Anatomy and Physiology Comprehensive Exam, Chapters 1-16

Abdominal Cavity

Contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, most of the large intestine.

Nucleus

Contains the hereditary units of the cell, called genes. Genes are arranged along chromosomes.

Name the contractile proteins.

Actin and Myosin.

Which layer of protection covers a muscle?

Epimysium.

Tight Junctions

An area where the plasma membranes of adjacent cells fuse together. These tissues protect underlying tissues from harmful substances by restricting the movement of substances, like HCl, in the spaces between cells. Found in tissues lining the surfaces of organs and body cavities, such as the stomach, intestines and urinary bladder.

Ion

An atom that has lost or gained an electron.

Gap Junctions

An open communication channel. Transmembrane proteins called "connexons" join together to create tiny tunnels that form gaps between the adjacent membranes. Allow ions and other small molecules to pass freely from one cell to another. They also allow electrical impulses to pass rapidly from one cell to another. Abundant in cardiac and smooth muscle tissues, as well as parts of the nervous system.

Lateral

Farther from mid-line; towards the side.

Superficial

Toward or on the surface of the body.

Cilia

"Hair-like" processes that extend from the apical surface are designed to move substances across the apical surface.

Mitochondria

"Powerhouse of the cell": Mitochondria generate most of the cell's supply of ATP, used as a source of chemical energy.

Parts of a Cell

-Plasma (Cell) Membrane -Cytoplasm Cytosol Organelles -Nucleus Chromosomes Genes

Steps of Controlling Homeostasis

1. Stimulus Disrupts Controlled Condition 2. Receptors Detect Stimulus 3. Receptors Send Input to Control Center 4. Control Center Sends Output to Effectors 5. Effectors Bring About A Response 6. Response Alters The Controlled Condition 7. Homeostasis is Normalized

Describe the process that causes sarcomeres to contract.

1.) An action potential arrives at the axon terminal. 2.) Acetylcholine (ACh) is released from the axon terminal into the synaptic cleft. 3.) The motor end plate is depolarized. 4.) The depolarization triggers an action potential which propagates along the sarcolemma and the T-Tubules. 5.) The sarcomeres contract!

Polysaccharides

10's-100's of monosaccharides joined together through dehydration synthesis. Ex. Glycogen, Cellulose, and Starches

Enzyme

A catalyst in a living cell. They are: Highly specific Extremely efficient Subject to cellular controls

Covalent

A chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are known as shared pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms, when they share electrons, is known as covalent bonding. For many molecules, the sharing of electrons allows each atom to attain the equivalent of a full outer shell, corresponding to a stable electronic configuration. Ex. H-H, H2 Hydrogen-Hydrogen

Transcytosis

A combination of endocytosis and exocytosis used to move substances from one side of a cell, across it, and out the other side.

Molecule

A group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction. Molecule - 2 or more atoms sharing electrons

Transverse Plane

A horizontal cut down the center of the divides the structure into defined superior and inferior portions.

Hydrogen

A hydrogen bond is a type of attractive interaction between an electro-negative atom and a hydrogen atom bonded to another electro-negative atom. This bond always involves a hydrogen atom. Hydrogen bonds can occur between molecules or within parts of a single molecule. A hydrogen bond tends to be weaker than covalent bonds or ionic bonds. Ex. H20 Hydrogen bonds between water molecules give this compound water cohesion. Cohesion is the tendency of like particles to stay together. Hydrogen bonds create surface tension. Surface tension is a measure of the difficulty of stretching or breaking the surface of a liquid.

What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum?

A membranous network of channels and tubules with muscle fiber, houses Ca 2+, part of muscle fibers.

Proton

A positively charged particle that resides within the atomic nucleus. The number of protons in the atomic nucleus is what determines the atomic number of an element, as outlined in the periodic table of the elements. Proton = 1.007 daltons

Mesenchyme CT

A primitive connective tissue composed of: ground substance, sparse collagen fibers, reticular fibers and mesenchyme cells. Function: secretion of ground substance, fibers, proliferation and differentiation into different connective tissue cell types, smooth muscle cells, blood cells, et al.

How is a muscle cell formed?

A satellite cell attaches to a myoblast and fuses into a skeletal muscle fiber.

Glandular Epithelium

A single cell or a mass of epithelial cells adapted for secretion.

What is a sarcolemma (myolemma) ?

