Anatomy Chapter 1, 2, 4, 5 Study Guide
What are the layers of the epidermis?
Stratum basale (lowest) Stratum spinosum - spiny layer Stratum granulosum - consists of a few layers of keratinocytes Stratum lucidum - occurs only in thick skin (palms and soles) Stratum corneum (highest)
What is the hierarchy of Structural Organization?
1) Chemical Level - Atoms form molecules 2) Cellular Level - Cells and their functional subunits 3) Tissue Level - A group of cells performing a common function 4) Organ Level - A discrete structure made up of more than one tissue 5) Organ System Level - Organs working together for a common purpose 6) Organismal Level - The result of all simpler levels working in unison
Describe muscle tissue
Most muscle cells are called muscle fibers Contain myofilaments Myofilaments contain actin and myosin Three types are skeletal muscle tissue Cardiac muscle tissue Smooth muscle tissue
What are the cells located in the epidermis?
Composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium Keratinocytes - most abundant cell type in epidermis, arises from deepest layer Melanocytes - secrete pigment Tactile epithelial cells - attach to sensory nerves Dendritic cells - immune system
What are the four basic tissue types?
Connective tissue - support Muscle tissue - movement Epithelial tissue - covering Nervous tissue - control
Stratified Epithelia
Contains two or more layers of cells, regenerate from below, major role is protection
List the body cavities.
Dorsal Body cavity - Cranial Cavity - Vertebral Cavity Ventral Body Cavity - Thoracic Cavity : divided into three parts - Abdominopelivc Cavity: Divided into two parts
Elastic connective tissue
Elastic fibers predominate Allows recoil after stretching Within walls of arteries, surrounding bronchial tubes
Characteristics of connective tissue
Few cells, abundant extracellular matrix, extracellular matrix composed of ground substance and fibers.
List and describe each type of cell.
Fibroblast - makes and secretes protein component of fibers Erythrocyte - Concave shape provides surface area for uptake of the respiratory gases Epithelial cell - hexagonal shape allows maximum number of epithelial cells to pack together Skeletal and smooth muscle cells - elongated and filled with actin and myosin, contract forcefully Fat cell - store nutrients, shape is produced by large fat droplet in cytoplasm Macrophage - cells that fight disease, moves through tissue to reach infection sites Neuron - cells that gather information, has long processes for receiving and transmitting messages Sperm (Male) - possesses long tail for swimming to the egg for fertilization
What are the different types, classes functions and locations of connective tissue and their cells
Fibroblasts - in connective tissue proper, make protein subunits Chondroblasts - secrete matrix in cartilage Osteoblasts - secrete matrix in bone Collagenfibers - strongest, resist tension Reticular Fibers - bundles of special type of cartilage Elastic Fibers - contain elastin, recoil after stretching
Describe cartilage
Firm but flexible tissue, contains no blood vessels or nerves, matrix contains up to 80% water, chondrocyte is the cell type
List and briefly describe the body planes/sections.
Frontal (Coronal) Plane - Vertical Plane - Divides body into anterior and posterior parts Transverse Plane - Horizontal - Divides body into Superior and inferior parts Sagittal Planes - Vertical - Divides body into right and left parts
Areolar loose connective
Gel like matrix with all three fibers Fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells,and white blood cells Wraps and cushions organs, holds and conveys tissue fluid, important in inflammation Widely distributed under epithelia, packages organs
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
Generally two layers of cube-shaped cells Protection Forms ducts of mammary glands, salivary glands, largest sweat glands
What are the different glands and function
Glands are structure that secrete substances onto a surface, into a cavity, or into blood Endocrine gland - ductless glands that secrete directly into surrounding tissue, produces hormones Exocrine glands - have ducts that carry product of exocrine glands to epithelial surface (sweat and salivary glands)
What are the subdiciplines of Anatomy?
Gross anatomy - Regional Anatomy - Systemic Anatomy Surface Anatomy Microscopic Anatomy (Histology) Embryology Pathological Anatomy (pathology)
What are chromosomes and its function?
Highest level of organization of chromatin. DNA plus the proteins form chromatin, made up of two threads called chromatids (sister chromatids)
Hyaline Cartilage
Collagen fibers, imperceptible (hyaline = glassy) Resilient cushion, resists repetitive stress Fetal skeleton, ends of long bones
Elastic Cartilage
Similar to hyaline, more elastic fibers in matrix Maintains shape of structure, allows great flexibility External ear and epiglottis (in throat)
List and describe each organelle.
