Anatomy 2 exam 3
- what is the goal of extrinsic controls over gfr? - what are the two forms of extrinsic control?
goal: change GFR w/ physiologic processes - neural control (sympathetic response) - hormonal control (ANP)
A _______ is too small to function as an antigen alone but can attach to a carrier molecule, triggering an immune response.
haptens
______ releases IL-2 to promote:
helper t releases IL2 to promote t lymph proliferation (both helper and cytotoxic)
why is bicarbonate in plasma
helps buffer plasma pH
what types of cell can form from a lymphoid stem cell? what does the lymphoid stem cell come from?
hemocytoblast (multipotent stem cell) --> lymphoid stem cell --> b lymph, t lymph, natural killer cells
what is the process of making formed elements called?
hemopoiesis
- Blood pressure is (higher/lower) in glomerulus compared to other systemic capillaries - why?
higher because it is both fed and drained by arterioles and afferent arteriole has larger lumen than efferent tubule
The ureter and the renal artery and vein enter the kidney through the opening known as the
hilum
what do proinflammatory secreting cells secrete
histamine (stim vasodilation, up capillary permeability) heparin (anticoagulant, no blood clots) eicosanoids (local hormones ex prostaglandin)
Antibody-mediated immunity aka
humoral immunity
B-lymphocytes direct the _________ branch of adaptive immunity.
humoral mediated
Pyrogens target the ______ to cause fever
hypothalamus
Certain areas of the body actively prevent access to immune cells. These areas are said to have
immune privilege
Identify the antimicrobial substances released by the skin and mucous membranes.
immunoglobulin A lysozyme sebum
high aldosterone
impact DCT ↑ speed of pump ↑ Na+ reabsorption ↑ water reabsorption SECRETE k+ inc blood press, Decreased urine
Increase in surface area of glom. filtration membrane (inc/dec) GFR
inc
what do proinflammatory proteins do to capillaries?
increase their permeability
Raising blood PCO2 by 5 mm Hg causes ________ of breathing rate. This level is measured by ________ which are found in the _______.
increase/ doubling! - peripheral chemoreceptors in the aorta and common carotid arteries
decreasing altitude causes _______ atmospheric pressure.
increased
Tubuloglomerular Feedback Mechanism acts as a "backup" to myogenic mechanism response to (inc/dec) blood pressure
increased - causes reining release and vasoconstriction
The complement system ______ the inflammatory response.
increases
interferons and complement are part of the (innate/adaptive) immune system.
innate
innate vs adaptive immunity - response time - specificity
innate = quick response, broad coverage adaptive = delayed response, specific coverage
in the renal system, where is the luminal membrane?
inner layer of renal tubules, on wavy looking part of epithelial cells
what do the pressure arrows of glomerulus look like
inside glom. -HPg arrow pointing out (60 mm Hg) -OPg arrow pointing in (32 mm Hg) -HPc arrow pointing in (18 mm Hg) leaving glom into PCT - NFP arrow pointing out (10 mm Hg)
during inspiration P atm (>/<) P pul
inspiration = Patm > Ppul
in inspiration, (inc/dec) in thoracic cavity volume results in an (inc/dec) in lung volume. This causes ________ in P pul. This represents (relaxation/contraction) of resp muscles.
inspiration = inc thoracic = inc lung vol = reduce P pul contraction resp muscles
what types of cells are found in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting tubules/ duct? what do they do?
intercalated cells (type a & b) -General: regulate blood ph and continually reabsorb K+ -type a: secrete H+, reabso (replace) HCO3- -type b: reabso H+, secrete HCO3- principal cells - reabsorb Na+, water and calcium, and secrete K+ at varying rates
what is the immune system's second line of defense
internal - non-specific cells and physiological responses
P pul is _______________ pressure. It is a measure of the pressure in ______
intrapulmonary alveoli
which form of nephron establishes medulla osmotic gradient? - what is the osmolarity value at the top vs middle of medulla?
juxtamedullary establishes - 300 mOsm at top -> 1200 mOsm at middle
define the purpose of the following renal structures: kidneys: ureters: bladder: urethra:
kidneys= filter blood ureters= muscular tube -> urine from kidneys to bladder bladder= expandable muscular sac, stores urine urethra = eliminates urine from body
epiglottis is located within the _________. It functions to ________
larynx functions to prevent ingested materials from entering respiratory tract
increased saturation is represented as a ______ shift on oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve
left
What is the lingula and where is it located?
left lung projection from superior lobe that is homologous to right lung's middle lobe
What is a macrophage?
(activated monocyte) large phagocytic cell- when monocytes go into the tissues
what is the effector response of MHC2
(work w CD4 on helper T) secretes interleukins 2 and 4 - 2 = self stim clones of helper t and cyto t - 4 = triggers B cell proliferation forming both memory cells and plasma cells
what is the effector response of MHC1
(work w CD8 on cytotoxic T) secrete perforin and granzyme
MHC 2 is an (endogenous/exogenous) pro it is located in
(works w CD4 on helper t lymph) -exogenous pro made in antigen presenting cell -come from phagocytosis to be presented
what does class 1 MHC do in healthy cells What does it do in infected cells
(works w CD8 on cytotoxic t lymph) healthy- self antigen, ignored by immune system infected- includes foreign antigen, stim immune response
Angiotensin II triggers the __________________________ of the intraglomerular mesangial cells which results in a(an) _______________________________ of the filtration surface area. It also triggers production of ___________ from adrenal cortex, which results in increased sodium and water ____________, thus (inc/dec) blood pressure.
