACK loops of henle.

Cortical Nephrons

Approximately 80% of nephrons, have reduced loops of henle and are almost entirely confined to the renal cortex.

Methanogens

Archaea that are named because they use CO2 to oxidize H2, releasing methane as a waste product.(Anaerobes) Along with Extreme halophiles are members of a clade called Euryarchaeota.

Extreme Halophiles

Archaea that live in highly saline enviroments. Some actually require an environment several times saltier than seawater. Along with Methanogens are members of a clade called Euryarchaeota.

Extreme Thermophiles

Archaea that thrive in very hot water. Some are used in biotechnology as a source of DNA Polymerase for the (PCR) technique. Belong to the clade called Crenarchaeota.

Cyanobacteria

Are Organisms that date back to 3.5 million years ago( when oxygen was very low), and provides the basis of the evidence of the primitive formation of glycolysis(which is also the most widespread pathway

Lichens

Are a symbiotic association of millions of photosynthetic microorganisms held in a mass of fungal hyphae. Photosynthetic partners are typically green algae or cyanobacteria

Desmosomes

Are also called anchoring junctions, fuction like rivets and fasten cells together into strong sheets. (Intermediate Filaments) made of keratin anchor desmosomes in the cytoplasm.

Temperate Lakes

Are lakes that have a seasonal thermocline.

Tropical Lowland Lakes

Are lakes that have a thermocline all year round.

Sclerenchyma Cells

Are the only cells with THICK secondary cell walls strengthed by lignin, and because of this are much more rigid than collenchyma cells. Cannot elongate, and are so specialized that most are dead at functional maturity. 2 Types of cells Sclereids (short,irregular, thickened and lignified-seed coats nutshells) and Fibers(long, slender and tapered- hemp, flax)

Photopsin

Are the photoreceptor proteins found in the cone cells of the retina that are the basis of color vision. 3 types (RED, BLUE, GREEN). An absence of one diminishes the relative capacity of the brain's reception on differentual hues.Color blindness is due to the lack of these cone types.

Cloned Genes

Are useful for two main purposes, they can be used to make many copies of a particular gene and can produce a protein product, which may endow an organism with a new metabolic function such as pest resistance.

Visceral Mass

Area beneath the mantle of a mollusk that contains the internal organs

Limnetic Zone

Area in a freshwater habitat away from the shore but still close to the surface

Nucleoid

Area in prokaryotic cells in which DNA is concentrated, though NOT bounded by a membrane.

Parthenogenesis

Asexual reproduction in which an unfertilized gamete (usually female) produces female offspring.

Physical Mapping

Assign genes to a particular locations using measurements that are a true reflection of the physical distance between the genes, usually by the number of base pairs along the DNA, which are then arranged so that they overlap

Telophase / Cytokinesis 1

At the beginning of the last and final stage of this stage in Meiosis 1, helf of the cell has a complete set, but the chromosmes amount is still diploid.Then_______ occurs simoulteously with the other

Pili

Attatchment structures on the surface of bacteria that are very prominent in conjugation.

Gregor Mendel

Augustinian monk and botanist whose experiments in breeding garden peas led to his eventual recognition as founder of the science of genetics (1822-1884)

Christian Doppler

Austrian mathematician and physicist who observed that the apparent change in frequency and wavelength of a wave as perceived by an observer moving relative to the wave's source. Also instilled in Gregor Mendel a sense of mathematics to prove his science.

Peter Mitchell

Awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978 for describing the effects of chemosmosis which helped unify the field of bioenergetics.

Antigen Presenting Cells

B cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, ingest bacteria and viruses and then destroy them. Class II MHC molecules in these cells collect peptide remnants of this degradation and present them to helper cells.

Distal Tubule

Between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct; selective reabsorption and secretion occur here, most notably to regulate reabsorption of water and sodium, plays a key role in regulating K+ and Nacl concentrations, and also contributes to pH regulation by controlled secretion of H+ and reabsorption of bicarbonate (HCO3-)

Desert

Biome in which evaporation exceeds precipitation and the average amount of precipitation is less than 25 centimeters (10 inches) a year. Such areas have little vegetation or have widely spaced, mostly low vegetation, large amount of succulent plants (like cacti), reduced ;leaf surface area, C4 or CAM photosynthesis. Animals include scorpions, ants bettles lizards, seed eating rodents. Conversion to irrigated agriculture and increased urbanization have reduced the natural biodiversity of this biome.

Embolisms

Blockages of the water cavities of the xylem. Rapid expansion of this produces clicking noises that can be heard by placing sensitive microphones at the stem.

Atropin

Blocks acetylcholine in muscarinic receptors. Has no effect on nicotinic receptors. Causes dilationof the pupil (mydriasis) and increase in heart rate as well as dry mouth.

Blood Brain Barrier

Blood vessels (capillaries) that selectively let certain substances enter the brain tissue and keep other substances out, formed by astrocytes (glia) which induce the formation of tight junctions between cells that line the capillaries in the brain and the spinal cord.

Arteries

Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart, branches into arterioles which give blood to the calliparies, one of the three main kinds of blood vessels.

Veins

Blood vessels that carry waste containing blood from the tissues back to the heart,

Portal Vessels

Blood vessels that form an unusual vascular agreement that connects the hypothalamus and anterior lobe of the pit gland.

Bilateral Symmetry

Body plan in which only a single, imaginary line can divide the body into two equal halves; characteristic of worms, arthropods, and chordates. Mostly present in animals that move actively.

Gray Matter

Brain and spinal cord tissue that appears gray with the naked eye; consists mainly of neuronal cell bodies (nuclei), dendrites and lacks myelinated axons.

Hypothalumus

Brain stucture that acts as a control for recognition and analysis or hunger thirst fatiuge anger and body temp, controls homeostasis.

Hypothalumus

Brain stucture that acts as a control for recognition and analysis or hunger thirst fatiuge anger and body temp.

Taxonomy

Branch of biology concerned with naming and classifying organisms. Two part binomial system which groups similar species into increasingly general categories.

Frederick Griffith

British Medical officer who performed experiment using 2 varieties of (streptococcus pneumonia) , pathogenic/ non pathogenic, that led to discovery of DNA, concluded there was is a TRANSFORMATION from dead bacteria to live bacteria, studied the transforming substance

Charles Lyell

British geologist who incorporated gradualism into a more comprehensive theory known as uniformitarinism.

Lysis

Bursting or the dissolution or destruction of cells such as blood cells or bacteria

Cretaceous Period

By some estimates we are currently in the process of pushing more species towards extinction than in the ____________________ 65 million years ago.

Cambrian Explosion

By the time of the _________, 500 million years ago , systems of neurons allowed animals to sense and rapidly move in essentially a modern day form.

Golden Algae

Called Chyrosphytes. Their color results from yellow and brown carteniods. Cells are typically biflagellated. When cell density reaches a certain level they form resistant cysts that can survive for decades.

Slime mold

Called Mycetozoans, and where once thought to be fungi. Have diverged into two branches (plasmodial, and cellular.

Cladogenesis

Called branching evolution. Is the splitting of a gene pool into two or more seprate pools, which give rise to one or more new species. Promotes biological diversity by increasing number of species.

Anagenesis

Called phyletic evolution. Is the accumulation of changes that gradually transform a given species into a species with different characteristics.

cylic GMP

Can lead to ionic changes within ion channels and can also activate protein kinases(Phosphoralaytiion which influeces other enzymes)`

Plasmid Library

Cannot contain much info, 700,000 are needed to make the human genome, made by a collection of bacterial cells each of which containing copies of a particular genome fragment

Cnidocytes

Capsule like stinging cells unique to cnidarians that function in defense and prey capture. Found on the tentacles.

Macronutrients

Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorous which are necessary for building and maintaining body tissues and providing energy for daily activities

Rosy Periwinkle

Catharanthus roseus, , native to madagascar. source of 2 natural alkaloids agents that are highly successful in treating childhood leukemia and Hodgkin's disease.

Trichoptera

Class of Insects, Two pairs of hairy wings; chewing or lapping mouthparts; complete metamorphosis; aquatic larvae build silken nets or cases (of sand, gravel, and wood) bound together by silk. (Caddisfly)

Orthoptera

Class of Insects, Very long, thick hind legs used for jumping; usually 2 pair of wings(one leathery, and one membranous) segmented, hair-like antennae, incomplete metamorphosis. (Grasshopers, Crickets)

Isoptera

Class of Insects, Widespread social insects that produce enormous colonies, some have two pairs of membranous wing, others are wingless, feed on wood with aid of microbial symbiont carried in a specialized chamber in their hindgut. (Termite)

Siphonaptera

Class of Insects, Wingless, laterally compressed; adults are ectoparasites on birds and mammals; piercing and sucking mouthparts; jumping legs; complete metamorphosis. (Fleas)

Dermaptera

Class of Insects, flattened soft body,nocturnal scavengers,some are wingless, front wings are thick and leathery, pincer like structure, incomplete metamorphosis. (Earwigs)

Phasmida

Class of Insects, mimics of plants, some eggs even resemble seeds of plants. Cylindrically or dorsoventrally flattened, lack forewings, but have fanlike hind wings.. Mouthparts adapted for chewing or biting. (Stick Plants)

Blattodea

Class of Insects, oval flattened body, usually brown or black, head covered by the thorax, long antennae, has a short apical cerci, incomplete metamorphosis (Cockroaches)

Lepidoptera

Class of Insects,, 4 membranous wings, mostly covered with scales, has a proboscis, a sucking tube, complete metamorphosis. (Butterfly and Moths)

Phthiraptera

Class of Insects,ectoparasite feeding on the hair or feathers of a single hosts. legs equipped with clawlike tarsi for clinging. lack wings and have reduced eyes. Incomplete metamorphosis. (Lice)

Thysanura

Class of Insects,elongated soft body, wingless, antennae are long, reduced eyes, live in litter or under bark, may become pests (Silverfish)

Odonata

Class of Insects., 4 membranous wings with veins, antennae are very short, bristle like, elongated abdomen, large compound eyes, incomplete metamorphosis (Dragonflies, Damselfies)

Cetaceans

Class of Mammals, Aquatic, streamlined body, paddle like forelimbs and no hind limbs, thick layer of insulating blubber, carnivorous.

Lagomorpha

Class of Mammals, Chisel like incisors, hind legs longer than forelegs and adapted for running and jumping. (Rabbits, Hares, Picas)

Probscidea

Class of Mammals, Long muscular trunk, thick, loose skin, upper insciors elongated as tusks. (Elephants).

Xenarthra

Class of Mammals, Reduced teeth or no teeth, herbivorous(sloths) or carnivorous(anteaters, armidillos).

Carnivora

Class of Mammals, Sharp pointed canine teeth and molars for shearing, carnivorous (Dogs, Wolves, Bears, Cats)

Monotremata

Class of Mammals, lay eggs, no nipples, young suck milk from fur of mother.

Paraphyletic

Classification of a clade when lacking information, consists of an anscestral species and some, but not all of it's descendants.

Ecosystem

Collection of all the organisms that live in a particular place, together with their nonliving environment.

Medulla Oblongata

Communly called the medulla, ,part of the brainstem that contains centers which control several visceral functions, including breathing, heart and blood vessel activity, swallowing, vomiting, and digestion. The pons does also help regulate breathing as well.

DNA Fingerprints

Compares repeated sections of genes that have little to no known function, but vaary widley from one person to another(STRs). gel electrophoresis used to separate fragments, the specific repeats are then labeled using radioactive probes producing bands to e compared

Anatomical Homology

Comparison of body structures(called homologous structures) resulting from common ancestor. usually showing same arrangement of bones.

Chitin

Complex carbohydrate that makes up the cell walls of fungi; also found in the external skeletons of arthropods

Reaction Center

Complex of proteins associated with two special chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor. Located centrally in a photosystem, this complex triggers the light reactions of photosynthesis. Excited by light energy, one of the chlorophylls donates an electron to the primary electron acceptor, which passes an electron to an electron transport chain.

Thin filaments

Composed of 2 strands of actin and a regulatory protein(troponin); each actin has an active site that can interact with myosin; active sites are covered by tropomyosin strands, which are held in place by troponin.

Water Conducting Cells

Composed of tracheids(long thin with tapered ends) and vessel elements(wider, shorter, thinner walled and less tapered, with perferoations), these both have rigid, lignin-containing secondary cell walls, interrupted by pits

Thick filaments

Composed primarily of myosin; , extend the entire length of the A-band; contain twisted myosin subunits, contain strands that recoil after stretching, myosin molecules: tail- binds to other myosin molecules, head= made of 2 globlular protein subunits reachest nearest thin filament

Growth Factors

Compounds that stimulate nearby cells to grow and multiply,(divide and differentiation), part of paracrine signaling

The Modern Synthesis

Comprehensive theory of evolution that integrates ideas from many other fields.

Apical Dominance

Concentration of growth at the tip of a plant shoot, where a terminal bud partially inhibits axillary bud growth.

Ecosystem

Consists of all the organisms living in the community as well as all the abiotic factors with which they interact. Boundaries of this are not discernable. Involves two processes, energy flow and chemical cycling.

Marine Benthic Zone

Consists of the seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal zone or neritic zone and the offshore pelagic zone zone. Except for shallow, near-coastal areas, this aquatic biome receives no sunlight. Organisms in the very deep benthic zone receive no sunlight and are adapted to continuous cold and extremely high pressure. Oxygen is usually available are associated deep sea hydrothermal vents. obtain enrgy by oxidizing H2S by a reaction of hot water with Sulfate.

T cell receptor

Consists of two different polypeptide chains(alpha and beta). At the base there is a transmembrane region which anchors the molecule into the cell's plasma membrane region. Recognizes small segments of antigens called MHC molecules

Alfred Sturtevant

Constructed a gene map of the fruit fly using crossing over frequencies.

The 5` Cap

Contains a modified inverted nucleotide (7-methyl guanosine) which confers stability against nucleases and provides a mechanism to be recognized by the translation machinery. elps protect the pre mRNA from hydrolytic enzymes, and facilitate the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus.