1) Cytoplasm - lies internal to plasma membrane, consists of all organelles 2) Ribosomes - constructed of proteins and ribosomal RNA; not surrounded by a membrane. Site of protein synthesis. "Assembly lines". Free ribosomes function within the cytosol. 3) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - system of membrane-walled envelopes and tubes where ribosomes stud the external surfaces 4) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - system of membrane-walled envelopes and tubes. Consists of tubules in branching network, no ribosomes attached. 5) Golgi Apparatus - a stack of 3-10 disc-shaped envelopes, sorts produce of rough ER and sends them to destination (Packaging and shipping center) 6) Lysosomes - membrane-walled sacs containing digestive enzymes, digest unwanted substances, "Demolition Crew" 7) Mitochondria - surrounded by double-walled membrane. Powerplant of cell, generates most of the cells ATP. Most complex organism 8) Peroxisomes - membrane-walled sacs of oxidase enzymes, Neutralize free radicals and break down potions, Are numerous in liver and kidneys 9) Nucleus - "Control center" of the cell, contains DNA which is genetic material of cell
List and describe the human organ systems.
1) Integumentary System (Hair, Skin, Nails) - Forms external body covering, Protects deeper tissues for injury, Synthesizes vitamin D, Site of cutaneous receptors (pain pressure, etc.) 2) Skeletal System - Protects and supports body organs, Provides a framework for muscles, Blood cells formed within bones, stores minerals 3) Muscular System - Allows manipulation of environment, Locomotion, Facial Expression, Maintains Posture, produces heat. 4) Nervous System - Fast-acting control system, responds to internal and external changes 5) Endocrine System - Glands secrete hormones that regulate: growth, reproduction, nutrient use 6) Cardiovascular System - Blood vessels transport blood (Blood carries oxygen and carbon dioxide, also carries nutrients and waste), Heart pumps blood through blood vessels 7) Lymphatic System/Immunity - Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels, Disposes of debris in the lymphatic system, Houses white blood cells (Lymphocytes), Mounts attack against foreign substances in the body 8) Respiratory System - Keeps blood supplied with oxygen, Removes carbon dioxide, Gas exchange occurs through walls of air sacs in the lungs 9) Digestive System - breaks down food into absorbable units, Indigestible foodstuffs eliminated as feces 10) Urinary System - Eliminates nitrogenous wastes, Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base (PH) balance 11) Male and Female reproductive systems - Overall function is to produce offspring, Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormone, Mammary glands produce milk
What is cell aging?
A complex process caused by a variety of factors Free radical theory - damage from by-products of cellular metabolism, radicals build up and damage essential molecules of cells Mitochondrial Theory - a decrease in production of energy by mitochondria weakens and ages our cells Genetic Theory - proposes that aging is programmed by genes, Telomeres "end caps" on chromosomes, Telomerase prevents telomeres from degrading
Dense irregular connective tissue
Collagen fibers are thick and irregularly arranged Withstand tension, provide structural strength Dermis of skin, capsules surrounding organs
What is surface anatomy and what organs are found in each quadrant?
Abdominal Quadrants - Divide the abdomen into four quadrants - Right upper and left upper quadrants - Right lower and left lower quadrant Right upper: Gallbladder and liver Left upper: Spleen Right lower: Appendix, ovary Left lower: Sigmoid Colon, ovary
Explain tissue injury and repair. What is inflammation and edema, what are the steps to repair tissue
Acute inflammation - heat, redness, swelling, pain, loss of function Edema - accumulation of fluid - helps dilute toxins secreted by bacteria, brings oxygen and nutrient from blood, brings antibodies from blood to fight infection With increasing age the epithelia thins, collagen decreases, other tissues being to atrophy
Pseudo stratified Columnar Epithelium
All cells contact basement membrane, only tall cells reach the apical surface, may contain goblet cells and cilia Secretion of mucus, propulsion of mucus by cilia Lines trachea and most of upper respiratory tract
List and Describe the regional terms.
Axial Region - Axis of body: Head, neck, trunk and back Appendicular Region - Appendages: Upper limb and lower limb
Describe bone tissue
Bone matrix contains inorganic calcium salts Osteoblasts - secrete collagen fibers and ground substance of the matrix Osteocytes - mature bone cells in lacunae, well vascularized Supports and protects organs, provides levers and attachment site for muscles, store calcium Spongy and compact
Cardiac muscle tissue
Branching cells, striated, generally uninucleate, cells connect at intercalated discs Contacts to propel blood into circulatory system Occurs in walls of heart
Explain what burns, cancer and aging are.