*from renin* contraction, decrease aldosterone, retention, increase
how do IFN-α and IFN-β work
- Bind to neighboring cells and prevent their infection by trigger synthesis of enzymes that destroy viral nucleic acids and inhibit synthesis of viral proteins - Stimulate NK cells to destroy virus-infected cells
oxygen reserve
- Oxygen that remains bound to hemoglobin after passing through the systemic circulation -Provides a means for additional oxygen to be delivered under increased metabolic demands
Obligatory Water Reabsorption in PCT occurs by what process
- Paracellular transport between cell - Transcellular transport through water transporter proteins and aquaporins - Constant number of aquaporins found in PCT
granzyme: released by function
- Secreted by natural killer (NK) and cytotoxic t - directly responsible for entering infected cells and inducing apoptosis.
in the myogenic mech graph, the left side of the red line points (up/down) - this rep (excess/poor) urine prod - vaso (dil/constrict) is at max - rep (inc/dec) in glomerular blood pressure and GFR
left points down - rep poor urine prod - aff. arteriole at max vasodilation - rep decrease in glomerular blood pressure and GFR
The _________ lung is smaller and contains ______ lobes.
left, 2
explain the process of bicarbonate reabso in PCT
- Within filtrate, HCO3- combines with H+ to form carbonic acid (H2CO3) which dissociates into CO2 and H2O - H2O remains in the tubular fluid of the lumen while CO2 diffuses into tubule cell - In the tubule cell, CO2 combines with water to form H2CO3 which dissociates into HCO3- and H+ - H+ moves back into the lumen while HCO3- moves out of cell, through the interstitial fluid, and into the peritubular capillary - Net effect is "reclaiming" the HCO3 - that was just filtered and "losing" H+ in urine (this always occurs)
-Activation of complement occurs following entry of a pathogen into the body. Two of the major means of activation include the _____ pathway, in which a complement protein binds to a(n) ________ that has previously attached to a foreign substance; - and the ______ pathway, in which surface _______ of certain bacterial and fungal cell walls bind (directly/indirectly) with a complement protein. - Note that antibody is required in the _____ pathway of activation, but not for activation by the ________ pathway.
- classical, antibody - alternative, polysaccharides, directly - classical, alternative
-When _______ T-lymphocytes recognize an antigen presented by an infected cell (with MHC class ___), they destroy the cell by releasing granules containing cytotoxic chemicals. The first cytotoxic chemical, ______ forms channels in target cell membranes. This increases the cell's ____. - Induction of cell death by ______, which helps to limit spread of the infectious agent, is initiated by __________. It is because the immune response of T-lymphocytes is effective against antigens associated with cells that it is referred to as _________ immunity.
- cytotoxic, one, perforin, permeability - apoptosis, granzymes, cell-mediated
on oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve: left shift
left= love oxygen increase saturation/oxygen affinity for hemoglobin Decrease in CO2 Decrease in H+ Decrease in temperature Decrease in 2,3 BPG
Range of voice determined by
length, thickness of vocal cords -Males have longer and thicker folds, and so deeper voices -Folds increase in length with growth, deepening range
- An (endo/exo) genous antigen, is brought into the cell. A _______ formed. This contains foreign antigens and merges with a _____ to form a ____________, where the substance is digested into ___ fragments. - The vesicle containing these fragments then merges with vesicles containing newly synthesized MHC class _____ molecules. The fragments are then "loaded" into these molecules. These vesicles in turn then merge with the plasma membrane of the ______.
- exo, phagosomeis, lysosome, phagolysosome, peptide - 2, APC
what is the glomerular filtration membrane made of
- fenestrated endothelium and basement membrane - Filtration slits between pedicels of podocytes
Glomerular hydrostatic (blood) pressure (HPg)
- force that "pushes" water and some solutes out of glomerulus and into capsular space -driving force of filtration -60 mm Hg OUT
where are renal TYPE B intercalated cells found? what do they reabso? what do they secrete? what do they respond to? what does the response cause?
- found in DCT and collecting duct -reabso H+ into blood - Secrete HCO3- -respond to Basic blood -cause dec in blood ph
Aldosterone impact on DCT & collecting tubules
- increases# Na+ channels and Na+ /K+ pumps in principal cells Increases Na+ and water reabsorption Increases K+ secretion
Tubuloglomerular Feedback Mechanism
- involves macula densa cells in DCT of juxtaglomerular apparatus triggering granular cells in the afferent arteriole of the juxtaglomerular apparatus - can promote either dilation or constriction of afferent arterioles to increase or decrease blood flow as needed - renin release = vasoconstriction
The tubular fluid becomes less concentrated as it moves through the (asc/desc) part of the nephron loop. This is because active movement of _____ and _____ out of the tubular fluid and into ________.
- less concentrated in ASCending loop - bc active movement of Na and K+ - into the interstitial fluid and the vasa recta
The tubular fluid becomes more concentrated as it moves through the (asc/desc) part of the nephron loop. This is because
- more concentrated in DESCending loop - because additional water is being reabsorbed from the tubule into the vasa recta
Indicate whether an increase in each would cause an increase or decrease in urine volume. Blood press Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Aldosterone
-----impact principal cells of DCT up Blood press = up urine volume (think myogenic) up ANP = up urine vol up ADH= down urine vol up Aldosterone = down urine vol
CO2 in cerebrospinal fluid CSF is measured by ___________ which are found in the _______. This is indicative of ______ concentration.
-Central chemoreceptors in medulla oblongata -indicative of H+
Indicate the relative strength (highest to lowest, regardless of direction) for each of the pressures that contribute to the net filtration rate. Assume normal conditions.
-High- HPg (glomerular hydrostatic) OPg (osmotic press) HPc (capsular hydrostatic) -Low-
what are the innate apoptosis-initiating cells what do they do
-Natural Killer Cells (type of T lymphocyte) -trigger apoptosis in unhealthy cells through the release of perforin and granzyme
IL 2 : released by function
-Released from activated Helper T lymphocytes -binds to receptors on both activated Helper T lymphocytes and activated Cytotoxic T lymphocytes stimulating their proliferation
IL 4 : released by function
-Released from activated Helper T lymphocytes - binds to receptors on stimulated B cells causing their proliferation into both plasma cells and memory cells
perforin : released by function
-Secreted by cytotoxic T-lymphocytes and NK cells -directly responsible for creating small, pore-like openings in the membrane of infected cells.