Cell body

Contains the nucleus, where most of the molecules that provide energy neuron needs to survive and function is manufactured

Vessels

Continuous water-conducting micropipes found in most angiosperms and a few nonflowering vascular plants.

Fitness

Contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to the contributions of other individuals.

Proximal Control Elements

Control elements located close to the promoter Still do the same job of binding proteins to DNA so that transcription can take place Increase rate of transcription

Widows Peak

Controlled by a dominant allele (W). Those with homozygous for the w allele possess a straight hairline

Broca's Area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech FB.

Wernicke's Area

Controls language reception- a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe TW

Septa

Cross walls that divide hyphae. They generally have pores big enough to allow ribosomes, mitochondria, and nuclei to flow from cell to cell. Not all fungi have septa

HeLa Cells

Cultured cells from cancer patient Henrietta Lacks from 1951 that continue to divide quntil today . they have an immortal cell line and are used to study cancer, actually used by Jonas Salk to test his polio vaccine.

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

Alkaptonuria

Defect in homogentisate oxidase, resulting in accumulation of homogentisic acid (Alkapton) which results in black urine, and Polymerized forms results in damage to joints, calfications in CV and UT, red skin

Acquired immunodeficiency

Deficiency in the immune system that is acquired after birth due to infections, malnutrition, or therapies that deplete immune cells (AIDS), more susceptable to cancer.

Heterochromatin

Densely staining condensed chromosomal regions, believed to be for the most part genetically inert, because transcription enzymes can't reach it. Darkly stained throughout the cell cycle. Usually consists of Telomeres and Centromeres

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid, double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid; the genetic material that carries information about an organism and is passed from parent to offspring.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid; the genetic material that carries information about an organism and is passed from parent to offspring. Because of its phosphate group it is tightly bound to 4 positively charged Histones(8 total) to form a nucleosome.

Francis Crick

Described the Central Dogma of Gene Expression. DNA to RNA to protein, Cambridge University, works with James Watson, built model of DNA, reclusive, won nobel prize, studies chemical nature of dreams.

Prokaryotic

Describes a cell that does not have a nucleus or anyother membrane-covered organelles; also called bacteria or archaea.

Dominant

Describes a trait that covers over, or dominates, another form of that trait (In Mendel's case Purple)

Receptive Field

Describes all the rods and cones that feed information to one ganglion, the larger the less sharp of the image , because of less specificty on exactly where light struck the retina.

Totipotent

Describing a cell that can give rise to all parts of the embryo and adult, as well as extraembryonic membranes in species that have them.

Clumped

Describing a dispersion pattern in which individuals are aggregated in patches. Is the MOST common types of dispersion (think Wolf's, Mayflies)

Uniform

Describing a dispersion pattern in which individuals are evenly space, this may result from direct interaction(such as secretion of chemicals that inhibit competition, usually anagonistic and might extend to territoriality

Random

Describing a dispersion pattern in which individuals are spaced in a patternless, unpredictable way, only occurs in the absence of strong attractions or repulsions among individuals, where key resurources and chemical factors are spread homogeneously.

Average Heterozgosity

Determined by measuring gene variability and nucleotide variability. Two Humans differ about 0.1% of nucleotide bases.

Liver Cells

Detoxify poisonous substances like bacteria & certain drugs, reseve the ability to divide until it needs to.

Sustainable Development

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Genetic Drift

Deviations from expected results in population that helps explain how allele frequencies can fluctuate unpredictably. Over time this tends to reduce genetic variation through the losses of the alleles.

DDT

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, a chlorinated hydrocarbon that has been widely used as a pesticide but is now banned in some countries.

Thomas Hunt Morgan

Dicovered that sometimes alleles for different traits do not assort independently and can be linked because they exist on the same chromosome. Discovered that sex-linked traits appear in different rates in males and in females because males need only one recessive allele to express the recessive trait.

Sexual Dimorphism

Differences between the sexes in secondary sexual characteristics which are not directly involved in reproduction. Include size, color, and ornamentation. In veterbrates Males tend to be showier sex

RFLPs

Differences in homologous DNA sequences that are reflected in different lengths of restriction fragments produced when the DNA is cut up with restriction enzymes

Morphs

Different forms differing in discrete characteristics.

Geographic Variation

Differnces between gene pools of separate populations or populations subgroups.

Passive Transport

Diffusion of solutes down their gradients and across a membrane, does NOT require energy.

Extracellular Digestion

Digestion outside of cells, occurs within compartments that are continous with the outside of the animals body. This enables an animal to devour much larger animals.

Intracellular Digestion

Digestion within cells, begins when a cell engulfs food bny phagocytosis or pinocytosis Done by newly formed food vacoules fused with lysosomes. (Sponges are the only animals that rely only on intercellular digestion.

Sensory adaptation

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

Gibberllins

Discovered by Kurowasa caused by a fungus genus gibillera, also function in stem growth, fruit growth and seed germination;. Cause cell wall loosening (Thomas seedling grapes), stimulates a-amylase to mobilize stored nutrients

Cystinuria

Disease caused by a kidney transporter defect in a the kidney transporter involved in the reabsorption of some amino acids which leads to the excretion of cysteine, lysine, arginine, and ornithine. Cysteine (because it is the least soluable) forms calculi in kidney tubules.

Muscle Spindle

Distributed throughout the belly of the muscle. They function to send information to the nervous system about muscle length and rate of change of its length.

Septum

Divides the right and left chambers of the heart, results in less mixing of oxygen rich and oxygen poor blood.

Cleavage Furrow Formation

Drug B blocks function of actin. what aspect of cell cycle would be most distrupted by this drug?

Alkaloids

Drugs that prevent chromosome spindle formation, used to treats cancers

Atypical antipsychotics

Drugs that treat psychotic symptoms and behavior (schizophrenia, bipolar disease, and other mental illness).

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

ER important in the secretion of proteins( like Insulin), polypleptide chain grows from a bound ribosome and it is threaded into the ER's lumen through a pore formed by a protein complex into the ER membrane. Most proteins coming out are glycoproteins which are then separated and transported to the translational ER which ahs vesicles which take the glycoproteins to the golgi apparatus.. Makes lysosomal enzymes as well.

Smmoth Endoplasmic Reticulum

ER important in the synthesis of lipids, including oils, phospholipids and steriods (Sex Hormones), large amount in the testes and the ovaries. Also creates enzymes that help detoxify enzymes by addding hydoxyl groups (OH-), which makes them more soluble in water. They also store Ca2+ ions, which are important in muscle contraction( Calcium ions will move into the cytosol when stimualted by a nerve signal and trigger the contraction of the muscle cell.

Electronegative

Each downhill carrier has to be more ___________ than its uphill neibhor, with oxygen at the bottom of the chain. Goes from food -----) NADH_------) ETC _--------) oxygen. For Chem buffs.

Sister Chromatids

Each duplicated chromosome has 2 _____________. , Each conatining an identical DNA molecule attached by adhesve proteins all olong their lengths.

Trait

Each variant of a character, For Example : Character = color. This would equal red , white ,blue.

Wetlands

Ecosystems of several types in which vegetation is surrounded by standing water during part or most of the year, home to a diverse array of species, may be of three types (Basin, Riverine, and Fringe)

Photomorphogenesis

Effects of light on plant morphology

Seta

Elongated Stalk that conducts materials to the sporangium. In most mosses becomes elongated and enhances spore dispersal by elevating the capsule.

Apical Meristems

Embryonic plant tissue in the tips of roots and in the buds of shoots that supplies cells for the plant to grow in length, which allow the plant to grow in length ( primary growth)

Terminal Bud

Embryonic tissue at the tip of a shoot, made up of developing leaves and a compact series of nodes and internodes.

Endocrine Signaling

Endocrine hormones produced in one part of the body are carried to their target by the circulatory system.

20 %

Energy transfer between trophic levels is usually less than _____

Lipids

Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, non-polar.

Frederick Sanger

English biochemist who determined the sequence of amino acids in insulin and who invented a technique to determine the genetic sequence of an organism (born in 1918)

Edward Jenner

English physician who used the sowpox vaccine to help make people immune to smallpox in 1796.

Phospholipase C

Enzyme associated with the plasma membrane that performs a crucial step in inositol phospholipid signaling pathways, cleaves a plasma membrane phospholipid called PIP2 into DAG and IP3.

Salivary Amalyse

Enzyme produced in the oral cavity, hydrolyzes starch and glycogen, which is broken down into smaller polysaccharides and the dissacharide maltose.

RNA Polymerase

Enzyme similar to DNA polymerase that binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands during transcription, can only assemble in 5` to 3` ends.

Dicer

Enzyme that cleaves and processes double stranded RNA to produce siRNAs or miRNAs that are 21-25 nucleotids in length

Renin

Enzyme that is produced by the kidney; important for blood pressure and volume regulation; catalyzes the conversion of circulating angiotensinogen to angiotensin I

aminoacyl- tRNA synthetase

Enzyme which joins amino acids to the correct tRNA

Nucleotide Excision Repair

Enzymes detect damaged DNA, nuclease enzymes cut out the damaged area, DNA polymerase adds nucleotides, ligase completes process by closing the break in the sugar-phosphate backbone

Cdks

Enzymes in an inactive form that are present in consistent concentrations over the cell cycle; *most significant enzyme in regulating cell cycle

Simple Epithelium

Epithelia with a single layer of cells. Based on the two criteria(# of layers and shape of cells on the exposed surface)

Stratified Epithelium

Epithelia with multiple teirs of cells(# of layers and shape of cells on the exposed surface)

Tropics

Equatorial region between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. It is characterized by generally warm or hot temperatures year-round, though much variation exists due to altitude and other factors.

Tropics

Equatorial region between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. It is characterized by generally warm or hot temperatures year-round, though much variation exists due to altitude and other factors. MOST species live in these areas.

Mesozoic Era (251-65.5 Million years Ago)

Era in which animal phyla began to spread into new ecological niches.The first coral reefs formed. Large Dinosaurs appeared, and so did mammals(tiny nocturnal insect eaters.

Paleozoic Era (542-251 Million Years Ago)

Era of mass animal diversification( Cambrian Explosion) took place. Diversification thought to be because of new predator prey relationships, or increased atmospheric oxygen.

Vitamins

Essential nutrients that do not yield energy, but that are required for growth and proper functioning of the body. So far 13 have been found.

Surrounding

Everything in the universe except the system.

Evo Devo

Evolutionary developmental biology; a field of biology that compares developmental processes of different multicellular organisms to understand how these processes have evolved and how changes can modify existing organismal features or lead to new ones.

EPSPs

Excitatory postsynaptic potentials generated by depolarization , mostly mediated by glutamate (or aspartate) acting on AMPA or kainate receptors, occur in channels in which both Na+ and K+ can diffuse.

Endemic

Exclusively native to a particular area

Type 1 Curve

Exhibeted by animals that produce few offspring, but good care increases their survival rate to maturity, so the curve is relatively flat at the begining then starts to curve downwards after middle age. (Humans, large mammals)

Daily Topor

Exhibited by many small birds and mamals, seems to be adapted to feeding habits.

Green World Hypothesis

Explains why most terrestrial ecosystems are green., The conjecture that terrestrial herbivores consume relatively little plant biomass because they are held in check by a variety of factors, including predators, parasites, and disease

Root Hairs

Extensions of epidermal cells which help increase the surface area of the root and bring in more water and nutrients.

Sexual Recombination

Far more important than mutation in sexually producing populations on a generation to generation time scale.

Sustainable Agriculture

Farming methods that preserve long-term productivity of land and minimize pollution, typically by rotating soil- restoring crops with cash crops and reducing in-puts of fertilizer and pesticides.

Suberin

Fatty WAXY material found in the cell walls of cork tissue and in the Casparian strip of the endodermis

Suberin

Fatty material found in the cell walls of cork tissue and in the Casparian strip of the endodermis

Archegonia

Female gametangia, is vase shaped and produces a single egg retained within the base of the organism.

Intermediate Filaments

Fibrous proteins that are supercoiled into thicker cables. Protein that it is made of is from the keratin family, is importan in maintaing cell shape (tension bearing elements), the anchoring of some organelles such as the nucleus, and the formation of the nuclear lamina.( In the middle in terms of size) 8-12 nm. Most permant of the 3 cytoskeletal subunits.

Leaf Primordia

Fingerlike projections along the flanks of a shoot apical meristem, from which leaves arise.

Vili

Fingerlike projections that help increase surfave area(also have microvill) that are exposed to the lumen(basis for term brush border)

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Fluid in the space between the meninges that acts as a shock absorber that protects the central nervous system, CSF, in the ventricles of the brain. Is formed by filtration of the blood circulates through the the central canal and ventricles then drains into the vein, assisting in the supply of nutrients and hormones to different parts of the brain and in the removal of wastes.

Interstital Fluid

Fluid in the spaces between cells of vertebrates. Exchanges nutrients and wastes with blood contained in calliparies. This fluid becomes lymph when it enters lymph capillaries.Discovered by french physiologist Claude Bernard. His "constant internal milleu" also is known as homeostasis.

Actual Range

For a transplant to be considered successful, soe of the organisms must not only survive in the new area but also reproduce there. If a transplant is successful then the potential range of the species is larger than its_________ . In other words, the species COULD live in certain areas where it currently does not.

Level

For any character the observed dominance/ recessivness relationship of alleles depends on the _________ that we examine phenotype. For Example Tay-Sachs: at the oranismal level it is recessive, at the molecular codominant, and at the biochemcal( incomplete dominance)

Denaturation

For proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive. For DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix. Denaturation occurs under extreme conditions of pH, salt concentration, and temperature. Proteins can also become this if they are transfered from an aqueous environment to an organic solvent(because the hydrophobic parts would be switched to the outside).

Allee Effect

For smaller populations, the reproduction and survival of individuals decrease; arising from behavioral or ecological factors, such as difficulties in finding mates in animals.