A specialized cell membrane which surrounds striated muscle fiber cells. Is similar to a typical plasma membrane but has specialized functions for the muscle cell. The sarcolemma also contains an extracellular matrix consisting of various polysaccharides which allows the cell to anchor into the tissues that build and support muscle fibers. Typically, the sarcolemma connects the basement membrane which surrounds all connective tissues, or to other muscle cells, creating a very strong fiber which can contract together.

Electron

A stable subatomic particle with a charge of negative electricity, found in all atoms and acting as the primary carrier of electricity in solids. Electron = 0.0005 daltons

Neutron

A subatomic particle of about the same mass as a proton but without an electric charge, present in all atomic nuclei except those of ordinary hydrogen. Neutron = 1.008 daltons

Compound

A substance that can be broken down into 2 or more different elements

Element

A substance that cannot be broken down by chemical or physical means. Although these substances aren't changed by chemical reactions, new ones may be formed by nuclear reactions.

Lipids

A substance that is soluble in non-polar solvents. The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, and acting as structural components of cell membranes. Fatty Acids, Triglycerides, Phospholipids and Steroids.

Midsagittal Plane

A vertical cut down the center of a structure that divides the structure into EQUAL left and right sides.

Parasagittal Plane

A vertical cut down the center of a structure that divides the structure into UNEVEN left and right sides.

Frontal Plane (Coronal)

A vertical cut down the center of a structure that divides the structure into defined anterior and posterior sides.

Sagittal Plane

A vertical cut down the center of a structure that divides the structure into left and right sides.

Bases

AKA Proton Acceptors Bases are compounds which yield hydroxide ion (OH-), when dissolved in water. Bases are bitter to taste and corrosive in nature. They feel slippery and soapy. Bases are good conductor of electricity and show a pH value of more than 7. Bases react with oils and grease to form soap molecules. A reaction between a base and a metal is similar as for acid to form salt and release hydrogen gas. But this reaction can only occur when a metal is strong enough to displace another metal from its parent constituent.

Acids

AKA Proton Donor Acid is a compound which yields hydrogen ion (H+), when dissolved in water. Acid is sour to the taste and corrosive in nature. The pH value for acids is less than 7. Generally, all acids readily react with metal to release hydrogen gas. Ex. metal zinc reacts with HCl acid to form zinc chloride and hydrogen gas. Acids can be classified into organic and inorganic acids. Acetic acid (CH3COOH) is the best example of organic acid, and acids produced from minerals are termed as inorganic acids like sulfuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid (HCl), etc.

Pinocytosis (Drinker)

AKA cell expelling, fluid endocytosis, and bulk-phase pinocytosis, is a mode of endocytosis in which small particles are brought out to the mitochondria and then expelled from the cell, forming an invagination, and then suspended within a small vesicle. These pinocytotic vesicles subsequently fuse with lysosomes to hydrolyze (break down) the particles. This process requires energy in the form of (ATP), the chemical compound mostly used as energy in the majority of animal cells.

Cytosol

AKA the intracellular fluid portion of the cytoplasm.

Inferior (Caudal)

Away from head; lower part of exam.

Deep

Away from the surface of the body, inferior to superficial layers.

Proteasomes

Barrel-shaped structures that destroy unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins by cutting long proteins into smaller peptides.

What is a sarcomere?

Basic functional unit of muscle fiber; array of thick and thin filaments between two Z disks.

Intermediate

Between 2 structures.

Nucleic Acids

Building blocks of DNA and RNA, and genetic coding material.

How is muscular tissue categorized?

By it's shape, number of nuclei and the mechanism of stimulation.

How are epithelial tissue cells classified?

By shape of the cells and how many layers thick they are.

Biologically Important Compounds

Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acids

Four Most Abundant Elements in the Human Body

Carbon Oxygen Hydrogen Nitrogen

Creatine Phosphate

Catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from CP --> ADP to rapidly yield ATP, and last as energy for 15 seconds.

Columnar

Cell has a rectangular shape with an oval-shaped nucleus near the basal surface.

Cuboidal

Cell is "cube shaped", with a round, centrally located nucleus.

Squamous

Cell is very "squashed" and has a flattened, centrally located nucleus.

Mediastinum

Central portion of the thoracic cavity between the lungs; extends from sternum to vertebral column and from 1st rib to diaphragm; contains heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea and several large blood vessels.