ANP effect on kidney
-Secreted in response to increased atrial pressure -Increases GFR and Na filtration with no compensatory Na reabsorption in distal nephron -Leads to Na and volume loss= decreased BP and BV
jobs of juxtamedullary nephron
-establishes the osmotic gradient of the medulla -conserves water -allows for the secretion of hypertonic urine
in ASCending limb of nephron loop: -tubular fluid osmolarity (inc/dec) -impermeable to: -permeable to: -tubular fluid exits this and moves into:
-fluid osmolarity DEC -impermeable to water -permeable to solutes -fluid moves from here to distal convoluted tubule
in DESCending limb of nephron loop: -tubular fluid osmolarity (inc/dec) -impermeable to: -permeable to: -tubular fluid exits this and moves into:
-fluid osmolarity INC -impermeable to solutes -permeable to water -fluid moves from here to ascending limb of nephron loop
where are renal TYPE A intercalated cells found? what do they reabso? what do they secrete? what do they respond to? what does the response cause?
-found in DCT and collecting duct -reabso HCO3- into blood -secrete H+ into tubular fluid -respond to Acidic blood -cause increase in blood ph
where are renal principal cells found? what do they reabso? what do they secrete? what do they respond to?
-found in DCT and collecting duct -reabso Na+, H20, and Ca -secrete K+ -respond to hormones: ADH, aldosterone, PTH
- what is the goal of intrinsic controls over gfr? - what are the two forms of intrinsic control?
-goal: maintain constant GFR in spite of changes in systemic arterial blood pressure - forms: myogenic mechanism & tubuloglomerular feedback
true vocal cords are really (muscles/ ligaments) called the ______ _______. The opening between them is called the ________ __________. Together, the cords and opening are called glottis_________.
ligaments, vocal folds. opening= rima glottidis folds+ rima glottis = glottis
Where are complement proteins synthesized?
liver
-Basophils and _________ are both proinflammatory chemical secreting cells. Recall that __________ circulate in the blood, and ________ reside in connective tissue of the skin, mucosal linings, and various internal organs. These cells release granules during the inflammatory response. -These cellular granules contain various substances including _______, which increases both vasodilation and capillary permeability, and ______, an anticoagulant. They also release _______ from their plasma membrane which increase(s) inflammation.
-mast cells, basophils, mast cells -histamine, heparin, eicosanoids
where is oxygen in the body? what percent is at which location?
1% dissolved in plasma 99% bound to hemoglobin at heme
intrapleural pressure (P ip) is always (higher/lower) than atmospheric pressure
lower
intrapleural pressure (P ip) is always (higher/lower) than intrapulmonary (P pul) press
lower
Cardinal signs of inflammation
1- Redness: increased blood flow 2- Heat: inc blood flow and increased metabolic activity 3- Swelling: inc interstitial fluid vol (proinflammatory pros= inc cap permeability) 4- Pain: stim of pain receptors in area
on oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve: large changes in saturation occur with small increases of PO2 at _____ partial pressures
lower
Decreased Na+ and water reaborption due to the use of loop diuretics and thiazides __________ the concentration gradient of the interstitial fluid, thereby _____________ the osmotic force at the collecting tubule and duct.
lowers; reducing
The majority of sodium reabsorption occurs at the proximal convoluted tubule. During this process sodium enters the tubule cells at the __________ by _________ and exits the tubule cells at the ________ by____________.
luminal membrane by facilitated diffusion; basolateral membrane through the sodium potassium pump
where does co2 unloading occur
lungs (alveolar gas exchange)
where does oxygen loading occur
lungs (alveolar gas exchange)
NK cells are a form of ____
lymphocyte
explain the process of co2 loading (co2 becoming bicarbonate in plasma)
1. co2 in blood diffuses into an erythrocyte 2. combines w h20 using carbonic anhydrase enzyme and forms carbonic acid (h2co3) 3. carbonic acid dissociates into h+ and bicarbonate hc03- 4. H+ attaches to hemoglobin to be buffered 5. bicarb uses anti port protein to leave cell - Chloride shift (Cl- goes in, hco3- goes out) - buffers plasma pH
complement cytolysis
1. complement activated by bacterial surface 2. creates MAC protein (membrane attack complex) 3. MAC covers membrane in huge holes 4. water rushes in through holes and cause cell to burst
what are the steps of leukocyte during inflammation
1. margination (bind to CAMs) 2. diapedesis (exit capillary through endothelia) 3. chemotaxis (follow chemical cues to site of injury)
A fever is considered significant when it is above ______ degrees F
100
how much of each gets reabso at PCT: -glucose -Na+ -water -HC03-
100% glucose 65% Na+ 65% water 80-90% HC03-
B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes have unique receptor complexes. Each cell typically has ______ receptor complexes.
100,000
What are the Po2 and PCo2 values in blood after alveolar gas exchange?
104 O2 40 Co2
death is likely to occur when body temperature reaches _______ F
109 F
what are normal flora which line of defense are they
1st line of defense on some surfaces (ex skin) commensal microbiota that help prevent invading pathogens
During quiet breathing diaphragm movement accounts for _______ of volume change; external intercostal movement accounts for ______.
2/3 diaphragm 1/3 external intercostal
Complement
30+ plasma proteins play a role in: -eliminating immune complex (classical path) -cytolysis of pathogen cells -opsonization
Transport maximum (Tm) glucose = _____ mg/min
375 mg/min
what is the lifespan of a plasma cell
5 days
about how many alveoli are in the respiratory zone of lungs
500 million
on oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve: only small changes in saturation occur after po2 reaches _________ mmHg
60 mmHg
what is the approximate diameter of a bronchiole?
<1mm
Norm/ abnorm Tm glucose > 375 mg/min, excess glucose excreted in urine Tm glucose < 375 mg/min, glucose in tubule all reabsorbed
> 375 mg/min = ABNORM < 375 mg/min = NORM, all glucose may be reabso
Which of the following variables, when increased, will result in decreased urine volume? Antidiuretic hormone Atrial natriuretic peptide Fluid intake Aldosterone Blood pressure
ADH, Aldosterone
ADH (inc/dec) the number of aquaporins in principal cells, resulting in (inc/dec) of water reabso.