Active Immunity

Form of acquired immunity in which the body produces its own antibodies against disease-causing antigens

Nephron

Functional Unit if the vertebrate Kidney-- consists of a single long tubule and a ball of capillaries called the glomerulus, There are about a million of these, with a total length of 80 km.

Ligand Gated ion channels

Found at synapses and open or close when a specific chemical, such as a neurotransmitter, binds to the channel. THINK Tyrosine Kinase/ other kinases

Cytokinins

Found by OVERBEEK, is a modified form of adenine. Stimulate cell division, the most common is zeatin discovered first in maize. Produced in actively growing tissue, often act with auxin to influence the pathway of cell division

Compound Eyes

Found in Insects and Crustaceans(Arthropods) and some polycheate worms(Annelida), it consists of several thousand light detectors(ommatadia), each with its own lens, which directs light from a tiny portion of the visual field , where they differences in angles and intensity result in a mosiac image, very capable of detecting very fast movements (330) times per second

Extracellular Matrix

Found in animal cells and abreviated (ECM), is a structure composed of glycoproteins secreted by cells. The most abundant of which is collagen.

Paramyosin

Found in clam adductor muscles, allows month long contraction with very limited energy

Ossicles

Found in echinoderms, it is the Magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate bound by protein fibers,

Polyribosomes

Found in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, enable a cell to make many copies of a polypeptide very quickly during translation; multiple ribosomes attached to an MRNA strand

Single- lens eyes

Found in jellies, spiders, molluscs, and most polycheates, works on a camera like principle , the iris changes the diameter of the pupil, and behind the pupil a single lens focuses light on a layer of photoreceptors, and muscles in the lens can also move the lens forward backward or forward.

Intercalary Meristems

Found in monocots, actively produce new cells for increases in length, responsible for grass regrowing

Chloroplasts

Found in plants these organelles are the site of photosynthesis, convert solar energy to chemical energyt and use it to drive the synthesis of several organic compounds from carbon monoxide and water. Has two membranes separating it from the cytosol. ( Like mithochondria is not part of endomembrane system). Their Membrane proteins are made by FREE ribosomesin the cytosol and by ribosomes that they have.

Flagellated Sperm

Found in seedless vascular plants and are restricted to moist environments, one of the 4 ultra structural traits between charophycean and land plants.

Central Nerve Ring

Found in starfish and other echinoderms... manifests as a ring of nerves in the center of the organism to which all radial/peripheral nerves attach

Brown fat

Found in the neck and between the shoulders, this tissue is specailized for rapid heat production.

Casparian Strip

Found in the transverse and radial belts of every Endodermal cell. Is made of Suberin making it impervious to water and dissolved mineralss, forces water to enter vascular tissue via the apoplast ,and insures no minerals can reach vascular tissue without being selectively screened

Thykaloids

Found inside the chloroplast, is a flattened interconnected sac of membranes, when they are stacked they are called grana.

Contractile Vacuole

Found mainly in freshwater protists, is a vacuole that pumps water and salts out in order to maintain the osmotic balance.

Class 1 MHC molecules

Found on virtually all nucleated cells, bind peptides derived from foreign antigens that have been synthesized within the cell. Recognized by a subgroup of T cells called cytotoxic T cells.

Steward

Found that undeffirentiated carrot cells could be used to make any part of the carrot, or develop into an adult plant.(Totipotent)

Trochophore

Free-swimming ciliated larval stage of an aquatic molluscs and annelids.

Geoge Cuvier

French scientist who developed paleontology. Opposed idea of gradual evolutionary change. Advocated catastrophism.

Glia

From the Greek Word meaning "glue". Cells that support, nurture, and insulate neurons, remove debris when neurons die, enhance the formation and maintenance of neural connections, and modify neuronal functioning, outnumber neurons 10 to 50 times. 4 types (Oligodendrocytes, Astrocytes, Radial Glia, and Schwann Cells)

Statoliths

Grains of sand or dense granules that determine gravity in invertebrates

Hemophilus Influenzae

Gram- bacillus responsible for 5% of all bacterial meningitis cases,l also first complete genome sequenced by Vente and Celera Genomics

Absorption Spectrum

Graph plotting a pigment's light absorption versus wavelength

Galen

Greek Physician who 2,000 years ago recorded that people suffering from depression were more likely than others to suffer from cancer.

Pleion

Greek for more, many

Aristotle

Greek philosopher who recognized certain "affinities" among living things and believed that animals could be arranged on a scale of increasing complexity. Viewed species as unchanging.

Epistasis

Greek word meaning stopping, where a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus, is the converse of polygenic inheiritence

Charophyceans

Green Algae that are the closest relatives of land plants. Shares 4 ultra structural features with land plants. (Rose Shaped Complexes,Peroxisome enzymes, Structurally same flagellated sperm, Formation of a phragmoplast.)

Cortex

Ground tissue that is between the vascular tissue and dermal tissue in a root or dicot stem.

Hurudinea

Group of Annelids, flattened body, reduced coelom and segmentation, chaetae absent, suckers at anterior and posterior end, parasite, predators and scavengers. (Leeches)

Oligochaetes

Group of Annelids, freshwater, marine, and terrestrial segmented worms,alimentary canal reduced head, no parapodia, but chaetae(brustles made of chitin) present. (Earthworms)

Polychaetae

Group of Annelids, well developed head, each segment has parapodia with chaetae, tube dwelling and free living.(Mainly marine freshwater worms)

Cephalopoda

Group of Molluscs, Marine, head with graspling tentacles, usually with suckers, shell eternal, internal or absent, mouth with or without radula, locomotion by jet propulsion using siphon made from foot. (Squids, Octopuses, Cuttlefish, Chambered Nautiluses)

Chitons

Group of Molluscs, known as polyplacophora, Marine, shell with 8 plates,foot used for locomotion, radula, no head.

Bivalvia

Group of Molluscs, marine and freshwater, flattened shells with two valves, reduced head, paired gills, NO radula, most suspension feed, mantle forms a siphon. (Clams, Mussels, Scallops, Oysters)

Gastropoda

Group of Molluscs. marine, freshwater or terrestrial, asymmetrical body, usually has a coiled shell,shell is reduced or absent in some. foot for locomotion, radula, Torsion. (Snails, Slugs)

Angiotensin 2

Hormone that stimulates constriction of precapillary arterioles and increases reabsorption of NaCl and water(created by renin)

Fimbriae

Hairless appendages that prokaryotes use to adhere to a substrate. Usualkly more numerous and shorter than pilli.

Mescaline

Hallucinagenic substance found naturally in peyote cactuses ; Cause very severe side effects and binds to dopamine and serotonin receptors in the brain.

Clot Formation

Happens when cut tissue release thromboplastin-interacts with factor VII prothrombin--> thrombin fibrinogen--(thrombin)--> fibrin

Pure Water

Has a water potential of 0 MPa when in a container open to atmosphere under standard temperature and pressure.

Tropic Hormones

Hormones that have other endocrine glands as their targets and that are particularly important to our understanding of chemical coordination. (TSH, ACTH,LH, FSH)

Foraminiferans

Have porous holes called tests, which are multi-chambered and are hardened by Calcium Carbonate. 99% are known from fossil record, and are also used to correlate ages of rocks in different paarts of the world.

S Genes

Help in the recognition of the alleles for self incompatibilty, and bl=ock pollen tube growth if an ellele from pollen is recognized.

Camel Fur

Helps insure that camels lose less water by making its skin up to 30 degrees cooler in hot weather.

Melatonin

Hormone released by the pineal gland in response to daily cycles of light and dark and effects the onset of puberty.(Amine) (Endocrine System) Regulated by Light/Dark cycles.

Quantative Characters

Heritable variation that varies along a continuum.(MOST COMMON HERITABLE VARIATION). Usually result from the influence of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character.

Fungi

Heterotophic organisms that feed by absorption.

HDL

High Density Lipoprotein good

Microtubules

Hollow tubes of the cytoskeleton, consists of 13 columns of tubulin molecules, are useful in cell motility(Flagella and Cillia), maintance of cell shape(resist compression), chromosome movements during cell division, and organelle movements. largest in terms of size (10-25 nm). Grow out of the centrostome.

Leptin

Hormone produced by adipose tissue that supresses appettite as its level increases

Insulin

Hormone produced by the pancreas that is released when stimulated by elevated glucose levels. This hormone decreases blood sugar levels by accelerating the transport of glucose into the body cells where it is oxidized for energy or converted to glycogen or fat for storage.

Catastrophism

Idea that each boundary between strata represents a catastrophe which killed many species, and that because they were confined to local areas they were quickly repopulated by other species.

Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics

Idea that organism can pass on acquired modifications to its offspring. (No evidence that acquired traits can be inherited.

Gradualism

Idea that profound changes can take place through cumulative effects of a slow but continuous processes.

Sister Chromatids

Identical copies of a chromosome; full sets of these are created during the S(DNA replication) subphase of interphase, joined at the middle by the centromere.

Indirect Synaptic Transmission

In __________ __________ __________, a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor that is not part of an ion channel. This binding activates a signal transduction pathway involving a second messenger in the postsynaptic cell, its effects are slowr but last longer thadn direct synaptic transmission.

Integrins

In animal cells, a transmembrane receptor protein that interconnects the extracellular matrix and the cytoskeleton, mainly when fibronectin connects to it.

Gastrulation

In animal development, a series of cell and tissue movements in which the blastula-stage embryo folds inward, producing a three-layered embryo, the gastrula.

Body Plan

In animals, a set of morphological and developmental traits that are integrated into a functional whole.

Body Plan

In animals, a set of morphological and developmental traits that are integrated into a functional whole—the living animal.

Conjugation

In bacteria, the direct transfer of DNA between two cells that are temporarily joined.

Variation

In biology differing characteristics resulting from chromosomal alteration

Energy Coupling

In cellular metabolism, the use of energy released from an exergonic reaction to drive an endergonic reaction.

Chemiosmosis

In chloroplasts and mitochondria, a process in which the movement of protons down their concentration gradient across a membrane is coupled to the synthesis of ATP

Cilia

In eukaryotes this hair like projection is similar to Flagella in that it is composed and directed by a set of microtubules. Unlike Flagella it moves more like an oar and alternates power and recovery strokes by generating a force that is perpindicular to the ciliums axis.9+2 STRUCTURE

Mitosis

In eukaryotic cells, a process of cell division that forms two new nuclei, each of which has the same number of chromosomes. 5 Phases

Torsion

In gastropods, a developmental process in which the visceral mass rotates up to 180°, causing the animal's anus and mantle cavity to be positioned above its head.

Generative Cell

In gymnosperms: divides to form the sterile and spermatogenous cells. In Angiosperms: divides to form 2 sperm.

Corpora allata

In insects. Pair of small glands behind the brain. Secretes Juvenile Hormone.

Microphylls

In lycophytes, a small leaf with a single unbranched vein. According to the current model of evolution these were the result of the outgrowth of stems.

Kidney

In marine fish these organs dispose of excess Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfate ions while excreting only small amounts of water

mRNA Degradation

In multicellular eukaryotes last hours, days or weeks; duration dictates the number of protein translated from them. Breakdown starts with enzymatic shortening of poly-A tail; triggers the removal of 5' cap by enzymes, followed by the consumption by of mRNA by nucleases.

Sugar Conducting Cells

In phloem, live at functional maturity, function in sugar transport. 2 types Sieve- Tube members and Companion Cells.

Preprophase

In plant cells only. In highly vacuolated plant cells, the nucleus has to migrate into the center of the cell before mitosis can begin. This is achieved through the formation of a phragmosome, a transverse sheet of cytoplasm that bisects the cell along the future plane of cell division. the formation of a ring of microtubules and actin filaments (called preprophase band) underneath the plasma membrane around the equatorial plane of the future mitotic spindle.

Essential element

In plants, a chemical element that is required for the plant to grow from a seed and complete the life cycle, producing another generation of seeds.

Spines

In plants, modified leaves that are stiff and sharp and that function in defense.

Symplast

In plants, the continuum of cytoplasm connected by plasmodesmata between cells. Do NOT confuse with the Apoplast ( which is this plus extracellular)

Chemotaxis

In prokaryotes and protists, the movement toward or away from a chemical stimulus, such as the movement toward food or away from a toxin

RNA Polymerase 2

In the nucleoplasm and makes a pre -mRNA and some snRNAs. snRNA's function in splicing out the introns. Part of the "Snurp's". Only one strand of DNA is used in transcription.

Phelloderm

In the stems of woody plants, a thin layer of cells located between the outer cork cells and inner cork cambium.

Proximal Tubule

In the vertebrate kidney, the portion of a nephron immediately downstream from Bowman's capsule that conveys and helps refine filtrate, The more H+ , the more ammonia that tis tubule has to secrete, reabsorbs about 90% of HCO3-(Ist Section of 3)

Methaphase 1

In this 2nd phas of meiosis 1, where the pair of hoologous chromosomes(in the form of tetrads) have been arranged on metaphase plate, and both kinetochores of the chromatins are attatched .

Ommatidia

In this functional structure of the compound eye , the cornea and the crystalline cone focus light into the rhabdom(stick of pigmented plates onside a circle of photoreceptors), which traps light and guides it to the photoreceptors producing a mosiac image of different intensities and angles.

Phosphate Group

In this step right after succinyl CoA is made, it is displaced by a ______________, which is then transfered to GDP, forming GTP, and then to ADP forming ATP.(Substrate Level Phosphorylation), forms succinate. (KREB)

Thermocline

In water, a distinctive temperature transition zone that separates an upper layer that is mixed by wind (the epilimnion) and a colder, deep layer that is not mixed (the hypolimnion)

Sponges

In which invertebrate lineage is the ability to distinguish nonself from self cells. When different cells of the same species are mixed they sort themselves out and reagregate excluding cells from the other individual.

Isomorphic

In which the sporophytes and gametophytes look similar but differ in chromosome number.

a factor

In yeast a factor (Saccharomyces cerevisea) secreted by a member of the opposite sex that binds to alpha of the other sex. Which will cause the two of them to grow towards each other, and the fusion will contain both types of cells...