Atom

Chemical elements that are composed of units of matter of the same type. They are the smallest units of matter that retain the properties and characteristics of an element.

Thoracic Cavity

Chest cavity: contains the pleural and pericardial cavities and mediastinum.

What is the most prevalent protein in the body?

Collagen

Ribsome

Composed of 2 sub-units containing ribsomal RNA and proteins; may be free in cytosol or attached to Rough ER. Conducts protein synthesis.

Mucous CT

Composed of ground substance, rich in hialuronic acid, collagen fibers, mucocytes (fibroblasts); found in the umbilical cord. Function: secretion of ground substance, fibers.

Multicellular

Composed of many cells that form a distinctive microscopic structure or macroscopic organ. Ex. sweat glands, oil glands, salivary glands

Cranial Cavity

Composed of the cranium bones and houses the brain.

Vertebral Canal

Composed of the the vertebral column and houses the spinal cord and the beginnings of the spinal nerves.

Reticular Fibers

Composed of thin strands of collagen fibers with a glycoprotein coating. These fibers branch out and create net-like structures within the body. Can be found on many organs of the body such as the lymph nodes, thymus, spleen and bone marrow. The least common type of connective tissue fiber in the body.

Electrochemical Gradient

Concentration Gradient + Electrical Gradient

Homeostasis

Condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body's internal environment, maintained by the body's regulatory processes & generally involves a feedback system, either negative feedback or positive feedback.

Connective Tissue

Consists of (2) basic elements: Cells and Extracellular matrix This tissue does not have any free surfaces. Is highly vascularized and has a nerve supply. Exceptions: tendons and cartilage.

Muscle Tissue

Consists of fibers that provide motion, maintain posture, and produce heat.

Pelvic Cavity

Contains urinary bladder, portions of large intestine, and internal organs of reproduction.

What are the three categorical types of muscle proteins?

Contractile, Regulatory and Structural.

Epithelial Tissue

Covers the external surfaces of the body, the internal and external surfaces of organs and forms the secretory components of glands and lines the body's cavities. Cells are arranged in sheets and are densely packed. Many cell junctions are present. Always attach to a basement membrane. Are avascular but do have a nerve supply. Mitosis occurs frequently here.

Desmosomes

Created when transmembrane proteins, anchored to a dense plaque of proteins inside the cells, connect the adjacent cell membranes together. Intermediate microfilaments extend from the plaque into the cytosol of each cell. These junctions help provide stability to tissues and are abundantly found in the epidermis of the skin and between the muscle cells of the heart.

Adherens Junctions

Created when transmembrane proteins, anchored to a dense plaque of proteins inside the cells, connect the adjacent cell membranes together. Microfilaments extend from the plaque into the cytosol of each cell. The dense adhesion belts help resist separation of epithelial tissue.

DNA

DNA: forms the genetic code in the nuclei of body cells and it regulates most of the cell's activities. Adenine=Thymine; Cytosine=Guanine Composed of 2 strands (Double Helix)

What is fascia?

Dense connective tissue covering an entire muscle, continuation of tendon.

What are the properties of muscle tissue?

Electrical excitability, contractility, extensibility and elasticity.

Which layer of protection covers a muscle fiber?

Endomysium.

Active Transport: Primary

Energy derived from ATP changes the shape of a transporter protein which pumps a substance across a plasma membrane against its concentration gradient.

Passive Transport: Secondary

Energy stored (in a hydrogen or sodium concentration gradient) is used to drive other substances against their own concentration gradients.

What are the two types of membranes called?

Epithelial Membranes: -Mucous (Embryonic) -Serous (Body Cavities and Mediastinum) -Cutaneous (Skin) Synovial Membranes (Joints)

Apical Surface

Exposed to either the external environment, a body cavity or the inner surface of a hollow organ.

Distal

Farther from the attachment of a limb to a trunk; farther from the origination of a structure.

Connective Tissue Fibers

Fibers in the extracellular matrix provide strength and support to a tissue.

Elastic Fibers

Fibers made out of the protein elastin. The fibers are wavy and extend branches off each fiber. The fibers are strong and very flexible, returning to their original size after being stretched. Elastic cartilage is made out of these fibers and is found in the external flap of the ear, the epiglottis, and the tip of the nose.

Explain the level of organization in a muscle cell from the least to the greatest.