ADH= up aquaporins = up water reabso in DCT/collecting duct
antigen presenting cell contains (MHC1 / MHC2) normal cell contains (MHC1 / MHC2)
APC - both Normal- MHC1 only
Vesicles with infectious agents that formed during phagocytosis merge with ______.
lysosomes
Adduction of vocal cords is (widening/narrowing). Abduction is (widening/narrowing)
Adduction= narrow - closed Abduction= widen - open
cooperative binding effect of oxygen
Binding of each oxygen molecule to hemoglobin makes it progressively EASIER for more oxygen to bind
what is the difference between a bronchi and a bronchiole
Bronchi= more cartilage, wider bronchiole= no cartilage, thicker smooth muscle
Which has a proportionally thicker layer of smooth muscle, bronchi or bronchiole? What does that layer do?
BronchiOLE has thicker smooth muscle - responsible for bronchoconstriction/bronchodilation
- what do the macula densa cells do in tubuloglomerular feedback mech? - what do the granular cells do in this mech?
macula densa (in DCT) -sense increase in NaCl of the tubular fluid -signal the granular cells granular cells (in aff. art) -release renin -triggers renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mech ***VASOCONSTRICTION if renin released****
Cell adhesion molecule (CAM) function
margination help hold leukocytes still so they can move out of capillary into injured area during inflammation
what is the role of complement protein C5b in the immune response?
C5b helps form a complement protein complex (MAC) on bacteria cells that leads to their destruction
helper T cells associated w which membrane receptor
CD4, bind w mh2 to release interleukins
Cytotoxic T cells associated w which membrane receptor
CD8, bind w mh1 to eventually trigger apoptosis
what is the process of the movement of materials in glomerular filtration (where does it come from, where does it go?)
materials move from the blood within the glomerular capillaries, across the filtration membrane, and into the capsular space forming filtrate
How much urine can the bladder hold max?
max 1 liter
Classify by association w/ cell-mediated or antibody-mediated immunity - induces apoptosis - utilizes perforin - antibodies bind infected cells - plasma cells are involved - utilize granzymes - pathogens tagged for destruction - lymphocytes kill infected cell directly
CELL MEDIATED - induce apoptosis, use perforin, lymph kill directly, use granzyme ANTIBOD MEDIATED (HUMORAL) - antibodies bind infected cells, plasma cells are involved, pathogens tagged for destruction
Central chemoreceptors in _________ monitor ______ for breathing needs. - goal is to detect _____ levels (indicator of ___ levels)
medulla oblongata monitor cerebrospinal fluid - detect H+ levels, indicator of CO2 = POSITIVE correlation
Classify each by association w/ complement or interferons: - can bind directly to antigen - released from virus infected cells - forms membrane attack complex - stim destruction of viral infected cell - stim destruction of viral dna - can bind directly to antibody
COMPLEMENT: - can bind directly to antigen, forms MAC, can bind to antibody INTERFERON: - released from virus infected cells, stim destruction of viral infected cell, stim destruction of viral dna
what's the difference between a plasma cell and a memory B cell
memory B= exact same as original b, keep receptors plasma= secrete same antibody, no receptors tho
Classify roles based on antibody region: - complement fixation - precipitation -activation of NK cells -opsonization -neutralization - agglutination
CONSTANT REGION - Fc - bottom of Y - opsonization (interact w macrophages, enhance phago) - activation NK (bind NK) - complement fixation ANTIGEN BINDING SITE - neutralization (antibod block/cover antigen, no rxn) - agglutination (antibod cross link bind to cells, clump) - precipitation (clump antigens small pros)
GFR influenced by changing:
Changing luminal diameter of afferent arteriole - Increase in diameter increases blood flow and GFR - Decrease in diameter decreases blood flow and GFR Altering surface area of filtration membrane - Increase in surface area increases GFR - Decrease in surface area decreases GFR
what can't cross the glomerular filtration membrane
Formed elements (RBC, WBC, and platelets) and large proteins
if P atm = 760 During quiet inspiration, P pul is abt _____ mm Hg During quiet expiration, P pul is abt ______ mm Hg
INspiration : Ppul = 759 EXpiration : Ppul= 761
What class of antibody is produced in a much higher concentration during a secondary response?
IgG
fever def
Increase in body temperature equal to or higher than 1°C from normal (37°C)
Increased tension on vocal folds does what to sound
Increased tension = folds vibrate more = higher pitch
What does an antigen-presenting cell do to the resulting peptide fragments of a microbe once digestion is complete?
It incorporates the fragments into its cell membrane.
What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA)? What cells are significant here? - which process to do these cells reg?
JGA= region where DCT passes between afferent and efferent arterioles significant cells: - macula densa cells in DCT part -granular cells in afferent arteriole part REGULATE: Tubuloglomerular Feedback Mechanism
O2 in blood is measured by ___________ which are found in the _______.
LARGE CHANGES ONLY peripheral chemoreceptors in the aorta and common carotid arteries
active B cell presents antigen on _____. This is recognized by _____ on helper t, which secretes ____ to fertilize active b and stim replication.
MHC II, CD 4, IL-4
Transport maximum (Tm) - measured in
Maximum rate of substance that can be reabsorbed (or secreted) across tubule epithelium per a certain time = measure in mg/min usually
renal transcellular transport:
Movement of substances across an epithelial cell
renal paracellular transport
Movement of substances between epithelial cells
golmerular NFP equation and values
NFP = HPg - OPg - HPc 10 = 60 - 32- 18
IFN-γ produced by
NK cells
Indicate whether the following is specific or nonspecific form of defense - neutrophil -cytotoxic t -skin -monocyte -antibodies -plasma cells - b lymph
NONSPECIFIC : neutrophil, skin, monocytes SPECIFIC: cytotoxic c, b lymph, antibod, plasma cells
____ and ___ is reabso into ______ at ascending limb of nephron loop. This accounts for abt __% of these materials' reabso
Na and K+ reabso into the interstitial fluid and the vasa recta - ∼25% sodium and ∼20% potassium
What are the three segments of the pharynx? Explain what travels down each pathway
Nasopharynx - Air Oropharynx - both food and air Laryngopharynx - both food and air
- Sympathetic stim of kidneys causes (inc/dec) GFR - how?
