Altius PS 2 (esidahi)

Eysencks' concept of personality

Eysencks' personality dimensions. - extroversion vs. introversion (quiet vs. sociable) - neuroticism vs. stability (moody vs. calm) - psychoticism

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) = Correspondence bias

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) = Correspondence bias = tendency to make dispositional attributions when we should make a situational attribution - tendency to overestimate dispositional factors in explaining the behavior of others.

Taste Sensations

Umami - is associated with amino acids. bitterness - is associated with alkalinity - eg - soap. sourness - is associated with acidity. - eg - lemon saltiness - is associated with sodium. - eg - NaCl

Yerkes-Dodson function https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8CA6Di3ix0k

According to the Yerkes-Dodson function, - there is an optimal level of arousal at which point performance reaches a peak. - Higher or lower levels of stimulation both cause performance decreases. - Therefore, this participant's contrast threshold is expected to increase. This could be confusing if one fails to recognize that a high value in terms of contrast threshold is actually a poor performance.

Anagrams are words formed by rearranging the letters of another word, such as the word P-E-A being rearranged to spell A-P-E. Solving an anagram by systematically attempting every possible combination for each letter is an example of which approach to problem solving?

Algorithms - involves a systematic process by which one is guaranteed to arrive at a solution to a problem. - Ordering the letters into all possible combinations would represent this approach to problem solving. Framing - refers to the idea that the way in which a situation is posed can affect decisions made about that situation. - Unlike algorithms and heuristics, framing involves no strategy-based approach to problem solving. Heuristics - are techniques that allow an individual to look for an answer to a particular problem. - Generally, heuristics are much more efficient than algorithms, but they don't guarantee that a solution will be found. Insight - refers to a sudden realization of how to solve a given problem.

Intelligence

As adult humans age, - fluid intelligence (cognitive ability) decreases - crystallized intelligence (wisdom) increases

Suppose researchers want to determine how physical activity impacts positive affect. To examine physical activity as a second independent variable in this study, which of the following additional components is necessary? I. A new measure of physical activity II. A physical activity experimental group III. A no-physical-activity control group

By adding physical activity to the study a new independent variable would be added. Dependent variables are measured, while independent variables are manipulated or changed, so that the researcher can then MEASURE the changes in the dependent variable associated with those manipulations. This eliminates Statement I because we do not need a scale or other method to measure physical activity. However, to add physical activity as an independent variable and consider its effect on positive affect, we would need to manipulate physical activity by assigning it to one or more experimental groups and establishing a control in which no physical activity occurred. This makes Statements II and III both necessary.

sociological concepts

Diagnostic expansion - is when a medical diagnosis is expanded to include a larger group. - eg - ADHD McDonaldization - refers to the ways in which society has restructured itself to match many of the rational efficiencies seen in a fast food restaurant. The "sick role" - is the broad approach to explaining the behavior characteristic of sick people in Western society. Although ADHD is a manifestation of the "sick role", it is not the most precise answer.

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism = judging from one's own view of their culture - is the practice of judging another culture by the standard of one's own culture. - We naturally favor what we know, or that with which we are familiar, and are suspicious of things we do not know well, or with which we are less familiar. - This human tendency could be a logical way of explaining why ethnocentrism is nearly universal among all cultures, - Further, ethnocentrism refers to culture, not society per se, so it is more accurate to consider ethnocentrism as relevant to cultural systems.

George Herbert Mead

George Mead = agents of socialization that can shape a person's self-concept. - Agents of socialization create expectations that become part of the "me," which is the social self, but must be approved by the "I," the more creative and independent self. - A social institution eg the military re-socializing its members to accept killing as acceptable - Public school curricula shaping ideological views of a person's country or nationality - video games or media in general are agents of socialization that can shape a person's self-concept.

The largest estimates of heritability for any given trait result from:

Heritability = # of various traits / total traits - The more the # of various traits, the higher the heritability - is a ratio of trait variability given by genetic variability over total trait variability. = various traits / total traits - Therefore, high levels of genetic variability in a less variable environment would lead to the highest estimates of heritability for any given trait.

If heritability estimates of male sexual orientation are about 0.2 (r2). This information indicates that:

Heritability refers to the variability in a given trait that can be attributed to genetic factors. = twenty percent of the variability in male sexual orientation can be attributed to genetic factors.

Implicit biases = Stereotyping

Implicit biases are attitudes that arise automatically and without conscious control. - eg- racial bias Stereotyping and implicit bias shows an unconscious process of drawing inferences about others.

Memory

Implicit memory = unconscious recall of the past - occurs when past experiences help the performance of a task without conscious awareness of the past experiences. - eg - tying one's shoes. explicit memory = conscious recall of the past - occurs with intentional recall of past experiences and information. episodic memory = life events - is long term declarative memory for life events. semantic memory = conceptual - is long term declarative memory for information learned conceptually.