Filament, Myofibril, Muscle Fiber, Fasicle, and Skeletal Muscle.

Microvilli

Finger-like extensions of the apical cytoplasm and plasma membrane, increase the surface area for absorption.

What is a membrane?

Flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line a part of the body. 2 types of membranes Epithelial membranes Mucous membranes Serous membranes Cutaneous membranes Synovial membranes

Plasma Membrane

Flexible yet sturdy barrier that surrounds and contains the cytoplasm of the cell. Made up of 2 Membrane proteins: Integral AKA transmembrane proteins & Peripheral proteins

Salts

Form by the combination of acid and base through neutralization reaction.

Endocytosis

Form of active transport in which a cell transports molecules (such as proteins) into the cell by engulfing them in an energy-using process. Endocytosis and its counterpart, exocytosis, are used by all cells because most chemical substances important to them are large polar molecules that cannot pass through the hydrophobic plasma or cell membrane by passive means.

Ionic

Form when one atom gives up 1+ electrons to another atom. These bonds can form between a pair of atoms or between molecules and are the type of bond found in salts. Ex. Na --> Cl, form Sodium Chloride

Proteins

Formed by combining various amino acids. Give structure to the body, regulate processes, provide protection, assist in muscle contraction, transport substances, and serve as enzymes. Structural Regulatory Contractile Immunological Transport Catalytic

Z Discs

Found at both ends of sarcomere; sarcomere extends from one of these to the other, where two sarcomeres join each other.

Where is cardiac muscle found?

Found in the wall of the heart in a layer, called the myocardium.

Where is smooth muscle found?

Found within the wall of hollow organs such as the digestive, urinary, respiratory and reproductive tracts, in blood vessels, iris and muscles of the eye, genitals and the arrector pili muscles associated with hair follicles in the skin.

Tissues

Group of cells that usually have a common embryonic origin in an embryo and function together to carry out specialized activities.

RNA

Guides protein formation. Adenine+Uracil; Cytosine=Guanaine Composed of 1 strand

Thin Filaments

Held by direct attachment to Z lines, consist of double strands of actin twisted into a helix. Ex. Actin

Planes

Imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body into sections.

Phospholipids

Important component of cell membranes.

Passive Transport: Simple Diffusion

Influenced by: Steepness of the concentration gradient Temperature Mass of diffusion substance Surface area Diffusion distance

Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix

Located in the spaces between connective tissue cells, and is composed of fibers and ground substance.

Collagen Fibers

Long, straight and un-branched fibers. They are the most common type of fiber found in the body and are both strong and flexible. In tendons and ligaments, collagen fibers are parallel to one another, providing tensile strength along the direction of stress.

What are the five types of Mature CT?

Loose, Dense, Cartilage, Blood and Bone.

Phagocytosis (Big Eater)

Meaning "to devour". Process by which a cell—often a phagocyte or a protist—engulfs a solid particle to form an internal compartment known as a phagosome. It is distinct from other forms of endocytosis like pinocytosis that involves the internalization of extracellular liquids. Phagocytosis is involved in the acquisition of nutrients for some cells. The process is homologous to eating at the level of single-celled organisms; in multicellular animals, the process has been adapted to eliminate debris and pathogens, as opposed to taking in fuel for cellular processes.

Exocytosis

Membrane-enclosed secretory vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents into the extracellular fluid.

Membrane Fluidity

Membranes are fluid structures because most of the membrane lipids and many of the membrane proteins move easily in the bi-layer. Membrane lipids and proteins are mobile in their own half of the bi-layer. Ex. Cholesterol serves to stabilize the membrane and reduce membrane fluidity.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

Membranous network of flattened sacs or tubules covered by ribosomes. Sythesizes glycoproteins and phospholipids that are transferred to cellular organelles, inserted into the plasma membrane or secreted during exocytosis.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

Membranous network of flattened sacs or tubules not covered by ribosomes. Synthesizes fatty acids and steroids, inactivates or detoxifies drugs, stores and releases calcium ions in muscle cells.

What are the two types of Embryonic CT?

Mesenchyme and Mucous CT

Water (H20)

Most important and abundant inorganic compound in all living things. H20 can become: -A solvent -A polar molecule -A lubricant -A thermal conductor High heat capacity (specific heat) - the amount of heat one gram of a substance must absorb or lose to change its temperature by one degree Celsius. High heat of vaporization - the energy required to convert one gram of a liquid--> gas. -A medium In a hydrolysis reaction, water is added to break bonds. In a dehydration synthesis reaction, water is removed to make bonds.