Net effect: dec GFR/filtrate, inc blood fluid retention (maintains blood volume and inc press) - Vasoconstriction of afferent arteriole -dec blood flow into the glomerulus - Granular cells of JG apparatus release renin -inc angiotensin II -contract mesangial cells -dec filtration surface area
- ANP stim of kidneys causes (inc/dec) GFR - how?
Net effect: inc GFR/filtrate, inc fluid elim in urine (dec blood volume and press) - Vasodilation of afferent arteriole -inc blood flow into the glomerulus - inhibit renin release from Granular cells of JGA (aff. art) -dec angiotensin II -relax mesangial cells -inc filtration surface area
Reabsorption and secretion occur at
ONLY renal tubules
No air moves in and out of lungs when P pul ___ P atm
P pul = P atm no air movement
Urea is filtered and becomes part of the tubular fluid at the
PCT
What do eosinophils do?
Parasite Destroying Cells secrete a variety of substances that attack the surface of multicellular parasites (a bunch attack at same time)
during expiration P atm (>/<) P pul
Patm < Ppul
what do type 2 alveolar cells do what do they look like
Produce oily surfactant coat to keep surface tension on inner alveolar lining to oppose collapse w expiration - larger cuboidal cells with extensions off of them
Pulmonary ventilation equation what unit is it normally measured in what does each variable mean
Pulmonary ventilation = Tidal volume × Respiration rate -usually measured in L/min - tidal vol= amount of air per breath - resp rate= number of breaths per minute
interferon gamma released by function
Released by natural killer cells stimulates macrophages to eliminate the infected cells that had undergone apoptosis.
interferon alpha beta released by function
Secreted by virally infected cells protects neighboring cells from infection
what is the stimulus for ANP release? what does it do?
Stimulus: Increase in blood volume or blood pressure causes atrial wall of heart to stretch and releasing ANP ***triggers renin release from granular cells ANP causes inc in GFR, dec in blood vol/press
The osmolarity of the filtrate is approximately ______ mOsm/L at the end of the ascending limb and around _______ mOsm/L at the end of the descending limb.
The osmolarity of the filtrate is approximately 100 mOsm/L at the end of the ascending limb and around 1200 mOsm/L at the end of the descending limb.
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) is it is measured in
The rate glomerulus filters blood ml/min
Which muscle running along teaches contracts during coughing
Trachealis muscle (posterior)
what does P tp stand for what is the equation? is this normally a positive or negative value? WHY?
Transpulmonary pressure P tp = Ppul - Pip positive, keeps lungs expanded
Urea exits the tubular fluid at the ________ and reenters the tubular fluid at the ___________
Urea exits the tubular fluid at the collecting ducts and reenters the tubular fluid at the thin segment of the nephron loop
Urea levels are (high/low) in the deeper medulla (makes up __% of solutes here) contributing to the (higher/lower) osmolarity of the interstitial tissue found in this region
Urea levels are high in the deeper medulla (makes up 50% of solutes here) contributing to the higher osmolarity of the interstitial tissue found in this region
interferon (IFN)
a class of cytokines (secretion from cell that have impact on stuff around them) nonspecifically impede viral spread
A B cell is first stimulated by ______.
a free antigen
what is the ph of bodily secretions
acidic - interferes w bacterial growth
How do complement proteins enhance inflammation
activate mast cells and basophils and attracting neutrophils and macrophages to the site
The type of immunity that lasts longer is ______ immunity.
active
what is the immune system's third line of defense
adaptive response (cell and humoral mediated)
which has a larger lumen, afferent or efferent arteriole
afferent
in the myogenic mech, a decrease in systemic bp causes _____ - this action (inc/dec) blood flow into ________
afferent arteriole vaso DILATION in resp to feeling less stretch bc of low bp - causes inc blood flow into glomerulus
in the myogenic mech, an increase in systemic bp causes ______ - this action (inc/dec) blood flow into ________
afferent arteriole vasoCONSTRICTION in resp to feeling more stretch bc of high bp - causes dec blood flow into glomerulus
Glucose that is reabsorbed into tubular cells travels __________ its concentration gradient through sodium-glucose symport channels at the luminal membrane. Glucose in tubular cells exits the basolateral membrane into interstitial fluid through the process of ______________________.
against; facilitated diffusion
Antibodies that bind to more than one cell simultaneously can rapidly cause clumping or ________ to occur which prevents the pathogen from contacting and damaging human cells.
agglutination
If the wrong blood type is given to a patient, their red blood cells clump up because antibodies cross-link them in a process known as
aggulation
Atmospheric pressure changes with _________. At sea level is _________.
altitude sea level: 760 mm Hg (or 1 atm.) INC altitude = DEC atmospheric press
At alveolar gas exchange: - alv: Po2 ______, Pco2 ________ -cap: Po2 ______, Pco2 ________
alv: Po2 : 104 Pco2 : 40 I ^ v I cap: Po2 : 40 Pco2 : 45
External respiration is __________ gas exchange. Gas moves between _______ and __________.
alveolar between alveoli and blood
A helper T cell is first stimulated by binding to antigen presented on ______.
an MHC class II molecule presented by an APC
__________ do not directly attack nor destroy any pathogens, rather they bind to pathogens and in doing so render them incapable of causing an immune response.
antibodies
B-cells are primarily involved in ______-mediated immunity.
antibody
What is the circulating concentration of antibodies against a specific antigen called?
antibody titer
B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes identify pathogenic organisms by recognizing their ______.
antigens
B-lymphocyte activation begins when ________ bind to several receptors on the B-lymphocyte. After endocytosis, the B-lymphocyte then processes the antigen, links some of the _______ to its MHC_____ proteins, and then displays it on the cell surface.