Burns are classified by severity First degree burn - only upper epidermis is damaged Second degree burn - upper part of dermis is also damaged (blisters appear) Third degree burn - Damages entire thickness of skin (epidermis and dermis) including nerve endings. Appears white, red, or blackened Skin cancer - caused by uv light exposure, most common cancer Basal cell carcinoma - least malignant and most common Squamous cell carcinoma - arises from keratinocytes Melanoma - cancer of melanocytes, most dangerous type of skin cancer, can metastasize
Types of cell junctions
Cell junctions are factors binding epithelial cells together Tight junctions - close off intercellular space, found in apical region of most epithelial tissues, impenetrable Adhesive belt junctions - anchoring junction, transmembrane linker protein attach to actin microfilaments of the cytoskeleton Desmosomes - main junctions for binding cells together. Scattered along sides of adjacent cells, are common in cardiac muscle and epithelial tissue Gap Junctions - Passageway between two adjacent cells, these let small molecules move directly between neighboring cell, connected by hollow cylinders of protein
What are the characteristics of epithelial tissues?
Cellularity - cells serrated by minimal extracellular matrix material Specialized contacts - cells joined by special junctions Basement membrane - connective tissue layer that epithelial cells sit on Polarity - cell regions of the apical surface differ from the basal surface Avascular but innervated - epithelia receive nutrients from underlying connective tissue Regeneration - lost cells are quickly replaced by cell division of cells closest the basement membrane
Transitional Epithelium
Characteristics of stratified cuboidal and squamous Permits dissension of urinary organs when filled with urine Urinary bladder
Adipose loose connective tissue
Closely packed adipocytes (fat cells), have nucleus pushed to one side by fat dropped Provides reserve food fuel, insulates against heat loss Under skin (subcutaneous fat), around kidneys
Dense regular connective tissue
Collagen fibers are parallel to the direction of pull, great tensile strength, poorly vascularized Attaches muscle to bone (tendon) Attaches bone to bone (Ligament) Tendons and ligaments
List and describe each state of the cell cycle and cell division?
Interphase G1 - Primary growth phase, first part, cell metabolically active, make proteins S (Synthetic Phase) - DNA replicates itself G2 - Centrioles duplicate, growth continues, enzymes for cell division are synthesized Prophase - first and longest stage of mitosis, early prophase the chromatin threads condense into chromosomes, nuclear membrane fragments Metaphase - the second stage of mitosis, chromosomes cluster at the middle of the cell, centromeres are aligned along the equator Anaphase - the third and shortest stage of mitosis, centromeres of chromosomes split, sister chromatids move away from each other Telophase - begins as chromosomal movement stops, chromosomes at opposite poles of the cell uncoil Cytokinesis - completes the division of the cell into two daughter cells
What is anatomical position?
It is a common visual reference point. - Person stands erect with feet together and eyes forward - Palms face anteriorly with thumbs pointed away from the body
Skeletal muscle tissue
Long, cylindrical cells Multinucleate Striated Voluntary movement, manipulation of movement, facial expression Attached to bone
List the types
Loose connective tissue - include areolar, adipose, and reticular Dense connective tissue - dense irregular, dense regular, and elastic
List the types, location, structure, and function of nervous tissue.
Main components are brain, spinal cord, and nerves Contains two types of cells Neurons - generate and conduct nerve impulses Neuroglia - supporting cells that nourish, insulate, and protect neurons Transmits electrical signals between cells Sensory information (input) Motor movement (output) Located in brain, spinal cord, nerves
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Many layers of cells are squamous in shape, deeper layers of cells appear cuboidal or columnar, thickest layer Keratinized Located in epidermis Contain the protective protein keratin, water proof Nonkeratinized forms moist lining of body openings Protects underlying tissues in areas subject to abrasion
Fibrocartilage
Matrix similar but less firm than hyaline, thick collagen fibers predominate Tensile strength and ability to absorb compressive shock Intervertebral discs, public symphysis, discs of knew joint
List and describe the appendages.