Cilia & Flagella

Motile cell surface projections that contain 20 microtubules and a basal body. Cilia: Move fluids over cell's surface Flagella: Move entire cell

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Multi-nucleated and striated. Muscular contractions are voluntary. Move skeletal bones, face, pharynx, larynx and diaphragm. Helps maintain posture and generate heat.

Transitional

Multiple layers of cells that vary in shape. Basal cells may either be cuboidal or columnar. Apical cells may either be squamous if stretched, or cuboidal if relaxed.

Stratified

Multiple layers of cells, nuclei are stacked on top of each other. Only the basal layer is in contact with the basement membrane.

How does skeletal muscle attach to bones?

Muscle-Tendon-Bone.

Sliding Filament Mechanism (SFM)

Myosin pulls on actin, causing the thin filament to slide inward. Consequently, Z discs move toward each other and the sarcomere shortens. Thanks to the structural proteins, there is a transmission of force throughout the entire muscle, resulting in whole muscle contraction.

Proximal

Nearer to the attachment of a limb to a trunk; closer to the origination of a structure.

Medial

Nearer to the mid-line; imaginary line that separates body into equal left and right portions.

Cytoskeleton

Network in the cytoplasm that is composed of 3 protein filaments: microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules. Maintains shape and organization of cellular contents; responsible for cell movements.

Thick Filaments

Not attached to z lines, made of long myosin molecules, gives muscle striated look, consists of cross-bridges. Ex. Myosin

Homeostatic Imbalances

Occur because of disruptions from the external or internal environments.

Negative Feedback System

Occurs when a change in some variable causes a reaction which decreases that change - e.g. temperature control in the body.

Positive Feedback

Occurs when a change in some variable causes a reaction which increases that change - e.g. uterine contractions in childbirth.

Chemical Bonds

Occurs when atoms are held together by forces of attraction. The number of electrons in the valence shell determines the likelihood that an atom will form a chemical bond with another atom.

Reticular Lamina

On the connective tissue side of the membrane and contains protein fibers.

Basal Lamina

On the epithelial side of the membrane and contains collagen fibers.

Pseudostratified

One central layer of cells, but because of the uneven positioning of the nuclei, the structure looks stratified.

Simple

One central layer, nuclei are located uniform in position of cell, all cells have contact with the basement membrane.

Unicellular

One single cell. Ex. Goblet cells

Contralateral

Opposite sides of the body.

Golgi Complex

Packages proteins into membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell before the vesicles are sent to their destination. The Golgi apparatus resides at the intersection of the secretory, lysosomal, and endocytic pathways.

Centrosome

Pair of centrioles + pericentriolar matrix. Contains tubulins which are used for growth of the mitotic spindles and microtubule formation.

Which layer of protection covers a fasicle?

Perimysium.

Anatomical Position

Person stands erect, facing the observer, the upper extremities are places at the sides, the palms of the hands are turned forward, and the feet are flat on the floor.

Membrane Permeability

Plasma membranes are selectively permeable. The lipid bi-layer is always permeable to small, non-polar, uncharged molecules. Transmembrane proteins that act as channels or transporters increase the permeability of the membrane. Macromolecules are only able to pass through the plasma membrane by vesicular transport.

Cell Junctions

Points of contact between cells.

Pericardial Cavity

Potential space between the layers of the pericardium that surrounds the heart.

Pleural Cavity

Potential space between the layers of the pleura that surrounds a lung.

What are the functions of muscle tissue?

Producing body movements, stabilizing body positions, storing and mobilizing substances within the body, and generating heat.

Carbohydrates

Provide most of the energy needed for life.

Trigylcerides

Provide protection, insulation and energy storage.

Ipsilateral

Same side of body.

What is the cytoplasm of a muscle cell called?

Sarcoplasm.

Basement Membrane

Serves as a structural attachment site between the epithelium and the underlying connective tissue. Provides a guide for migration and growth of epithelial cells during development and tissue regeneration an repair. Acts as a filtration barrier to substances moving between the epithelium and the connective tissue.

Hemidesmosomes

Shares characteristics of desmosomes but looks like half of one. Provides strong attachments between cells and other extracellular materials such as the basement membrane of epithelial tissues. Found abundantly in tissues that undergo constant frictional or abrasive forces.