antigens, epitopes, 2
Peripheral chemoreceptors in __________ monitor __________. - goal is to monitor: - _____ - _______ (independent of ____) - large changes in _________
aorta and common carotid arteries monitor blood - CO2 - H+ (independent of co2 for kidney failure) - large changes in O2
Cytotoxic T cells release granzymes onto infected cells, inducing cell death by ______
apoptosis
Receiving a vaccination that induces an immune response is an example of ______ immunity
artificially acquired active
direct administration of collected antibodies such as antivenom is an example of ______ immunity
artificially acquired passive
Boyle's Law states that at a constant ________, the pressure (P) of a gas ___________ if the volume (V) of the container increases and vice versa
at constant TEMP, pressure decreases if volume increases PV=nRT
explain the process of co2 unloading
at lungs 1. bicarb hco3- uses anti port protein to enter RBC - Chloride shift (Cl- goes out, hco3- goes in) 2. H+ released from hemoglobin 3. H+ and hc03- combine to form carbonic acid H2CO3 4. carbonic anhydrase enzyme splits h2co3 into h2o&co2 5. co2 diffuses out of RBC into resp. membrane/ lungs
Pulmonary ventilation is the movement of gases between ________ and ______.
atmosphere and alveoli
what does ANP do to: renin: mesangial cells: GFR: urine prod:
atrial naturetic peptide: -INHIBIT renin release by JG apparatus -RELAX mesangial cells -INC gfr -INC urine prod
- oxygen on hemoglobin is attached at which portion - how many oxygen can one hemoglobin hold?
attached ad iron containing HEME portion 4 can be held on one hemoglobin
what are the proinflammatory secreting cells
basophils (in circulation) & mast cells (in tissues) they're the same thing tho
Vasa recta: Blood travels in (same/opposite) direction to tubular fluid of adjacent nephron loop
blood moves in opposite direction (countercurrent) to tubular fluid of adjacent nephron loop
Basophils are in ______ and mast cells are in ______.
blood; connective tissue of skin
Where do B lymphocytes mature?
bone marrow
Antibacterial compounds are secreted by ____
both the skin and mucous membrane ex: lysozyme, defensins, and dermicidin
in the myogenic mechanism, what is the X (bottom axis)
bottom axis = mean arterial blood press - goal is to maintain gfr in range of 80-180 MAP
fever (accelerate/inhibit) tissue repair
can accelerate
fever (promote/inhibit) interferon activity
can promote
At systemic gas exchange: - cap: Po2 ______, Pco2 ________ - cell: Po2 ______, Pco2 ________
cap: Po2 : 95 Pco2 : 40 I ^ v I cell: Po2 : 40 Pco2 : 45
___________ is the inferior end of trachea (where it splits or biforcates)
carina has sensory area to initiate cough reflex
Trachea (windpipe)is an open tube supported by ________ that connects the ___________ to main _________ of each lung
cartilage, larynx, bronchi
what are the types of adaptive immunity
cell-mediated (t lymph) humoral-mediated (b lymph)
Neutrophils migrate to the site of infection by ____________ , where they can fight the infection.
chemotaxis
__________ is the process in which cells migrate along a chemical gradient, attracting immune system cells
chemotaxis
Which MHC class molecule is most critical to match for transplant success?
class one
which complement pathway requires antibodies
classical
what has a lower partial pressure, O2 or CO2 what does this mean in terms of respiration
co2 has lower partial press co2 has smaller partial pressure gradient, means weaker push for co2 in gas exchange (also bc c02 has stronger sol coefficient so its easier for it to cross)
No more changes in tubular fluid comp after: When is tubular fluid considered urine?
collecting tubules drain into renal papillae of the renal pyramids - now considered urine
Once activated, can form a membrane attack complex (MAC) that induces cytolysis of a bacterial cell.
complement pros
Activated __________ that form membrane attack complexes (MAC) that are responsible for inducing cytolysis of bacteria are acting as part of the _________ branch of the immune system.
complement proteins innate
what is the respiratory membrane composed of? what does it do?
composed of the fused basement membrane between alveolar type ONE cells and capillary endothelium - •physical barrier separating the air and blood environments where resp gases cross
Structures of the conducting zone function to ________ _________. This zone ranges from ______ to _________.
conducting zone -function: transport air -range: nose to terminal bronchioles
Complement binds to the _________ region of antibodies during complement fixation.
constant
Thoracic cavity changes volume due to _______-
contraction/relaxation of respiratory muscles
what are the two types of nephron? what percent of nephrons to they represent?
cortical (nephron loops barely dips into medulla) - 85% juxtamedullary (tubules barely in cortx, loop deep in med) - 15% -has vasa recta caps
Activated helper T cells are required to activate which of the following? - cytotoxic T cells -NK cells -B cells - APCs
cytotoxic T cells B cells
decrease in luminal diameter of afferent arteriole (inc/dec) blood flow and (inc/dec) GFR
dec blood flow dec GFR
what does physical activity do to the PO2 and PCO2 at systemic cells
decrease Po2 increase Pco2
High Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
decreased urine output
Proteinuria occurs when the filtration membrane becomes leaky, allowing proteins to cross. This impacts the blood colloid osmotic pressure by ____________________ the osmolarity gradient between the blood and filtrate, thereby ________________ the strength of this pressure.
decreasing, reducing
how do high grade fevers cause damage
denature proteins, stimulating changes in metabolic pathways that may lead to seizures, irreversible brain damage at temps over 106 F
Neutrophils exit the bloodstream by the process of _____
diapedesis
__________ is the process by which cells squeeze out of the bloodstream and migrate to sites of infection
diapedesis
What does the antigen-presenting cell do to a microbe once it is engulfed?
digests the microbe into peptide fragments
in classical pathway, complement binds
directly to antibody
in alternative pathway, complement binds
directly to pathogen
where is co2 in the body? what percent is at which location?
dissolved in plasma (7%) attached to the globin portion of hemoglobin (23%) as bicarbonate dissolved in plasma (70%)
where are renal intercalated cells found? what do they do?
distal convoluted tubule and collecting tubules/ duct -regulate blood ph -continually reabsorb K+
Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (do/don't) need to be in direct contact with an infected cell in order to kill it.
do
Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (do/don't) secrete antibodies.
do not
in tubule structure, eNDOthelium refers to __________, while ePIthelium refers to ___________.
eNDO: peritubular capillary ePI: tubular cells (basolateral membrane on top, lumal membrane on wavy side)
The vasa recta is a specialized capillary that branches from the ___________ arteriole. The blood flow in the vasa recta runs _______________ to the flow of tubular filtrate within the nephron loop.