Alpha factor

In yeast a factor secreted by a member of the opposite sex that binds to a cells of the other sex. Which will cause the two of them to grow towards each other, and the fusion will contain both types of cells..

Primary immunodeficiency

Inborn, Caused by genetic or developmental defect in the immune system, SCID (severe combined immunodeficiency)- few or no immune cells produced

Bark

Include all tissues that are external to the vascular cambium, not just the protective outer covering of plants.

Oomycetes

Include water molds and mildews.Have multinucleate filaments that resemble fungal filaments. Cell wall consists of cellulose.

Use and Disuse

Incorect idea that parts of the body that are used extensively become larger and stronger, while those that are not used deteriorate.

Recruitment

Increase in number of motor units activated as stimulation intensity increases

Biological Magnification

Increasing concentration of a harmful substance in organisms at higher trophic levels in a food chain or food web. Example DDT, and PCB's (polychlorinated biphenyls)

Type 2 Curve

Indicates that death rates do not vary much with age ; lizards, small mammals, big birds, old individuals are as likely to die as young ones

Type 3 Curve

Indicates that death rates for a population peaks early in life ; species that produce many small offspring and provide little or no parental care ( clams)

Peristalsis

Involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system

Evolutionary Enigma of Sex

Inferiority to asexual reproduction in population expansion. Theoretical advantages is the process of meiotic recombination and fertilization generate genetic variation. Especially resistance to bacteria and pathogens that infect host by attaching to receptor particles.

Cristae

Infoldings of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the electon transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP.

Detiolation

Informally known as greening, this occurs when a plant shoot reaches the sunlight. In this proscess the elongation of the stem slows, leaves expand, roots elongate, and the shoot produces chlorophyll.

IPSPs

Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials generated by hyperpolarizations( due to only K+ selectivity), mostly mediated by GABA acting on GABA-A receptors or glycine acting on glycine receptors

Hypodermis

Innerist skin layer, contains adipose tissue which (includes fat storing cells and blood vessels). Provides a good deal of insulation(depends on species).

Recombinant Bacterium

Insert foreign DNA into a plasmid and then put the plasmid in a bacteria so it has foreign DNA too

Pore Complex

Intricate protein structure on the nuclear envelope that regulates the entry and exit of certain large macromolecules

ORs

Is a protein that a odorous substance or odorant binds to after diffusing into the layer of mucus coating the nasal cavity, triggerd a signal transduction pathway involving a G protein, adenylyl cyclase, and cyclic AMP, which opens channels in the plasma membrane that are permeable to Na+ and Ca2+, which depolarizes the membrane and causes the receptor cell to generate an action potential.

Isocitrate

Is what citrate is converted to, and also the isomer of citrate, is right after the addition of Acetyl Coa into the cycle after it combines with oxolacetate, is formed by the removal of H20 and then the addition of another H20. (KREB)

Shortest Wavelength

Is what limits light miscroscopes from being any better than they are.

Metabolism

Is what limits the theoritical size of a cell, because as a cell gets larger its volume grows proportionaly more that its area does.

Mitotic Spindle

Joined microtubules and associated proteins that form around the nucleus; pushing the centrioles to opposite ends of the cells, begins to form in the cytoplasm during prophase(1st). When it assembles the other microtubules of the cytoskeleton partially disassemble to help provide the material to build this.

Choroid plexus

Knots of capillaries inside ventricles , that produce CSF from the blood

Conditons for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

LARGE Population size No Gene Flow No Mutation Random Mating No Natural Selection

Vascular Tissue

Lack of this puts a limit on the Phyum Byrophytes possible functional size.

Eutrophic Lakes

Lakes that are nutrient rich and often depleted of oxygen in the deepest zone in summer and if ice covered in winter

Oligotrophic Lakes

Lakes that have a small supply of plant nutrients are called oligotrophic (poorly nourished) lakes but are generally oxygen rich. Often, this type of lake is deep and has steep banks. (Not Productive)

Gymnamoebes

Large and varied group of protists that are usually heterotrophs. Some actively seek bacteria and feed on detritus.

Spongocoel

Large central cavity of sponges where water travels through to the osculum

Polymers

Large compound formed from combinations of many monomers. 3/4 of macromolecules are this (Carbohydrates, Nucleic Acids, and Proteins) NOT Lipids.

Cristae

Large infoldings of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the electon transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP. It's large surface area helps increase productivity of cellular respiratition in the mitochondria.

Scaffolding Proteins

Large relay proteins that several other relay proteins are simultanesly attatched to. Helps make protein kinases and other protein molecule receptors more efficent.

Buttress Roots

Large wall-like flanks that grow out from trees to brace the trunks; angular, open enclosures, ready habitat for animals. Found in tropical rainforests. (Ceiba Tree)

Diaphragm

Large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing

Illeum

Last part of the small intestine

Heres

Latin for "heir'" root word of heredity.

Submucosa

Layer of connective tissue superficial to the mucosa which contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves.2nd layer

Ground Layer

Layer of the rainforest with very limited diversity

Integuments

Layers of sporophyte tissues that contribute to the structure of an ovule of a seed plant.

Reproductive Leaves

Leaf modification: These produce tiny plants along the leaf margins that fall to the ground and take root in the soil.

Population

Localized group of individuals that are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.

Pineal gland

Located in the center of the brain, functioning to secrete melatonin and serotonin(Endocrine System)

Pineal gland

Located in the center of the brain, functions to secrete melatonin and serotonin

Heartwood

Located in the center portion of a tree trunk, it consists of older layers of secondary xylem

Bipolar Cells

Located in the retina, has specialized neuron located in the eye; as one dendrite and one axon; connects rods/cones which when stimulated are depolarized or hyperpolarized depending on the type of photo-receptors they contain, and continually release the neurotransmitter Glutamate.

Rhiziods

Long Tubular single cells (in liverworts and hornworts) or filaments off cells (in mosses) that anchor the gametophyte., are not composed of tissue and lack specialized conducting cells, so they do not play a role in water and mineral absorption.

Bulk Flow

Long distance transport driven by pressure. In this water and solutes move through the trachieds, vessels of the xylem, and through the seive tubes of the phloem(high positive pressure forces substances to diffuse to other side. In xylem it is tension(negative pressure) that drives long distance transport(by pushing xylem sap through the roots). Volume of flow in container is also determined by internal diameter.

Chromatin

Long strands of DNA found in the eukaryotic cell nucleus; condense to form chromosomes and wrapped around histones.

Hibernation

Long term topor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity. Some animals lower body temperatures into supercooled(unfrozen) states.

Flagella

Long, thin, whip-like structures, with a core of microtubules, that enable some cells to move, DIFFERENT in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. In Eukaryotes a special arrangment of microtubules are responsible for its movement. 9+2 microtubule structure.

Spongy Mesophyll

Loosely arranged photosynthetic cells located below the palisade mesophyll cells in a leaf.

Class 2 MHC molecules

Made by just a few cell types(mainly dendritic cells,macrophages, and B cells). Bind peptides derived from foreign materials that have been internalized and fragmented through phagocytosis or endocytosis.

Complement System

Made up of 30 antimicrobial proteins, in the absence of infection these proteins are inactive, when these proteins sense some substances on the microbes they trigger a cascade of steps leading to lysis or help trigger inflammation and play a role in acquired defense.

Root Tip

Made up of the root cap, meristematic zone, elongation zone, and maturation zone, where most of the water is absorbed/

Chlorophyll a

Main photosynthetic pigment in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. Works best with violet- blue and red light work best for it. Also is blue green.

Raidiolarians

Mainly marine protists whose tests are fused . The axopodia, radiate from, the central body and are reinforced by microtubules, which are covered by a layer of cytoplasm.

Centromeres

Maintain sister chromatid cohesion prior to the anaphase stage. Site of kinetochore formation. Hence, they mediate chromosome migration during the anaphase stage. This process is essential to the separation of chromatids and thus the fidelity of chromosome distribution during cell division. (Few mistakes).

MHC molecules

Major histocompatibility complex molecules.

Antheridia

Male gametangia, produce and release sperm into the environment, in many plants egg has flagella that swim to the egg through water films.

Monotremes

Mammals that have hair and mammary glands but reproduce by laying eggs. Platypus and 2 species of Echidna.

Marsupials

Mammals whose immature offspring complete their development in an external pouch.

George Beadle

Man who hypothesis that each of the various mutations affecting eye color in Drosophila blocks pigment synthesis at a specific step by preventing production of the enzyme that catalyzes that step Along with Tatum he mutated bread mold (Neurospora Crassa) using x-rays and observed difference in food requirements by providing different enzymes at differnt steps in the catabolic pathway and discovered that each class was blocked at different steps in the pathway because mutations in the class lacked the enzyme that catalyzes the blocked step this lead to the one gne one enzyme hypothesis - which then lead to the one gene one polypedptide hypothesis

Earl W. Sutherland

Man who won the Nobel Prize in 1971 for his work on how chemical messengers act via signal transduction pathways. Studied Epinephrine (stimulates the breakdown of glycogen within liver cells and skeletal muscle cells)

Multifactorial

Many factors, both genetic and environmental, collectively influence phenotype. Like Quantative just more enviromental.

Mycelium

Many hyphae tangled together into a thick mass; which comprise the bodies of multicellular fungi, when a plant is enowed with this it enables older roots to gain more water and soil than they could reach by themselves

SSU-rRNA

Markers used by scientists to test for evolutionary relationships. Led to the discovery of Archea.

Centrosome

Material present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells, important during cell division(mitosis); is the Microtubule-organizing center. Helps the microtubules function as a compression resisting part of the cytoplasm, unlike the others which are tension resisiting. Within this structure are two pairs of centrioles(composed of 9 sets triplet microtubules arranged in a ring

MPF

Maturation-promoting factor (M-phase-promoting factor); a protein complex required for a cell to progress from late interphase to mitosis. The active form consists of cyclin and a protein kinase. The first Cdk complex that was discovered first., Causes the phosphoryladtion of various proteins of the nuclear lamina.

Pronghorn

May be the most elite long distance animal. Found in the grasslands of North America(for about 4 million years. Capable of running as fast as 100 km per hour. Studied by Stan Lindstendt. Higher surface area in lungs, higher muscle mass, high density of mitochondrium, and high heat temperatures.

Postzygotic Barriers

May occur if sperm cell overcomes prezygotic barriers. Will prevent the hybrid zgote from developing into a viable fertile adult.

Heteromorphic

Meaning that the sporophytes and gametophytes of a protist are structurally difficult.

Binomial

Meaning two parts

Ampicillin

Mech same as penicillin. Need a B-lactamase inhibitor. Used against Gram+ and HELPS (Haemophilus Influenza, E. Coli, Listeria, Proteus mirabilis, and Salmonella). SE: Pseudomembraneous Collitis (because of removal of gut bacteria). IV Form.

Cotransport

Mechanism in which a transport protein couples the downhill passage of one solute to the uphill passage of another. In plants it is responsible for the uptake of sucrose by plant cells. Happens when membrane protein cotransports sucrose with the H+ that is moving down its gradient through the protein.

Small Intestine

More than 6 meters long in humans, the longest section of the alimentary canal.General name refers to its diameter, most of the ezymatic hydroylsis and nutrient absorption occur here,

C3 Plants

More then 95 % of plants on the earth are this. A plant that changes C02 into a three carbon compound (3-phosphoglycerate) before entering the Calvin cycle for photosynthesis. (Rice Wheat, Soybeans)

C3 Plants

More then 95 % of plants on the earth are this. A plant that changes C02 into a three carbon compound before entering the Calvin cycle for photosynthesis.

Etiolation

Morphological adaptations for growing in the darkness, found in potatoes mainly sprouting from their auxillary buds.

Parenchyma Cells

Most abundant, unspecialized, with only primary walls that are thin and flexible. Function: food storage, photosynthesis, aerobic respiration. Can differentiate into any other plant cell type. Make internal surface area of a leaf 10 to 30 times thesurface area on the external leaf. (Found in Stomata(Structure Fits function)

Mutiple Sclerosis

Most common neurological disease in the world In this disease T- Cells infiltrate the central nervous system and destroy the myelin sheath that surrounds some neurons.

Serine

Most cytoplasmic protein kinases do not phosphorylate tryosine but ________ and theronine, which are widely involvd in signaling pathways in animals plants, and fungi.

Phage Library

Most efficient genome library, 160,000 are needed to make up human genome, made by the backaging of the recombinant DNA into bacterial cells, where they replicate and produce new phage particles, which are stored as a selection of phage clones.

35 - 40 Celsius

Most human enzymes have a temperature from _______ _____that represents the optimal conditions for temperature. Generally a enzymatic reaction increases with increasing temperature however, past a point it will be denatured and its activity will fall rapidly. Bacteria and archaea (Thermophiles) that live in hot springs have their optimal temperature at about 70 degrees celsius.

Proton Pump

Most important active transport protein in the plasma membrane of plant cells. Uses energy from ATP to pump hydrogen ions(H+) out of cell creating a proton gradient with a higher (H+) concentration out of the cell than inside. In contrasqt to ATP synthases they run in reverse.

Oceanic Pelagic Biome

Most of the ocean's waters far from shore, is mixed by ocean currents. This biome covers approximately 70% of the Earth Surface. Most common organisms are phytoplankton., jellies, worms krills, squids fishes and marine animals. Overfishing is a deep concern in this region

Locomotion

Motion or the potential of motion of a living organism

Taxis

Movement towards or away from a stimulus.

Metazoa

Multicellular animals having cells differentiated into tissues and organs and usually a digestive cavity and nervous system

Multicellular Gametangia

Multicellular organs in which gametes are produced. Is one of the five derived traits of land plants.

Conservation biology

Multidisciplinary science created to deal with the crisis of maintaining the genes, species, communities, and ecosystems that make up earth's biological diversity. Its goals are to investigate human impacts on biodiversity and to develop practical approaches to preserving biodiversity.