Disaccharides

Simple sugars formed by the combination of 2 monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis. Ex. Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose

Monosaccharides

Simple sugars that contain 3-7 carbon atoms Ex. Glucose, Fructose, Galactose, Ribose and Deoxyribose

What are the three types of muscle tissues?

Skeletal, Cardiac and Smooth Muscle.

Body Cavities

Spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support internal organs.

Peroxisomes

Structures that are similar in shape to lysosomes, but are smaller and contain enzymes that use oxygen to oxidize (break down) organic substances.

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities.

Retroperitoneal

The classification some organs are given because they are not surrounded by the peritoneum, rather, they are posterior to it.

Electrical Gradient

The difference in concentration of ions between one side of the plasma membrane and the other.

Concentration Gradient

The difference in the concentration of a chemical between one side of the plasma membrane and the other.

Passive Transport: Osmosis

The net movement of a solvent through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Atomic Number (Proton Number)

The number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom. It is identical to the charge number of the nucleus. The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element. In an uncharged atom, the atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons.

Types of Serous Membranes in the Thoracic Cavity

The pericardium and pleura cover the heart and lungs, respectively.

What is the Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ)?

The place where a motor neuron stimulates a muscle cell.

Exocrine Glands

The secretions of these glands enter ducts that empty onto the surface of a covering/lining epithelium such as the skin surface or the lumen of the stomach.

Endocrine Glands

The secretions of these glands enter the interstitial fluid via diffusion into the bloodstream. Help regulate many physiological processes that regulate homeostasis.

Peritoneum

The serous membrane of the abdominal cavity.

Organelles

The specialized structures that have specific shapes and perform specific functions.

Atomic Mass

The sum of the masses of protons and neutrons in an atom(s).

Extracellular Fluid

The survival of our body cells is dependent on the precise regulation of the chemical composition of their surrounding fluid.

Lysosomes

They are membrane-bound, spherical vesicles which contain hydrolytic enzymes that can break down many kinds of biomolecules. Besides degradation of polymers, the lysosome is involved in various cell processes, including secretion, plasma membrane repair, cell signaling, and energy metabolism. The lysosomes also act as the waste disposal system of the cell by digesting unwanted materials in the cytoplasm, both from outside the cell and obsolete components inside the cell. Material from outside the cell is taken-up through endocytosis, while material from the inside of the cell is digested through autophagy.

Serous Membrane

Thin, double-layered membranes that cover the viscera within the thoracic and abdominal cavities and also line the walls of the thorax and abdomen. Include both the Visceral layer (organ covering) and the Parietal layer (outermost covering). Serous membranes also reduce friction.

Name the structural proteins.

Titin, Nebulin, Alpha-Actin, Myomesin and Dystrophin.

Superior (Cephalic or Cranial)

Toward head; upper part of structure.

Posterior (Dorsal)

Toward the back.

Anterior (Ventral)

Towards the front.

Passive Transport: Facilitated Diffusion

Transmembrane proteins help solutes that are too polar or too highly charged move through the lipid bilayer. The processes involved are: Channel mediated facilitated diffusion Carrier mediated facilitated diffusion

Active and Passive Transport

Transport processes that move substances across the cell membrane.

Name the regulatory proteins.

Troponin and Tropomyosin.

Smooth Muscle Tissue

Type of muscle tissue whose contractions are involuntary and can cause organ movement; have one nucleus and are not striated.

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Type of muscle tissue whose contractions are involuntary, have one nucleus, are striated and have intercalated discs. These muscular contractions pump blood to the heart and associated blood vessels.

Cellular Respiration

Under aerobic conditions, pyruvic acid can enter the mitochondria and undergo a series of oxygen-requiring reactions to generate large amounts of ATP and lasts as an energy source from minutes to several hours.

Directional Terms

Used to precisely locate one part of the body relative to another.

Fatty Acids

Used to synthesize triglycerides and phospholipids, or to be catabolized to generate ATP. Can be saturated (straight formation) or unsaturated (straight then bent formation).

How do muscles derive the ATP necessary to power the contraction cycle?

Via creatine phosphate, anaerobic glycolysis, and cellular respiration.

Anaerobic Glycolosis

When CP stores are depleted, glucose is converted into pyruvic acid to generate ATP and lasts as energy for 2 minutes.