efferent; parallel, but in the opposite direction
_________ allows the alveoli to stretch open with volume increase and recoil with volume decrease
elastin
what is the classical pathway of complement pros
elimination of immune complexes - complement strips antigen/antibody pair off of RBC, delivers to spleen/ liver
MHC 1 is an (endogenous/exogenous) pro it is located in
endogenous pro located in cell on membrane of all nucleated cells
complement opsonization
enhances phagocytosis flags pathogen so phagocytes recognize it more easily
Parasite Destroying Cells
eosinophils secrete a variety of substances that attack the surface of multicellular parasites (a bunch attack at same time)
which immune system cells are associated with allergies and asthma
eosinophils - also work to destroy parasites
What are the formed elements of blood?
erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets
in expiration, (inc/dec) in thoracic cavity volume results in an (inc/dec) in lung volume. This causes ________ in P pul. This represents (relaxation/contraction) of resp muscles.
expiration= dec thoracic = dec lung vol = inc P pul relax resp muscles
The external urethral sphincter is under (voluntary/invol) control - req ______ muscle control The internal urethral sphincter is under (voluntary/invol) control
external: voluntary (starts at potty training) - req somatic control internal: involuntary
(T/F) A secondary response is slower than a primary response
false
(t/f) no muscles other than intercostals and diaphragm are used for forced inspiration/expiration
false! additional muscles ARE used for forced inspiration/expiration
what are the body's physiological responses to infection which line of defense is this/ what type of immunity
fever, inflammation second- innate immunity
what is filtered material within the glom. capsular space called
filtrate
Loudness of voice depends on
force with which air rushes across the vocal folds
what do alveolar type 1 cells do what do they look like
form the alveolar wall, help gasses cross - thin & flat with respiratory membrane
Natural killer (NK) cells function to _________________. They are part of the _____________ branch of the immune system.
function: to induce apoptosis of infected cells innate
pathway of 'urine' formation starting at glom.
glom → glomerular capsular space [filtrate] → [tubular fluid] proximal convoluted tubule → descending limb → ascending limb → distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct [tubular fluid] → [urine] papillae of renal pyramid → minor calyx → major calyx → renal pelvis → ureter → urinary bladder → urethra
MHC class I molecules are ______
glycoproteins
what is the process for urine expulsion called? explain it step by step.
micturition reflex - when the bladder is distended (200-300 ml), baroreceptor in bladder wall are activated to send signals to contract the detrusor muscle. Signals sent to brainstem; parasympathetic response (involuntary) allows for internal urethral sphincter to relax
The _____ receives urine from the renal pyramid.
minor calyx
The tubular fluid becomes more concentrated as it moves into the (asc/desc) part of nephron loop. This is because
more concentrated as it moves into the descending part of nephron loop. This is because additional water is being reabsorbed from the tubule to the vasa recta.
What is a hemocytoblast?
multi potent blood stem cell (for all formed elements)
Development of antibodies after exposure to antigens in environment is an example of ______ immunity
naturally acquired active
transfer of maternal antibodies across placenta or in breast milk is an example of ______ immunity
naturally acquired passive
what is the charge of the glomerular filtration membrane?
negative
The countercurrent multiplier is a phenomenon that occurs in the ____. What is it?
nephron loop basically says that it establishes osmolarity gradient
is reabsorption and secretion the same as filtration?
no
what role do the vestibular ligaments/folds play in sound production?
no role in sound production; protect vocal cords
classifications of fever norm: low: intermediate: high: dangerous high:
norm: 37 c low: 100-101 intermediate: 102 high: 103-104 dangerous high: >104 - 106 = seizure brain damage - 108 = dead
what does Transport maximum (Tm) depend on
number of transport proteins in membrane when facilitated diffusion, primary or secondary active transport involved
what has a lower solubility coefficient, O2 or CO2 what does this mean in terms of respiration
o2 has lower solubility coeff lower sol coefficient = harder for molec to move across gas exchange surfaces (explains why higher partial press is needed for stronger push across o2)
What is obligatory water reabsorption? Where does it occur?
occurs when water is "obliged" to follow the sodium being reabsorbed at PCT
Which of these processes involves a phagocytic cell? - Agglutination - Precipitation - Opsonization - Neutralization
opsonization - phagocytic cell receptors bind fc region of antibody, stim phagocytosis of whole complex
Blood colloid osmotic pressure (OPg)
osmotic pressure exerted by dissolved solutes in plasma -32 mm Hg IN
on oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve: how can you cause a shift?
other things bind to hemoglobin
in the renal system, where is the basolateral membrane?
outer layer of renal tubules, outside of epithelial cells
oxygen reserve ___ percent saturation
oxygen reserve = percent saturation
micturition reflex regulated by _________ signals
parasympathetic
is glomerular filtration active or passive what is it driven by
passive driven by pressure
CO2 in blood is measured by ___________ which are found in the _______.
peripheral chemoreceptors in the aorta and common carotid arteries
H+ in blood is measured by ___________ which are found in the _______.
peripheral chemoreceptors in the aorta and common carotid arteries
what are the relative (high/ low) pressures of the peritubular capillary? - Hydrostatic : - Colloid:
peritubular capillary = - LOW hydrostatic - HIGH colloid
Neutrophils, Macrophages, Eosinophils and Dendritic cells are examples of
phagocytes engulf infectious agents
Activated B-lymphocytes differentiate into __ cells that produce antibodies
plasma
Antibodies are produced by activated B cells called ______ cells
plasma
The production of antibodies by ________ is a function of the ______ branch of the immune system.
plasma cells adaptive
B cells form ________ and __________ after stimulation by IL __ from helper T. Which of these cells creates antibodies?
plasma cells and memory cells, IL-4, plasma creates antibodies
What does Ptp = 0 mean?