Nails - scalelike modifications of epidermis, made of hard kertain Hair - flexible strand of dead, keratinized cells - Root: embedded in the skin (dermis) - Shaft: projects above skins surface - Hair has three layers which include medulla (central core), Cortex (surrounds medulla), Cuticle (outermost layer) Hair follicles - extend from epidermis into dermis Hair bulb - deep, expanded end of the hair follicle Root plexus - knot of sensory nerves around hair bulb Arrector Pili - smooth muscle, hair stands erect when this muscle contracts
Reticular loose connective tissue
Network of reticular fibers in loose ground substance Supports other cell types in scaffolding Lymph nodes, bone marrow, and spleen
Functions of the Integument
Protection - cushions organs and protects from bumps, chemicals, water loss, and UV Body temperature regulation- capillary network and sweat glands regulate heat loss Excretion - urea, salts, and water lost through sweat Production of vitamin D - epidermal cells use UV radiation to synthesize Vitamin D Sensory Reception - contains sense organs associated with nerve endings
Describe blood tissue
Red and white blood cells in a fluid matrix Transport of respiratory gases, nutrient, and wastes Located within blood vessels
Describe the dermis
Second major region of the skin Strong, flexible connective tissue Richly supplied with blood vessels Papillary dermis - includes dermal papillae Reticular dermis - deeper layer, 80% of thickness of dermis
Stratified Columnar Epithelium
Several layers, basal cells usually cuboidal, superficial cells elongated Protection and secretion Rare tissue found in male urethra
List and describe each type of transport.
Simple diffusion - tendency of molecule to move down their concentration gradient - lipid soluble molecules - small molecules (O2, CO2) Osmosis - Diffusion of water molecules across a membrane Membrane Transport - proteins act as channels to allow particles to pass into/out of the cell Facilitated Diffusion - movement of molecules down their concentration gradient through an integral protein that acts as a channel Active Transport - intergral proteins move molecules across the plasma membrane against their concentration gradient, takes energy (ATP) Endocytosis - mechanism by which particles enter cells - Phagocytosis: cell eating - Pinocytosis: cell drinking Receptor Mediated Endocytosis - Plasma proteins bind to certain molecules - Invaginates and forms a coated pit - Pinches off to become a coated vesicle - This is the method by which insulin, other hormones, enzymes Exocytosis - a mechanism that moves substances out of the cell - Substances in enclosed in a vesicle - The vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane
Types epithelial tissue.
Simple epithelia - single layer of cells attached to basement membrane Stratified Epithelia - multiple layers of cells, basal layer of cells attached to basement membrane Squamous - felt cells, wider than tall Cuboidal - square cells, as wide as tall, like cubes Columnar - rectangular cells, taller than they are wide, like columns
Simple cuboidal Epithelium
Single layer cubelike cells with large, spherical central nuclei Secretion and absorption Kidney tubules, secretory portions of small glands
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Single layer of column shaped cells with oval nuclei Some have cilia on apical surface May contain goblet cells Absorption, secretion of mucus Non ciliated: Lines digestive tract, gallbladder Ciliated: Lines small bronchi and uterus
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Single layer, flat cells with disc shaped nuclei Passage of materials by passive diffusion and filtration Alveoli of lungs and lining of heart
What is skin pigmentation?
Skin color is determined by pigments (melanin, carotene, hemoglobin), genetics, blood circulation, and thickness of stratum cornuem Melanocytes of darker skinned people produce more and dark melanin than fairer skinned people
Smooth muscle tissue
Spindle shaped cells with central nuclei, no striations Propels substances along internal passageways Involuntary control Located in walls of hollow organs
What is the structure of the and plasma membrane.
The outer boundary, protects cells from external environment. Separates the intracellular fluid within the cell from the extracellular fluid outside Membrane is selectively permeable Some proteins act as receptors (determine what enters or leaves the cell) Structure Of Membrane Fluid Mosaic Model (Phospholipid bilayer) Type of membrane proteins - Integral Proteins - firmly imbedded in, or attached to lipid bilayer - Short chains of carbohydrates attached to integral proteins(Form the glycocalyx) Peripheral Proteins - attached to inner membrane surface - support plasma membrane from the cytoplasm side
List and describe the type of clinical imaging.
X-ray - Electromagnetic waves of very short length - Best for visualizing bones and abnormal dense structures Computed (Axial) Tomography (CT or CAT scan) - Takes successive X rays around a persons full circumference - Computer translates recorded information into a detailed picture of the body section "Advanced" Angiography - Injected contrast medium highlights vessel structure Positron emission tomography (PET) - forms images by detecting radioactive isotopes injected into the body that label cells that are rapidly dividing Sonography (ultrasound imaging) Magnetic Resonance imaging (MRI)