Gap Genes

Mutations in these genes cause "gaps" in Drosophila segmentation. The normal gene products map out the basic subdivisions along the anterior-posterior axis of the embryo.

Mycorrhizae

Mutually symbiotic relationships between fungal hyphae and plant roots. Fungi can deliver phosphat ions and other minerals to plants in exchange for organic nutrients.

Heterokaryon

Mycelium where parts of the mycelia contain coexisting, genetically different nuclei that do not fuse right away. Some become mosaics with different nuclei restricted to different part of the cell.

Ammonia

NH3, a product of the breakdown products of protein and nucleic acid, enzymes remove them in this form, which is very toxic. Most marine animals excrete this in this form(requires less energy), while others secrete Urea or Uric Acid.

Skeletal Muscle

Name the muscle type based on the histological features: • Actin and myosin in sarcomeres; striated; multinuclear; lacks gap junctions; troponin:calcium binding; T tubules and SR forming triadic contacts; highest ATPase activity; no calcium channels

Zebra Mussels

Native to the lakes of Russia. Detected in the Great Lakes in 1988. Invasive in that they multiply rapidly and can filter large amounts of zooplankton, robbing native young fish of food. Introduced accidently

Spontaneous Mutations

Natural changes in the DNA caused by unidentified environmental factors

Sexual Selection

Natural selection for mating success. Can result in sexual dimorphism.

Nerves

Neural "cables" containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs, more complicated then nerve nets.

Biogenic Amines

Neurotransmitter derived from amino acids, and include catecholamines (dopamine, epinephrine & norepinephrine) & indolamines (histamine & serotonin)ä

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter that influences voluntary movement, attention, alertness; lack of dopamine linked with Parkinson's disease; too much is linked with schizophrenia

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that give one a feeling of well-being, euphoria or eliminate pain. They also decrease urine output by stimulating ADH secretion by the hypothalumus. For Example : Met-enkephalin

Emergent Properties

New properties that emerge with each step upward in the hierarchy of life, owing to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases. (Ultimately everything an organism does comes from the cellular level.

Karyogamy

Next stage in the sexual life cycle of a fungi where the haploid nuclei contributed by the two parents fuse, producing diploid cells

NADP+

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, an acceptor that temporarily stores energized electrons produced during the light reactions.

The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the roots of legumes and convert free nitrogen (N2) into the ammonium ion (NH4+). Nitrifying bacteria convert the ammonium ion into nitrites (NO2-) and then into nitrates (NO3-). Dentrifying bacteria convert nitrates into free atmospheric nitrogen (N2).

Purines

Nitrogeneous bases that have a double ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms such as adenine and guanine

Pyrimidines

Nitrogenous bases that have a single ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms, such as cytosine and thymine

Deuteromycetes

No known sexual stage is not always observed, therefore their only mean of reproducing is asexual...they only produce conidia and they grow as molds or yeast Also called imperfect fungi

Eric Kandel

Nobel lauerate from columbia university who tested the cellular basis for learning using the sea hare (Aplysia californica)

Prosthetic groups

Non protein components essential for the catalytic functions of certain enzymes, they are attatched to the 5 Mutiprotein complexes in the ETC.

Ozone

O3, a form of oxygen that has three oxygen atoms in each molecule instead of two. protects us from dangerous ultraviolet radiation from the sun

Allopatric Speciation

Occurs when gene flow is disturbed when population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulations.

Heterozgote Advantage

Occurs when individuals who are heterozygous at a particular gene locus have a greater fitness than the homozgotes. ( Hemoglobin in Sickle Cell Disease). Aggregate benefit balance aggregate harm of the allele.

Reception

Occurs when the signal molecule binds to a specific receptor protein in or on the target cell.

Systemic

Of or pertaining to the entire body; relating to a system or systems

Recombinant Types

Offspring who have inherited new combinations of genes and have phenotypes that don't match either parental phenotypes (usually 50%)

Parental Types

Offspring with a phenotype that matches one of the parental phenotypes.

Phylum Lycophytes

Oldest group of seedless vascular plants that includes club mosses, spike mosses and quillworts, clade of vascular plants-club mosses and their relatives(lack seeds)

B-Pleated Sheet

One form of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain folds back and forth and the regions of the chain lie parallel to each other and are held together by hydrogen bonds.

Auxin

One in a class of plant hormones that stimulates (among other things) cell elongation, secondary tissue growth, and fruit development, also make stem length decrease. In detiolation. Together with BRASSINOSTEROIDS. Was purified by Keneth Thimann and was determined to be indoleactic acid(IAA). tRANSPORTED DROM THE SHOOT APEX at about 10mm/hour, directly or Parenchyma tissue, and ony moves from shoot to base(Polar Transport)

Plastids

One of a family of closely related plant organelles, including chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and amyloplasts (leucoplasts).

Elongation Factors

One of a group of nonribosomal proteins required for continued translation of mRNA (protein synthesis) following initiation

A Site

One of a ribosome's three binding sites for tRNA during translation. This site in the ribosome holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the polypeptide chain.

E Site

One of a ribosome's three binding sites for tRNA during translation. This site is the place where discharged tRNAs leave the ribosome.

Somatic Nervous System

One of the 2 division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles by carrying signals to abd from the skeletal muscles, mainly in response to external stimuli. Also called the skeletal nervous system and is considered voluntary because it is subject to concious control, although much skeletal activity is actually controlled by reflexes. "Shivering"

Autonomic Nervous System

One of the 2 parts of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart) by contracting smooth, cardiac musclr, and other organs. Is generally involuntary. 3 divisions of this part(Enteric, Sympathetic, and Parasympathetic)

Parasympathetic Division

One of the 3 branches of the autonomic nervous system , maintains normal body functions; it calms the body ever conserves energy(rest and digest), i.e increased heart rate, glycogen production, enhances digestion, when they inervate the same organ that a sympathetic does they usually act antagonistically.

Enteric Division

One of the 3 branches of the autonomic nervous system, conisists of a network of neurons in the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder, control the secretion of these organs and the activity of smooth muscle that produces peristalsis

Sympathetic division

One of the 3 branches of the the autonomic nervous system, arouses the body to deal with perceived threats (fight or flight)

Collagenous fiber

One of the 3 fibers of connective tissue, Fibers made of collagen that are tough and flexible but resist stretching.

Elastic fiber

One of the 3 fibers of connective tissue, long fibers made of the protein elastin which allow strretching and recoiling complements collaganeous fibers.

Reticular fiber

One of the 3 fibers of connective tissue, very thin branched collagen fibers coated with glycoprotein, is continous with collagenous fibers with which they form a tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissues to adjacent tissues.

Thalamus

One of the 3 parts of the diencephalon(posterior forebrain), , brain structure that receives messages from the sense organs and relays the information to the proper region of the cerebrum for further processing

Epithalamus

One of the 3 parts of the diencephalon(posterior forebrain), this part includes the pineal gland, choroid plexus

Hypothalamus

One of the 3 parts of the diencephalon(posterior forebrain),, a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

Receptor

One of the 3 parts of the homeostatic system. Detects the change in some variable of the animals internal environment

Control Center

One of the 3 parts of the homeostatic system. Processes the information iy recieves from the receptor and directs a response to the efector .

Efector

One of the 3 parts of the homeostatic systems. Responds and formulated best respomse.

Stator

One of the 4 Parts of the ATP Synthase molecule, is anchored in the membrane and holds the knob stationary.

Rotor

One of the 4 Parts of the ATP synthase molecule that is within the inner mitochondrial membrane and spins clockwise when H+ ions flow past its down the H+ gradient.

Rod

One of the 4 Parts of the ATP synthase molecule, extends into the knob and spins which causes a conformational change on the knob activating catalytic sites in the knob.

Knob

One of the 4 Parts of the ATP synthase molecule, is the location of the three catalytic sites which join inorganic phosphate to ADP in order to make ATP. Protrudes outwards into the inner mitochondrial matrix.

Nucleic Acids

One of the 4 main classes of biological molecules are very long organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphurous, contain instructions that cells need to carry out all the functions of life

Proteins

One of the 4 main classes of biological molecules, ,contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. source of energy. needed by tissue for repair and growth. made up of 20 amino acids.

Chemoheterotrophs

Organisms that must consume organic molecules for both energy and carbon.

Esinophils

One of the 4 types of white blood cells(leukocyes) , Have low phagocytic activity but are critical against muticellular oparasites (like the blood fluke). Posistions itself beside parasites and discharge destructive ensymes.

Macrophages

One of the 4 types of white blood cells(leukocyes) , develop fom monocytes(5%) of white blood cells. Cells carrying out phagocytosis sets off internal signaling pathway and are activated. Permanent Residents of the spleen.

Neutrophils

One of the 4 types of white blood cells(leukocyes) , largest group(60-70%). Attracted to infected tissues, engulf microbes, however they tend to die in the process of phagocytosis and as a result thier life span is only a few days

Rose Shaped Complexes

One of the 4 ultra structural things shared between land plants and charophyceans, is a rose shaped complex that they use to synthesize their cellulose, in differs from other linear arrays found in most noncharophycean algaea.

Radiation

One of the 4 ways an organism loses heat, Is the emission of electromeganetic waves by all objects warmer than absolute zero. Can transfer heat indirectly to objects not in contact.

Evaporation

One of the 4 ways an organism loses heat, Is the removal of heat from the surface of a liquid that is losing some of its molecules as a gas. Has strong cooling effect

Conduction

One of the 4 ways an organism loses heat, is the direct transfer of thermal motion(jeat) between molecules of objects in direct contact with each other.

Convection

One of the 4 ways an organism loses heat, is the tranfer of heat by movement of air oe liquid past a surface(breeze) or movement of body heat from core to extremeties.

IgE

One of the 5 classes of immunoblobins, has (ɛ) heavy chains. It is involved in allergic reactions by triggering the release of histamine from the mast cells.

IgG

One of the 5 classes of immunoblobins, has( γ) heavy chains. It is the most abundant class of immunoglobulin in plasma. Only calsss that croses placenta, and conferrs passive immunity on to the fetus,

IgD

One of the 5 classes of immunoblobins, has(δ) heavy chains. Appears on surface of mature naive B cells but its function is unknown. Acts as a antifen receptor for clonal selection.

IgM

One of the 5 classes of immunoblobins, having μ heavy chains. It is the first immunoglobulin to appear on the surface of B cells and the first antibody secreted during an immune response. It is secreted in pentameric form. Very effective in complemt activation.

IgA

One of the 5 classes of immunoblobins,, has (α) heavy chains, I antibodies in dimeric form are the antibodies present in mucosal secretions(tears, saliva, mucus, breast milk). In monomeric form is present in the blood. In breats milk passes on passive immunity.

Sporocytes

One of the 5 derived traits of plants, A diploid cell, also known as a spore mother cell, that undergoes meiosis and generates haploid spores.

Apical Meristems

One of the 5 derived traits of plants, defined as localized regions of cell division at the tops of roots and shoots that conttinue thegrwth of plants throughout its lifetime.

Placental Transfer Cells

One of the 5 derived traits of plants, enhance the transfer of nutrients from parent to embryo through elaborate ingrowths of the wall surface

Sporangia

One of the 5 derived traits of plants,multicellular organs in plants that that produce spores. Can generate up to 50 million spores. Also called the capsule.

Phase Contrast

One of the 6 LMs methods, enhances contrast in UNSTAINED cells by ampliying variations in density within the specimen, useful for examining living unpigmented cells.

Nomarski Method

One of the 6 LMs methods, is also called Differential- interference contrast, similar to phase contrast method, uses optical modification in order to exagerrate differences in density making the image appear almost 3-D.

Brightfield (Stained)

One of the 6 LMs methods, is the second simplest, Light is passed through a specimen (which has now been dyed) giving the image a lot more contrast which enhances its resolution, but now the organism being observed has to be dead.

Brightfield (Unstained)

One of the 6 LMs methods, is the simplest, (It is where light is just passeds through the specimen. Has very little contrast unless it is stained( In another method Brightfield(Stained) it is.

Fluorescence Method

One of the 6 LMs methods, is where locations of different structures are isolated by the addition of fluorescent dyes or antibodies, which absorb UV radiation and emit back visible light.

Confocal Method

One of the 6 LMs methods. is where lasers and optics are used to illuminate a fluorecently stained specimen(in only a sigle plane), resulting in a very sharp image.

Plasma Membrane

One of the basic things ALL cells have in common, , thin flexible barrier that regulates what enters and exits the cell; composed of two layers of lipids, whitin it is the cytosol. Fuctions as a selective barrier that allows sufficent passage of oxygen nutrients, and wastes that service qthe entire volume if the cell.

Effector Cells

One of the clone produced by the lyphocytes short-lived cells that combat the same antigen, function depends on whether lymphocytes are helper T cells, cytotoxic cells, or B cell.

Memory Cells

One of the clone produced by the lyphocytes, consists of logn lived cells bearing receptors specific for the same inducing antigen.

Genes

One of the main parts of Mendels theory surrounding the law of segregation, alternative versions of _______ account for variations in inherited characteristics. The alternative versions of this are called alleles.

Alleles

One of the main parts of Mendels theory surrounding the law of segregation, for each character, an organism inherits 2 ________, one from each parent. Mendel made this deduction without knowing about the role of chromosomes.

Recessive

One of the main parts of Mendels theory surrounding the law of segregation, if the two allelles at a locus differ, then one , the dominant allele, determined the organisms appearance, the other ________ allele has no noticeable effect

Large Sample Size

One of the things that Mendel had that made his experiment a success. A total of about 1000 individuals in the F2 generation.

Single Character

One of the things that allowed mendel to derive the law of independent assortment, such as flower character.

Bacilli

One of the three most common forms of prokaryotes. (Rods)

Cocci

One of the three most common forms of prokaryotes. (Sphere)

Spiral

One of the three most common forms of prokaryotes. (Spiral).