pneumothorax the lungs collapse as a result of their inherent elastic recoil
Respiratory centers in the ______ and __________ regions of the brainstem control the rate and depth of breathing by _________
pons and medulla oblongata coordinate action of respiratory skeletal muscles (i.e. diaphragm) through nerves
what is the association between NFP and GFR
positive inc NFP = inc GFR
Thoracic cavity volume is (pos/neg) correlated to pulmonary volume. Increasing thoracic vol = (inc/dec) in pul vol
postive inc cavity volume = inc pulmonary volume
Which of the following substances utilizes paracellular transport in order to cross the basolateral membrane of the tubule cell during the process of reabsorption? - water -potassium -glucose -sodium
potassium
Small pathogenic molecules that are soluble are clumped together by antibodies, making the molecule insoluble and less mobile. This is an example of ________
precipitation
Capsular hydrostatic pressure (HPc)
pressure in glomerular capsule due to filtrate already present - 18 mm Hg IN
what does IFN-γ do
prod by NK cells after they're called in by IFN-α /IFN-β - stimulates macrophages to destroy virus-infected cells
A membrane attack complex is the name for a ______.
protein channel, allows fluid into cell and causes it to lyse
The majority of sodium reabsorption occurs in the
prox convaluted tubule
PTH stimulus and function: PTH impacts (both pct and dct):
pth secreted in response to low blood calcium levels, acts to increase blood calcium levels - in PCT: inhibits reabso phosphate (PO43-) - increase in phosphate in the urine - in DCT: stim reabso of calcium (Ca2+) - increase in blood calcium levels
in nephron, reabsorption is movement of materials from _____ to ______
reabso = from tubular fluid to blood
what are the general functions of renal intercalated cells?
regulate blood ph continually reabsorb K+
Correctly order the events of inflammation.
release of chemicals vasodilation recruitment of immune cells delivery of plasma pros
blood flow into kidneys process:
renal artery -> segmental artery -> interlobar artery -> arcuate artery -> interlobular artery -> afferent arterial -> glomerulus -> efferent arterial -> peritubular capillary (surrounds renal tubule) -> vasa recta (surrounds nephron loop) -> interlobular vein
The portion of the kidney in direct contact with the renal capsule is the _____
renal cortex
An obstruction in the ______ would prevent urine from leaving the kidney.
renal pelvis
Structures of the respiratory zone function in ________ _________. This zone ranges from ______ to _________.
resp. zone -function: gas exchange -range: respiratory bronchioles to alveoli
which region of nasal cavity has extensive vascular network?
respiratory region
what is the micturition reflex
responsible for the expulsion of urine from the bladder and out the body through the urethra
decreased saturation is represented as a ______ shift on oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve
right
more oxygen available to tissues is represented as a ______ shift on oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve
right
when someone is exercising, their oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve will show a ______ shift
right Increase in CO2 Increase in H+ Increase in temperature Increase in 2,3 BPG
on oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve: right shift
right = release OXYGEN (exercise) reduce saturation , decrease oxygen affinity for hemoglobin (makes oxygen more available to tissues) Increase in CO2 Increase in H+ Increase in temperature Increase in 2,3 BPG
in myogenic mech graph, the right side of the red line points (up/down) - this rep (excess/poor) urine prod - vaso (dil/constrict) is at max - rep (inc/dec) in glomerular blood pressure and GFR
right points up - rep excess urine prod -aff. arteriole at max vasoconstriction - rep increase in glomerular blood pressure and GFR
The _________ lung is larger and contains ______ lobes.
right, 3
Identify the structure that synthesizes MHC class I molecules
rough ER
in nephron, secretion is movement of materials from _____ to ______
secretion = from blood to tubular fluid
Nasal vestibule of nasal cavity is lined by __________
skin and particle trapping hairs
what is the immune system's first line of defense
surface barriers and their secretions - ex: skin, membranes, mucous - prevent the entry of pathogens into the body
Renin is released in response to ________________________ stimulation.
sympathetic ( either vasoconstriction or renin release - contraction of mesgangial cells)
what does sympathetic stim do to: renin: mesangial cells: GFR: urine prod:
sympathetic stimulation: -STIM renin release by JG apparatus -CONTRACT mesangial cells -DEC gfr -DEC urine prod
Internal respiration is __________ gas exchange. Gas moves between _______ and __________.
systemic between blood and systemic body cells
Pitch of voice (frequency) determined by
tension on vocal cords Increased tension = folds vibrate more = higher pitch
ACE inhibitors are prescribed to control blood pressure. These drugs work by reducing _____________________.
the conversion of angiotensin I to angiontensin II, lower blood pressure mainly by decreasing peripheral vascular resistance
the thick segments of the nephron loop are lined with ______ epithelium, while the thin segments are lined with ______.
the thick segments of the nephron loop are lined with simple cuboidal epithelium, while the thin segments are lined with simple squamous.
Where do T lymphocytes mature?
thymus
where does co2 loading occur
tissues (systemic gas exchange)
where does oxygen unloading occur
tissues (systemic gas exchange)
IL-4 is released by ______ to:
trigger B cell proliferation
(T/F) A primary response occurs when B-lymphocytes are first activated by an antigen.
true
(T/F) In a primary response, B-lymphocytes form plasma cells and memory cells.
true
(T/F) In a secondary response, memory cells form plasma cells and more memory cells.
true
Once the filtrate exits the capsular space and enters the renal tubule it is referred to as
tubular fluid
The recycling of ____________ out of the collecting duct and back into the nephron loop contributes significantly to the medullary osmotic gradient.
urea
Countercurrent exchange occurs as both solutes and water move freely in and out of the _________
vasa recta
IFN-α and IFN-β are produced by:
virus-infected cells
______ is reabso into ______ at descending limb of nephron loop. This accounts for abt __% of this material's reabso
water is reabso into vasa recta at descending limb of nephron loop. This accounts for abt 10 % of water's reabso
micturition reflex when the bladder is distended (____-____ ml), ____________ in bladder wall are activated and send signals to contract the ___________ muscle. Signals sent to ______________ to incite a (voluntary/ invol) _____________ response - allows for ______ _______ ________ to relax
when bladder is distended (200-300 ml), baroreceptors in bladder wall are activated and send signals to contract the detrusor muscle. Signals sent to brainstem incite an invol parasympathetic response - allows for internal urethral sphincter to relax