Erikson Stages of Psychosocial Developement

Infancy = trust vs. mistrust Toddler (1-3)= autonomy vs. shame & doubt Play age (3-6) = initiative vs. guilt School age (6-12) = industry vs. inferiority Adolescence (12-18) = Ego identity vs. role confusion Marriageable (18-40) = intimacy vs. isolation Midlife (40-65) = generativity and stagnation Old age = ego integrity and despair

stereotyping, prejudice, Institutional discrimination

Institutional discrimination - is bias that is built into society's institutions, - such as police, schools, hospitals, and in this case—financial institutions. - eg - Research shows that banks reject minorities' home mortgage applications at a higher rate than those from whites. prejudice, - All people in the same category are described as the same regardless of the evidence, direct or indirect. - eg - Although extreme prejudice is found in a minority of people, some prejudice is found in everyone. stereotyping - eg - Company X views its workers in terms of stereotypes, steering them to particular jobs within the company.

Other Theories

Mary Ainsworth = "strange situation" - assesses the attachment style that exists between infant and caregiver. - In this scenario, the infant is separated from and reunited with their caregivers. The infant's reactions to each event are video recorded and scored to determine the degree to which the infant is securely attached to their caregiver. Kohlberg's Heinz dilemma - moral reasoning stages an individual might be. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) - is a test of adult personality & psychopathology Gibson's visual cliff - studied the development of a baby's depth perception.

The earliest portion of the depolarization of a neuron due to the propagation of an action potential is associated with the net movement of which ion?

Na+ - The initial depolarization associated with the action potential is created by an influx of sodium ions across the neuron cell membrane. - (Na = depolarization) Ca2+ - is especially important in the migration of synaptic vesicles to the surface of the presynaptic membrane; Cl- - the movement of chloride across the cell membrane is normally associated with the hyperpolarization of the cell. - (Cl = hyperpolarization) K+ - are associated with repolarization and the question stem asks about depolarization. - (K = repolarization)

Big 5 personality dimensions

O - peness C - conscientious E - xtraversion A - greeable N - eurotism

A married medical student with young children has a high likelihood of experiencing:

Role conflict - is defined as conflict among the roles connected to two or more statuses. - The statuses in the scenario given in the stem include medical school student, a married person, and a parent. - For example, if the medical student has to go to school to take a test, and his or her spouse is at work, and their child is ill, the student must decide which obligation to engage. Should he take the test or focus on caring for the child? role strain - refers to tension among the roles connected to a single status. - eg - Athlete strained with being the best on the team and not making team members look bad role exit - refers the process of disengagement from important social roles, - eg graduating, divorce, retirement cognitive dissonances - is the discomfort associated with attempting to hold two contradictory beliefs at the same time, a concept unrelated to the example given in the stem.

Stereotype threat & Belief perseverance

Stereotype threat - refers to decreases in performance on tests that might reinforce negative stereotypes. - eg - studies have demonstrated the effect of stereotype threat on math performance among girls Belief perseverance - occurs when an individual refuses to alter a belief even if faced with evidence challenging that belief. - eg - the refusal of this social scientist to alter his viewpoint despite contrary future study results

sociological perspective?

Symbolic interactionism = Everyday interaction - sees society as the product of everyday interaction between individual members of society Social conflict theory = The haves and the havenots - sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change. Structural functionalism = sum of it's parts - sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability. Social exchange theory - sees society as a system made up of individuals engaging in basic hedonistic calculations: rewards - costs = outcome.

Mary Ainsworth = "strange situation"

When assessing a relationship - A blind observer should be used to reduce the chance of bias in the AQS scoring that favors the hypothesized relationships. - Ideally, the observer should not know the risk factors under study, or the hypothesized relationships

demand characteristics

demand characteristics - refers to the phenomenon by which study participants pick up on subtle or overt clues about the purpose of the study, the hypothesis, or the expectations of the experimenters, and alter their behavior as a result. Behavior can be altered in a positive or negative way, meaning - subjects may behave in a way that seeks to please the experimenters and support their hypothesis, or - in a negative way—behavior that resists what they perceive to be the purpose of the study or that is designed to undermine the results. In this case, participants may, for example, intuit that because they are completing a positive/negative affect scale after eating ice cream that the experimenters are hypothesizing that eating ice cream will improve their affect.

Parts of Brain and Function

pre-frontal cortex = Executive functions olfactory bulb = Olfactory perception occipital lobe = visual perception temporal lobe = speech production

attachment types

secure attachment - is likely when a child becomes visibly upset when the caregiver leaves the room but is comforted when the caregiver returns. - Children exhibiting this attachment style prefer their primary caregiver, but can be comforted by strangers. -----------Insecure--------------- ambivalent attachment - When a child is visibly upset when his or her caregiver leaves the room, but is not comforted when the caregiver returns disorganized attachment - is likely if a mixture of erratic or unclear attachment behaviors are exhibited by the child; - - these children often appear confused or dazed in the presence of their caregivers. avoidant attachment - show no preference for the caregiver over strangers and may even avoid the caregiver.

Reinforcement schedules

variable-ratio reinforcement schedule. - varied reward after certain # of occurrence - eg - Slot machines or other forms of gambling - occurs when a person is rewarded at a certain overall average ratio, but the individual ratio of behaviors to reinforcement varies, and is therefore unpredictable to the subject. fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement - fixed reward after certain # of occurrence - occurs when a person is rewarded on a fixed, predictable schedule, every nth time a behavior is performed. variable-interval schedule of reinforcement - varied/changing reward after a time period - occurs when a person is rewarded, on average, every nth interval of time, but the interval of time between each individual reinforcement changes. fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement - fixed reward after a time period - occurs when a person is rewarded on a fixed time interval. - eg - reward once every 5 days, or once every 5 months.