Declining Population approach

One of the two approaches used to fight the biodiversity crisis, , a proactive approach to species conservation that focuses on detecting, diagnosing and preventing population declines in order to keep the population above a minimum viable size. Mainly on enviromental factors.

Small population approach

One of the two approaches used to fight the biodiversity crisis, the approach to species conservation concerned with the factors that drive a small population to extinction, such as genetic drift, inbreeding, etc., instead of the ecosystem.

Myelination

One of the two factors that affect the speed at which the action potential is conducted, has largely evolved in vertebrates, is the insulation of the axon by lipid based myelin sheaths which insulate and cause the depolarizing current to reach more distant parts of the threshold sooner. Is very about 2,000 more space efficent than having a large diameter, also causes the Na+ and K+ ion channels to be located in gaps in the myelin sheath called Nodes of Ranvier ,and is part of salatory conduction.

Diameter

One of the two factors that affect the speed at which the action potential is conducted, is because the resistence to flow of an electrical current is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area of a conductor, which allows more distant membranes to reach the membrane threshold faster.

Resolution

One of the two limits of microscopy along with magnification, is the measure of the clarity of the image or the minimum distance that two points can be separated and still be distinguished as two separate points. (Tools that enhance contrast have been one of the great improvements to this). Is inversley related to wavelength.

Magnification

One of the two limits of microscopy along with resolution, is the ratio of the objects image to its real size.

Appendicular Skeleton

One of the two main parts of the human skeleton; includes the bones of the arms and legs and associated structures, such as the shoulders and hip bones, makes motion possible and protects the organs of digestion, reproduction, and excretion

T Cells

One of the two types of lymphocyte cells both circulate through and are mainly concentrated in the spleen, lymph nodes, and lymph tissues. Each bear about 100,000 antigen receptors(all the same).

B Cells

One of the two types of lymphocyte cells, both circulate through and are mainly concentrated in the spleen, lymph nodes, and lymph tissues.Each bear about 100,000 antigen receptors(all the same). This has receptors that are Y- shaped(4 polypeptides(2 heavy and 2 light)

Free Ribosomes

One of the two types of ribosomes along with bound ribosomes, these float in the cytosol to make the proteins that are used there

Bound Ribosomes

One of the two types of ribosomes along with free ribosomes, these ribosomes are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum to make proteins to be exported, to be embedded in membranes, and to be shipped elsewhere within the cell. Found in high concentrations in Pancreas.

Xylem

One of the two types of vascular tissue. Conducts most of the water and minerals and include tracheids.

Phloem

One of the two types of vascular tissue. Includes living sugar conducting cells arranged into tubes that distribute sugars, amino acids, and other organic products.

Purines

One of two families of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides. Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are purines. Have a DOUBLE RING.

Centrioles

One of two tiny structures located in the cytoplasm of animal cells near the nuclear envelope; play a role in cell division by replicating and producing spindle fibers. Are composed of 9 sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring. (Technically not essential ijn all eukaryotes)

Palisade Mesophyll

One or more layers of elongated photosynthetic cells on the upper part of a leaf; also called palisade parenchyma.

Tissue System

One or more tissues organized into a functional unit connecting the organs of a plant

Chemoautotrophs

Organisms that also need CO2, but instead of using light for energy, they oxidize inorgaanic substances.

Obligate Anaerobes

Organisms that are poisioned by O2. Some live exclusively on fermentation.

Ca2+ channels

Open after an action potential depolarizes the plasma membrane os the synaptic terminal allowing an influx of Ca2+, which then cause synaptic vesicles to fuse with presynaptic membrane, then the (synaptic vesicles)release the neurotransmitter into the synaptic clef, and then the neurotransmitter binds to the receptor portion of ligand gated ion channels allowing Na+ and K+ to diffuse through the chaennels, continue until neurotransmitter diffuses out of synaptic ckeft.

Plasmodesmata

Open channels in the cell wall of a plant through which strands of cytosol connect from an adjacent cell.

Plasmodesmata

Open channels in the cell wall of a plant through which strands of cytosol connect from an adjacent cell. Forms a continous pathway for transport of certain molecules between cells.

Pyloric Sphincter

Opening of the stomach into the duodenum (begining of small intestine), helps regulate the passage of chyme into the intestine, one squirt at a time taking about 2 to 6 hours after a meal for the stomach to empty.

Pancreas

Organ located partially behind the stomach in the abdomen, and it functions as both an endocrine and exocrine gland. It produces digestive enzymes as well as insulin and glucagon, has a large amount of bound ribosomes.

Stomach

Organ that stores food and performs perliminary steps of digestion. Located in the upper abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm, can stretch to hold 2 L of food at a time.

Peroxisome enzymes

Organelle containing enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen , producing and then degrading hydrogen peroxide., is one of the 4 ultra structural features shared between a charophycean and a land plant.

Pyruvate

Organic compound with a backbone of three carbon atoms. Two molecules form as the end products of glycolysis. Is broken down to 3 CO2 molecules plus the acetyl CoA in the junction between glycolyis and the citric acid cycle.

Cytokinesis

Organic process consisting of the division of the cytoplasm of a cell following karyokinesis bringing about the separation into two daughter cells, involves the formation of cleavage furrow formation.

Opisthokonts

Organisms from an ancestor with posterior flagellum (includes fungi, animals, and some protists). Name refers to posterior (opistho) location of the flagellum.

Eukaryotes

Organisms made up of one or more cells that have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Decomposers

Organisms that act to break down corpses, dead vegetation, and waste products, and unlock supplies of carbon, nitrogen and other elements.

Electron Transfer Chain

Organized array of membrane-bound enzymes and cofactors that accept and donate electrons in series. It sets up an electrochemical gradient that makes H+ flow across the membrane. The flow energy drives ATP formation at ATP synthases. Abreviated (ETC)

Roots

Organs that anchor vascular plants and enable them to absorb water and nutrients from the soil.

Leaves

Organs that increase the surface area of vascular plants, thereby capturing more solar energy for photosynthesis.Can be classified as either megaphylls or microphylls

Serosa

Outer layer or convering of the alimentary canal, made of visceral peritoneum; its function is protection and secretion of serous fluid to reduce friction. Beneath the muscularis. 4th layer

Leaf Trichomes

Outgrowths of the epidermis ,

Cultural Eutrophication

Overnourishment of aquatic ecosystems with plant nutrients (mostly nitrates and phosphates) because of human activities such as agriculture, urbanization, and discharges from industrial plants and sewage treatment plants.

Chelicerae

Pair of mouthparts in chelicerates that contain fangs and are used to stab and paralyze prey

Temperate Grassland

Pampas, Steppes, Veldts, Puszta are all examples of this. , a biome similar to savanna; characterized by low precipitation and lack of trees, except along stream courses, such as the prairies of North America, highly seasonal precipitation, Winters are cold, Summers are hot, common plants are grasses and forbs., plants are adapted to periodic droughts and to fire. Grazing of animals helps prevent woody shrubs and trees. Fertile soils make it an ideal place for agriculture.

Antiparallel

Parallel, but running in opposite directions. The 5' end of one strand of DNA aligns with the 3' end of the other strand in a double-helix.

L-dopa

Parent molecule for dopamine and is given to parkinson's disease patient as dopamine cannot cross the blood brain barrier while this parent molecule can cross

P generation

Parental generation, the first two individuals that mate in a genetic cross

Anthers

Part of a plant that contains male sex cells. Mendel removed these from some pea plants to be sure his plants would cross-pollinate and not self-pollinate

Tissue

Part of an organism consisting of an aggregate of cells having a similar structure and function

Pons

Part of the brainstem, works with the cerebellum in coordinating voluntary movement; neural stimulation studied in activation synthesis theory may originate here

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Part of the electron transport chain and chemosmosis . A process occurring in the mitochondria that results in the formation of ATP from the flow of electrons across the inner membrane to bind with oxygen and H+ ions. Accounts for 90% of the ATP generated by respiration.

Superior Colliculi

Part of the midbrain involved in directing visual attention and controlling eye movements, in nonmammalian vetebrates it takes the form of the most prominent optic lobes and may be the only visual centers.

Schwann Cells

Part of the neuron in the (PNS) that produces the myelin sheath; functions in repair and regeneration of damaged nerves; wrap around the axon; aid the myelin in insulation

Presynapyic Neuron

Part of the neuron that synthsize neurotransmitters and package it into synaptic vesicles.

Formation of a phragmoplast

Particular details of cell division occuring only in land plants and certain charophytes (chara and Coleochaete); is an alignment of cytoskeletal elements and golgi derived vesicles.

Water flow from Soil

Pases through EPIDERMIS, then ROOT CORTEX, Vascular Cylinder, and then flow up tracheids and vessels to the shoot system.

Simple Eyes

Patches of light sensitive photoreceptor cells. Commonly found in Limpets(Phylum Mollusca). Help animal distinguish light from dark.

5%

Percentage that osmoregulation accounts for of resting metabolic rate.

Permafrost

Perennially frozen layer of the soil that forms when the water there freezes. It is found in arctic tundra.

Devonian Period

Period from 408 million through 360 million years ago. Seas rise and fall over what is now North America. Age of fishes begans as sharks and fish with scales and bony skeletons become common. Trilobites and corals floors in the ocean. Lungfish develope. First amphibians reach land.

White Matter

Peripherally situated; contains large numbers of myelinated and unmyelinated axons organized into tracts into 6 columns(funiculi), each containing tracts (fasciculi)

Genomic Imprinting

Phenomenon in which expression of an allele in offspring depends on whether the allele is inherited from the male or female parent., related to DNA methylation

Photoautotrophs

Photosynthetic organisms that capture light and use it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from CO2. (EXAMPLES: Cyanobacteria, Plants, Algae)

Descent with Modification

Phrase that Darwin used instead of evolution. Means that over millions of years ancestral organisms accumulated diverse modifications that fit them into a specific way of life.

Gymosperms

PhyNaked seed plants because their seeds are not contained in chambers.

Chitons

Phylum Mollusca, have no distinct head, clings to rocks, scrape algae with radula, one broad muscular foot, little or no cephalization and very simple sense organs, in contrast to moving cephalopod( squids and octopi) which have complicated nervous systems, these molllusca show how nervous system organization correlates to an animals lifestyle.

Porifera

Phylum of animals that includes sponges. Are simple,sessile animals, that live as suspension feeders.

Chytrids

Phylum of fungi that live in aquatic habitats or soil, presence of a single, posterior flagellum, zoospores, not monophyletic group. Molecular evidence indicates that they diverged earliest in fungal evolution.

Rudulf Virchow

Physician and biologist who discovered cell division, "All cells come from other cells" or "Omnis cellula e cellula"

Acclimatization

Physiological adjustment to a change in an environmental factor over a period of days or weeks.In endotherms usually occurs by adjusting amount of insulation, while in ectotherms(often at cellular level) or by using cytoprotectants involves compensating for temperature change.

Cystole

Place that glycolysis takes place in, which implies that it is the most ancient pathway.

Root Tips

Place where much of the water absorption occurs, its where the epidermis is permeable to water and where root hairs are located.

Frits Went

Placed in agar identified how a growth producing chemical causes a coleptile to bend towards light. (Dark side had a higher concentration of auxin

Collenchyma Cells

Plant cells that are grouped in strands and cylinders, have very unevenly thickened primary cell walls(help support plant). Usually located just below the epidermis, LACK lignin and secondary cell walls, and are flexible because of it.

Meristem Identity Genes

Plant genes that promote the switch from vegetative growth to flowering.

Organ Identity Genes

Plant homeotic genes that use positional information to determine(by doing for transcription factors) which emerging leaves develop into which types of floral organs.

Abscisic Acid

Plant hormone that Inhibits cell division in buds and vascular cambium(ABA). No longer thought to play a major role in bud dormancy or leaf abcission. May increase 100 fold during seed germination(to try and INHIBIT germination). Helps plants withstand drought, BY causes an increase in outwardly directed potassium channels(K+) in the plasma membrane of guard cells.

Meristems

Plant tissue that remains embryonic as long as the plant lives, allowing for indeterminate growth.

Ground Tissue System

Plant tissues that are neither vascular nor dermal, fulfilling a variety of functions, such as storage, photosynthesis, and support. Internal(pith)

Annuals

Plants that complete their life cycle- from germination to flowering to seed production to death- in a single year or less. Ex. wildflowers, staple food crops (legumes and cereal grains).

Xerophytes

Plants that have adapted by altering their physical structures. Often have few or no leaves(which if found , which reduces water loss.

Perennials

Plants which live for years that survive by remaining dormant during the dry periods and come to life when water is available. Usually dies by infection.

Herbaceous

Plants with stems that are non-woody and die back to the ground every year. Some herbaceous plants include marigolds, zinnias, grass, tomatoes, green beans and geraniums.

Exotoxins

Poision released from prokaryotes that can harm other organisms even if the prokaryote is not present.

Light Chains

Polypeptide chains of antibodies that pair with heavy chains to form the pole of a functional immunoglobulin molecule that specifically binds to antigens and immunogens.

Stomata

Pore-like openings in leaves that allow gases (CO2 and O2) and water to diffuse in and out of the leaves.

Occipital lobe

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; visual areas

Photic Zone

Portion of the marine biome that is shallow enough for sunlight to penetrate and where the majority of photosynthesis occurs .

Reduced Hybrid Fertility

Postzgotic barrier in which hybrid are strong but are sterile. Usually involves a change in chromosome number and meiosis fails to produce normal gametes. (Example: Donkey's, Tigron, Liger)

Hybrid Breakdown

Postzgotic barrier in which some first generation hybrids are both fertile and viable, but when they mate with each other or parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile

Exoenzymes

Powerful hydrolytic enzymes secreted by a fungus outside its body to digest food.

Urea

Prduced by the liver by a metabolic cycle that combines ammonia with carbon dioxide, most land mamals secrete this, Adult amphibians, Sharks, Turtles, Marine Bony Fish. Low toxicity, requires less water, but uses ATP in order to excrete.

pre- mRNA

Precursor mRNA; the first strand of mRNA produced by the gene transcription that contains both introns and exons

Atmosphere

Pressure exerted by an imaginary column extending through the entire height of the atmosphere.

Mechanical Isolation

Prezgotic barrier resulting from morphological differences. Usually of the sexually reproducing organs.

Behavioral Isolation

Prezgotic barrier that occours because of specific behaviors unique to a species. Include courtship rituals/dances

Temporal Isolation

Prezgotic barrier that occurs when species have different breeding times (days,seasons,years) and do not mix gametes.

Gametic Isolation

Prezgotic barrier that results when sperm of one species is unable to fertilize eggs of other species, either by biochemical mechanisms or viability of reproductive tract.

Habitat Isolation

Prezygotic barrier which occurs when two species either encounter each other rarely or not at all, even though they are not isolated by obvious physical barriers.

Prostaglandins F

Prostaglandins that reacts antagonistically to Prostaglandins E, signals the muscle to contract which constricts the blood vessels and reduces blood flow to the lungs.

Transpiration

Process by which plants that release water into the atmosphere from small pores on their leaves known as stomata

Transpiration

Process by which plants that release water into the atmosphere from small pores on their leaves known as stomata., makes plants lose 90% of water weight.t

Polygenic inheritance

Process by which several genes interact to produce a certain trait; responsible for most important traits like skin color, eye color, height , CONVERSE of pleitropic. Aids in the development of quantative characters. BELL CURVE on pg. 263 look at it. Enviromental factor like sun exposure would make the bell curve smoother. Has the broadest norm of reaction.

Meiosis

Process by which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell

Meiosis

Process by which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell, leading to nonidentical daughter cells that have only one set of chromosomes and produces reproductive cells.

Phagocytosis

Process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell, done by lysosomes which fuse to a vacoule such as the food vacoule.

Phagocytosis

Process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell. Done by white blood cells (Phagocytes)

Transmission

Process whereby the pain impulse travels from the receiving nociceptors to the spinal cord

Calcitonin

Produced by the thyroid gland and decreases the blood calcium levels by stimulating calcium deposit in the bones. The antagonist of the parathyroid hormone. (Peptide) (Endocrine System) Regulated by calcium in blood.

Endogenous

Produced within the body

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death involving a cascade of specific cellular events leading to death and destruction of the cell

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death involving a cascade of specific cellular events leading to death and destruction of the cell, helps destroy webbing, cancer, etc. etc.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Progressive muscle atrophy caused by hardening of nerve tissue on the lateral columns of the spinal column (Lou Gehrig disease)

Circular.

Prokaryotes do not have a problem with completing the 5` end of daughter strands, because their DNA is ___________

Coral Reefs

Prominent oceanic features composed of hard, limy skeletons (CaCO3) produced by coral animals; usually formed along edges of shallow, submerged ocean banks or along shelves in warm, shallow, tropical seas. Limited to the Photic Zone, and are sensitive to temperaturea below 18degrees celsius and above 30. Dionaflagette algae,cnidarians are the predominant species, Global Warming and pollution may be leading to the large scale destruction.

Helper T Cells

Promote the action of the killer T cells and play key roles in humoral immunity and nonspecific defense. All other T cells are involved in cellular immunity only

Allometric Growth

Proportional growth that helps body its specific form.

Relative Abundance

Proportional representation of a species in a community or sample of a community

Species Selection Model

Proposed by Stephen Stanley. Maintains that species also undergo selection. the species that endure the longest and generate the most offspring determine the direction of major evolutionary trends.

Biological Species Concept

Proposed in 1942 by Enst Mayr. Defines species as a population or group of populations whose members have the potential to produce viable, fertile offspring with members of other populations.

Peripheral Proteins

Protein appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane and not embedded in the lipid bilayer.

Ribbon Model

Protein model showing how the single polypeptide chain folds and coils to form the functional protein

Transport Proteins

Proteins embedded in the phosopholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane of a cell. Some bind selectively to a solute on one side of the membrane and release the solute on the opposite side. Others provide selective channels across the membrane. For Example: (K+) (Na-) channel.

Cytokines

Proteins that help activate lymphocytes and other cells of the immune system.

Ciliates

Protist are a varied group of protists who use their cilia to move and feed. The cilia may cover the surface or may be clustered in a few rows. Have distinct feature of a large macronucleus and a small micronucleus. Each macronucleus contains dozen of copies of chromosomes, but the genes are not in the chromosomes. Usually reproduce asexually by binary fission, and genetic variation results from conjugation.

Green Algae

Protist with grass green chloroplasts. Closeley related to plant kingdom.

Entamoebas

Protists that are parasites that infect all classes.

Dinoflagellates

Protists that have characteristic shape reinforced by internal plates of cellulose , in which two flagella are located in perpendicular grooves. Most are unicellular and some are bioluminescent.

Apicomplexans

Protists which are parasites who spread infection through sporozites, which contain a complex of organelles specialized for penetrating host cells and tissues. Most have intricate sexual life cycles with both sexual and asexual stages. Examples includes Plasmodium(malaria) which also uses bait and switch methods.

Euglenids

Protists with a pocket at one in which one or two flagella emerge. Usually has a glucose polymer known as paramylon. Usually autotrophic but can become heterotophic and absorb organic nutrients from their environment or engulf prey by phagocytosis.

Kinetoplastids

Protists with a single large mitochondrion that contains a mass of organized DNA called a kinetoplast. Include Trypanosoma which causes sleeping sickness in humans and Chagas disease witch can lead to congestive heart failure.

Meselson and Stahl

Proved that DNA replicates in a semiconservative fashion, confirming Watson and Crick's hypothesis. Cultured bacteria in a medium containing heavy nitrogen (15N) and then a medium containing light nitrogen (14N); after extracting the DNA, they demonstrated that the replicated DNA consisted of one heavy strand and one light strand

Active Transport

Pumping of soultutes across a membrane against the electrochemical graident, requires energy usually in the form of energy.

RNAi

RNA interference; injecting double stranded RNA into a cell turns off expression of a gene with the same sequence as the RNA, useful in assesing differential expression of genes.

Messenger RNA

RNA that copies the coded message from DNA in the nucleus and carries to the protein synthesizing machinery of a cell into the cytoplasm

Cnidarians

Radially symetrical invertebrates (Think Polyp/Medusa), which have the simplest nervous system, one that has a diffuse nerve net.

Rubisco

Ribulose carboxylase, the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the Calvin cycle (the addition of CO2 (carbon fixation) to RuBP, or ribulose bisphosphate). The product of the reaction is a 6 carbon intermediate( that is so unstable it immediately splits in half) forming 2 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate. Is probably the most abundant protein on earth.

Rubisco

Ribulose carboxylase, the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the Calvin cycle (the addition of CO2 to RuBP, or ribulose bisphosphate) in C3 Plants.

Humus

Rich, dark organic material formed by decay of vegetable matter(by the action of bacteria and fungi), essential to soil's fertility because it prevents it from clumping together which allows for adequate aeration of roots and absorption of water.

FADH2

Right after succinate has been formed(after the substrate level phosphorylation, 2 hydrogens are transfered to FAD, _________ and oxidizing succinate which then forms furmate. (KREB)

Sphincters

Ringlike valves of muscular layer of the digestive tube that close off the tube like drawstrings, regulating the passage of material between chambers of the canal

Fibrous Root System

Root systems common to monocots consisting of a mat of thin roots that spread out below the soil surface.

Fibrous Root System

Root systems common to monocots consisting of a mat of thin roots that spread out below the soil surface. (Described as bring Adventitous)

Thiol Group

SH

Contractile Vacuole

Saclike organelles found in Paramesium that expand to collect excess water and contract to squeeze the water out of the cell when it is hyposmotic to the enviroment.

Cisternae

Sacs within the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus (sarcoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus)

Specific Epithet

Second part of binomial system.(Refers to one species within the genus.

Immunoglobulins

Secreted antibodies are structurally similar to B cell receptors but lack transmembrane regions that anchor receptor in the plasma membrane.

Secretin

Secreted by doudenum, this enzyme stimulates the pancreas to release NaHCO3(sodium bicarbonate), which neutralizes acid chyme from the stmach.

Enterogastrone

Secreted by doudenum, this inhibits peristalsis and acid secretion by the stomach and slowing digestion whenever acid chyme rich in fats enters the duodenum.

Gastric Juices

Secreted by the epithelium lining numerous deep pits in the stomach wall.

Control Elements

Segments of noncoding DNA that help regulate transcription of a gene by binding proteins called transcription factors.

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Series of anaerobic chemical reactions in which pyruvic acid uses NADH to form lactic acid and NAD+, which is then used in glycolysis; supplies energy when oxygen for aerobic respiration is scarce.

Karyotype

Set of photographs of chromosomes grouped in order in pairs

SCID

Severe combined immuno-deficiency. In this disorder both B-cells and T-cells are absent and therefore such babies are highly susceptible even to minor infections.

Kwashiorkor

Severe malnutrition in children resulting from a diet excessively high in carbohydrates and low in protein is Ghanan for "rejected one".

Intersexual Selection

Sexual selection occuring "between" the sexes. May include: showiness,bright plumage

Intrasexual Selection

Sexual selection that occurs "within" the same sex is direct competition between individuals of one sex for mates of the opposite sex. (For Example : patrolling)

Pheromones

Sexual signaling molecules in fungi that are released by ther mycelia. If fungi are of different mating types these will bind on the squrface of another, and they will grow towards each other and eventually fuse.

Double Helix

Shape of a DNA molecule formed when two twisted DNA strands are coiled into a springlike structure and held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases

Graded potential

Shift in electrical charge in a tiny area of the neuron (temporary); transmits a long cell membranes leaving neuron and polarized state; needs higher than normal threshold of excitation to fire and its magnitude depends on the strength depends of the stimulus. Hyper/ De polarization, and

STRs

Short Tandem Repeats, regions of a DNA molecule that contain short segments consisting of three to seven repeating base pairs

Lateral Transport

Short distance transport that is usually along the radial axis of plants(Rather than up and down). Used by root hairs to transport water and minerals to vascular cylinder in the root.(3 different routes). In the tranmembrane route a substance moves out a cell across the cell wall into the next cell, which continues to move in the same way for each cell. The symplast route requires crossing just 1 plasma membrane, and then the substance can move cell to cell by plasmodesmata. The apoplast route ddoes not require using a protoplast and movement os water and solutes occurs along the byways provided by continuim of cells.

Sticky Ends

Short, single-stranded regions of DNA that came from broken double-stranded palindromic DNA.

Transfer RNA

Short-chain RNA molecules (L Shaped) present in the cell (in at least 20 varieties, each variety capable of combining with a specific amino acid) that attach the correct amino acid to the protein chain that is being synthesized at the ribosome of the cell, at 3` end it has amino acid.

Viagra

Sildenafil citrate, Sildenafil-Erectile Dysfunction: Helps to increase blood flow to the penis to maintain an erection by interfering to the breakdown of NO. A Phosphodieterase type 5 (PDE5).

Viagra

Sildenafil citrate, inhibits phosphodiesterase type 5 (pde5) from working making leading to less NO breakdown which leads smooth muscle cells in the blood vessels to relax , which then causes the blood vessels to dilate and fill the spongy erictile tissue with blood which produces an erection.. n.

Viagra

Sildenafil-Erectile Dysfunction: Helps to increase blood flow to the penis to maintain an erection. A Phosphodieterase type 5 (PDE5), either by helping with the synthesis of nitric oxide( which acts on another enzyme that helps dilate blood vessels) or by the addition of cGMP.

Molecular Homologies

Similarities among organisms at the molecular level(DNA, rRNA, proteins)

Amylose

Simplest part of starch which is composed long unbranching chain of D-glucose molecules, digestable and slowest acting in metabolic, makes about 20% of starch, the other 80% is made of amylopectin. Stored in amlyoplasts.

Spores

Single-celled reproductive bodies highly resistant to cold and heat damage; capable of new organisms

Mithochondria

Sites of cellular respiration in the cells, the metabolic process that convert sugar, fats and fuels to ATP with the help of oxygen, Has two membranes separating it from the cytosol.. (Like chloroplasts are not part of endomembrane system). Thier Membrane proteins are made by FREE ribosomesin the cytosol and by ribosomes that they have. Has cristea in inner membrane.

Origins of Replication

Sites where the replication of a DNA molecule begins, is where two parental strands separate and form replication bubbles, which expand laterally in both directions. There may be thousands of these in a eukaryote' s DNA.

Melanocytes

Skin cells , 8% of epidermis cells, produce dark brown pigment melanin, contributes to skin color, absorbs damaging UV light

Nematocysts

Small capsules that contain a toxin which is injected into prey or predators. Found in cnidarians.

Soredia

Small clusters of hyphae with embedded algae

Capillaries

Small microscopic vessels with very thin porous walls. When in networks it is called callipary beds, they converge into venules at their "downstream" end. One of the three main kinds of blood vessels.

Second Messengers

Small non protein water soluble molecules or ions, because they are small these cells can readily spread through a cell by diffusion. For example: cAMP(cyclic AMP and Ca2+)

Phylum Hepatophyta

Small plants commonly called liverworts because the flattened body of the plan resembles the lobes of an animals liver.Has longer and larger gametophytes than sporophytes.

Chemokines

Small proteins that direct the migration of phagocytes and signal them to increase their production of microbe-killing compounds. Secreted mainly by blood vessel endothelial cells

Lenticels

Small raised areas in the bark of stems and roots that enable gas exchange between living cells and the outside air.

MicroRNAs

Small single-strand RNA molecules that bind to mRNA molecules to block certain parts' expression. They are formed from longer RNA procurers that fold back on itself forming a long hairpin structure held together by hydrogen bonds.

Pollen Grain

Small structure produced by the male reproductive organs of a seed plant. Has a water-resistant coat, contains gametophyte parts that will produce sperm. Including 2 haploid cells (A generative cell that divides forming new sperm, and a tube cell that produces pollen tubes.

Venules

Small vessels that gather blood from the capillaries into the veins

Second Messengers

Small, internally produced chemicals that transfer and amplify the signal from the receptor to other proteins that cause the response.

Myofilaments

Smaller structure within sacromeres; the muscle equivalents of the actin or myosin containing microfilaments (THIN and THICK filaments)

Population

Smallest unit that can actually evolve.

hypoosmotic

Solution has fewer solute particles per unit volume than other solution

Abdominal cavity

Space below the chest containing organs such as the liver, stomach, gallbladder, and intestines; also called the abdomen

Sinuses

Spaces surroundin the organs, also the place where the heart pumps the blood, and chemical changes occur.

Radial Glia

Special glia with fibers that grow radially outward from the ventricular zone to the surface of the cortex; provide guidance for neurons migrating outward during brain development, and can also act along with astrocytes to produce stem cells which can generate neurons and other glia.

Choanocytes

Specialized cell in sponges that uses a flagellum to move a steady current of water through the sponge. Also known as collar cells.

Heterocysts

Specialized cells in a filament that carry out nitrogen fixation. Surrounded by thickened cell wall that restricts entry of oxygen produced by neighboring photosynthetic cells..

Guard cells

Specialized cells in the epidermis of the leaf that control the opening and closing of stomata by responding to changes in water pressure.

Neurosecretory Cells

Specialized nerve cells that show the blurred lines between the endocrine and nervous system, by releasing hormones. Found in Hypothalamus, the hormones released are called neurohormones.

Glyoxysomes

Specialized peroxisomes found in fat-storing tissues of plant seeds that have enzymes WHICH convert Fatty acids to Sugars; used for energy UNTIL photosynthesis occurs to produce its own sugar.

Horizontal Cells

Specialized retinal cells that contact both the receptor cells and the bipolar cells

Sympatric Speciation

Speciation that occurs in geographically overlapping population. Include Chromosomal changes and non random mating that reduce gene flow.

Endemic Species

Species that is found in only one area. Such species are especially vulnerable to extinction.

Foundation Species

Species that plays a major role in shaping communities by creating and enhancing a habitat that benefits other species.

Aplysia californica

Species which was used in experiments that provided initial insights into anatomical synapse changes that occur with learning: sensitization and habituation. Changes during habituation and sensitization: Decreased # synapses during habituation and increased # after sensitization

Spectrum of Dominance

Spectrum of alleles show different degrees of dominance and recessiveness in relation to each other phenotype

Fusiform

Spindle-shaped; elongated, thick in the middle, and tapered at both ends, such as the shape of a smooth muscle cell or a muscle spindle, or of a swimmer.

Metastasis

Spread of cancer cells beyond their original site in the body

Reduction

The addition of electrons to a substance involved in a redox reaction. Done by the oxidizing Agent.

(FACTS-1)

Stands for the Forest- Atmosphere Carbon Transfer and Storage Emperiment. Manipulated the concentration of CO2

Astrocytes

Star shaped cells found throughout the CNS, cleaning up debris in the extracellular space and removing neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft, connects neurons to nearby cappilaries, components of the blood-brain barrier, and along with radial glia produce stem cells that help produce more glia and neurons.

Asters

Starlike arrangement of microtubules around the poles of the spindles

AUG

Start codon for protein synthesis(METHIONINE)

Hardy Weinberg equilibrium

States that at a locus with two alleles the 3 genotypes will appear in following proportion (p2 + 2pq + q2 =1).

Law of Independent Assortment

States that for each pair of alleles segregate independently of each other pairs of allelesduring gamete formation.(Applies only to genes(allele pairs) located on different chromosmes(that are not homologus.

Pectins

Sticky polysacharrides that glue plant cells together; found in "middle lamella" between primary cells in plants

Cholecystokinin

Stimulates the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile

Phragmosome

Strands which form a transvers sheet of sytoplasm, Splits the cell in plane where it will finally divide. contains mircotubes and actin filaments

Cell Wall

Strong layer around the cell membrane in plants, algae, and some BACTERIA. Protects the plant cell, maintain its shape and prevent exessive uptake of water, and at the organismal uphold the plant from the force of gravity. Is made of miscrofibrilsmade up of the polysaccharide celluloseand protein. Have two parts:Primary and Secondary.

Foot

Structure embedded in the archegonium which absorbs nutrients from the gametophyte.

Vestigial Structures

Structures of marginal importance to animals, that once served important functions in organism's ancestors

papillae

Structures on the tongue containing groups of taste receptors, or taste buds

Wedell Seal

Studied among diving animals. High ability to store large amount of O2 is key to thier success. Holds only 5% of O2 in lungs and 70% in blood, has a huge spleen that can hold 24 Liters of blood that contracts when the seal dives, also has large concentration of myoglobin( the O2 storing protein.

Tioga Pass Belding's Ground Squirrel

Study by Sherman and Morton conducted a study of this animal (Spermophilus belding), figured out that males hae higher death rates than females in the population, and involved a cohort. (Type 2 Curve)-constant

Physiology

Study of the functions an organism performs.

Anatomy

Study of the structure of an organism.

Hexapods

Subphlum of Arthropod. Include insects and their relatives; more species than all other forms of life combined (beetles the most); have a ventral nerve cord

Crustacea

Subpylum of Arthropoda, Body of two or 3 parts, antennae present, chewing mouthparts, 3 or more pairs of legs. Mostly marine and freshwater. (Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimp

Myriapoda

Subpylum of Arthropoda. Distinct head bearing antennae and chewing mouthparts; terrestrial; millipedes are herbivores and have 2 pairs of walking legs per trunk segment; centipedes are carnivorous and have one pair of walking legs per trunk segment and poison claws on first body segment.

Growth Hormone

Substance secreted by the anterior pituitary; controls size of an individual by promoting cell division, protein synthesis, and bone growth, only hormone that acts as both a tropic and nontropic hormone

Bile Salts

Substances found in bile, which emulsify fats in the duodenum.

Allergens

Substances that cause hypersensitive immune responses(allergies)

Minerals

Substances(simple inorganic) that the body cannot manufacture but that are needed for forming healthy bones and teeth and regulating many vital body processes

Stephen Hales

Suggested that conserving green plants preserved rainfall. His ideas were put into practice in 1974 on the Caribbean island of Tobago, where about 20% of the land was marked as 'reserved in wood for rains' (1) FAlSE CO2

Temporal Summation

Summation by a postsynaptic cell of input (EPSPs or IPSPs) from a single source over time.

Evisation

Summer topor, also has low activity and metabolism, enables animals to survive periods of high temperatures and small water supplies, triggered by seasonal changes in the length of daylight.

Strata

Superimposed layers of rock

Androgens

Support sperm formation; development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics(Steroid), regulated by (FSH, and LH) as are all important steroids like estrogen and progesterone. (Endocrine System)

Biofilms

Surface coating colonies which secrete signalling molecules that recruit nearby cells causing the colony to grow. These cells also produce proteins that adhere to substrate and allow nutrients to reach the center and for wastes to be expelled.

Regulation

Surrounding the topic of _____________ of population growth, THERE ARE 2 FACTORS (What stops an animal population from growing) ,and why do some populations show large fluctuateions while others remaine stable.

Carolus Linnaeus

Swedish botanist and physician who classified lifes diversity and is the founder of taxonomy . Believed that relationships represented pattern of creation.

Radial Symmetry

Symmetry about a central axis, in which any imaginary slice through the central axis divides the animal into mirror images. Most present in animals that are sessile(unmoving)

Transverse Tubules

System of tubules that provides channels for ion flow throughout the muscle fibers to facilitate the propagation of an action potential.

Triiodothyronine

T3, thyroid hormone similar to thyroxine but with one less iodine atom per molecule and produced in smaller quantity, more brief but stronger. Helps maintain metabolic processes.(Amine) (Endocrine System) Regulated by TSH

Bait and Switch

Technique used by some protists to evade immune system detection. The surface (which is coated with million copies of one protein) is replaced by every new generation with a slightly different structure, which prevent the host from developing immunity.

DNA Microarray

Technique used to screen a single sample for a vast range of different nucleotide sequences stimultaneously; it is often used to study gene expression

Triploblastic

Term for animals possessing three germ layers: the endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm.

Diploblastic

Term for animals with just two germ layers - the ectoderm and endoderm. Include Cnidarians and comb jellies.

Heterozygous

Term that describes having dissimilar alleles at corresponding chromosomal loci (not true breeding)

Homozygous

Term that describes having identical alleles at corresponding chromosomal loci

Gonads

Term that is used collectively for the sex organs, the testes for men, and the ovaries in woman.

Thallus

Term that refers to a seaweed body that is plant like. It lacks true roots, stems and leaves, and instead consist of a rootlike holdfast, and a stemlike stipe, which support leaflike blades.

Cell Ultrastructure

Term used by biologists to refer to a cell's anatomy as revealed by an electron microscope

True Breeding

Term used to describe organisms that produce offspring identical to themselves if allowed to self-pollinate.

Haploid

Term used to refer to a cell that contains only a single set of chromosomes and therefore only a single set of genes

H20

The addition of _______ to furmate rearanges its bonds and forms Malate which will then be oxidized which will be then reduce NAD+ to NADH, and regenerate oxaloactetate. (KREB)

Genomic Equivalence

That each somatic cell in an organism has the same set of gene's

Tube Cell

That nucleus of a pollen grain believed to influence the growth and development of the pollen tube. Also known as tube nucleus.

Visible Light

That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum detected as various colors by the human eye, ranging in wavelength from about 380 nm to about 750 nm.

Cranial Nerves

The 12 pairs of nerves that carry messages to and from the brain, part of the PNS, they terminate in mostly in organs of the head and upper body , mostly contain axons of both sendory and motor neurons

PCB

The 1976 Toxic Substance Control Act specifically banned the production and use of what substance? Also known as polychlorinated biphenyls, itsuppress the immune system, cause cancer in humans, aquatic ecosystems (bad for reproduction since the babies retain high levels of PCB ,and was put into transmitters.)

Metaphase

The 2nd stage in mitosis or meiosis in which the duplicated chromosomes line up along the equatorial plate of the spindle

Response

The 3rd stage of cell signaling, when the transduced sqignal finally recieves its response, helps insure that critical activites occur in the right cells, at the right time, and in the proper coordination with the other cells of the organism.

Restriction Sites

The DNA sequence that is recognized by a restriction enzyme; the restriction enzyme cuts at this sequence, generating two DNA fragments (Usually 4 to 8 Nucleotides) , and because it is so small, restriction fragments are cut out at many places.

N-P-K Ratio

The Fertlizer Ratio used which contains (Nitrogen, Phosphorous, and Potassium)

Sieve Tube Members

The MAIN cconducting cells in the phloem tissue that lack a nucleus, but are long and cylindrical for conducting sugar water(acting to maximize the cross sectional area).

Ribosomal RNA

The MOST abundant type of RNA, which together with proteins, forms the structure of ribosomes. Ribosomes coordinate the sequential coupling of tRNA molecules to mRNA codons. Made in the Nucleolus of the Nucleus.

Ribosomal RNA

The MOST abundant type of RNA, which together with proteins, forms the structure of ribosomes. Ribosomes coordinate the sequential coupling of tRNA molecules to mRNA codons. Made in the nucleolus

Monophyletic

The TRUE clade, consisting of the ancestral species and all of it's descendants.

Microfilaments

The ___________made up of a ring of contractile actin and myosin proteins are on the cytoplasmic side of the cleavage furrow, pull on each other and deepen until the two cells have seperated, these _________ are also important in muscle contraction. (Only in Animal Cytokinesis)

Tonicity

The ability of a solution surrounding a cell to cause that cell to gain or lose water. Must take both the concentration and the membrane.

Immunological memory

The ability to respond more quickly to a particular invader or foriegn tissue the second time it is encountered. Most invertebrates do NOT have this. Depends on the clones of long lived T and B memory cells .

Anhydrobiosis

The ability to survive in a dormant state when an organism's habitat dries up; also called cryptobiosis. Exibited by Tardigrades (WATER BEARS), condition might be maintained by large amounts of sugars, like Trehalose

Legal Boundary

The actual area put aside to try and prevent the extinction of a species.

The organ of Corti

The actual hearing organ found within the cochlea, consists of hair cells, the receptor cells of the ear.

Secondary immune response

The adaptive immune response provoked by a second exposure to an antigen. It differs from the primary response by starting sooner and building more quickly. Typically 2-7 days

Actual Evapotranspiration

The amount of water transpired by plants and evaporated from a landscape over a given period of time, usually measured in millimeters and estimated for a year. Related to the fact that temperature and moisture are the key factors that control primary production in terrestrial ecosystems. It INCREASES with the amount of precipitation in a region and the amount of solar energy available.

Cladistics

The analysis of how species may be grouped into clades.

Glucagon

The antagonist of insulin. Its release is stimulated by low blood glucose levels. It stimulates the liver, its primary target organ, to break down its glycogen stores to glucose and subsequently to release glucose to the blood. (Protein) (Endocrine System) (Regulated by Glucose levels in blood)

Telencephalon

The anterior portion of the forebrain, including the cerebral hemispheres and lamina terminalis, white matter, basal nuclei, and cerebral cortex.

Clonal Selection

The antigen driven cloning of lymphocyte., antigens bind to specific receptors, causing a fraction of lymphocytes to clone themselves

Pelagic Zone

The area of the ocean past the continental shelf, with areas of open water often reaching to very great depths.

Biotic Boundary

The area that is needed to prevent the extinction of a species.

Distribution

The arrangement of something across Earth's surface . In Ecology questions relating to this are of prime importance

Greenhouse Affect

The balance of the amount of heat being reflected back to earth by the atmosphere controled by the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, normally elavates the temperature from about - 18 degrees celsuis, making living life possible.

A-band

The band of the sarcomere that extends the full length of the thick filament. Includes regions of thick and thin filament overlap, as well as a region of thick filament only(H zone). It alternate with I bands to give skeletal and cardiac muscle a striated apperance. This band does NOT shorten during muscle contraction.

Receptacle