Anatomy Test #1

Describe how the two main types of cell extensions, cilia and microvilli, differ in structure and function

(1) Cilia-are whiplike, motile cellular extensions on the exposed surfaces of some cells (2) Microvilli-are fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane that increase surface area

Discuss the structure and function of ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the Golgi apparatus, including functional interrelationships among these organelles

(1) Ribosomes- craetes protein -Granules containing protein and rRNA -Site of protein synthesis -Free ribosomes synthesize soluble proteins -Membrane bound ribosomes synthesize proteins to be incorporated into membranes (2) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- transports and stores -Interconnected tubes and parallel membranes enclosing cristernae -Continuous with the nuclear membrane -Two varieties-Rough/Smooth ER Rough ER: synthesizes glycoproteins and phospholipids that are transferred to cellular organelles, inserted into plasma membrane, or secreted during exocytosis; smooth ER: synthesizes fatty acids and steroids, inactivates or detoxifies drugs, removes phosphate group from glucose-6-phosphate, and stores and releases calcium ions in muscle cells. (3) Golgi apparatus- synthesis, packages and releases concentrate proteins or lipids. -Stacked and flattened membrane sacs -Functions in modification, concentration, and packaging of proteins -Transport vessels from the ER fuse with the cis face of the Golgi apparatus to the trans face -Secretory vesicles-leave the trans face of the Golgi stack and move to designated parts of the cell

Indicate the embryonic region of each tissue class

(A) Embryonic and Fetal Development of Tissues (1) Primary germ layer formation is one of the first events of embryonic development (a) Ectoderm is the most superficial of the layers Nerve tissue arises from ectoderm (b) Mesoderm is the middle layer Muscle and connective tissues arise from mesoderm (c) Endoderm is the deepest layer Epithelial tissues arise from all three germ layers (2) The primary germ layers specialize to form the four primary tissues

Relate the anatomical names and the corresponding common names for various regions of the human body.

- Head (skull and face), neck(supports the head and attaches it to the trunk), trunk (chest, abdomen, pelvis), upper limbs (shoulder, armpit, arm, forearm, wrist, and hand), lower limbs (butt, thighs, leg, ankle, foot)

Describe differences between either a molecule or a compound and a solution or a mixture.

- Molecule- when 2 or more atoms share electrons - Compound- a substance that contains atoms of 2 or more different elements - a mixture is a unification of substances in which, if they are mixed up, their properties in physical terms would remain the same. - In a solution, the mixture of substances involves dissolving the substances into a new form of solution.

Compare and contrast polar and nonpolar compounds.

- Nonpolar covalent bond- when 2 atoms share the electrons equally- one does not attarct more strongly than the other - Polar covalent- Sharing of electrons is unequal- the nucleus of one atom attracts the shared electrons more strongly than the nucleus of the other. Greater electronegatuvity- the power to attract elecrtons on itself

Define membrane potential and explain how the resting membrane potential is established and maintained.

- The plasma membrane also creates a difference in the distribution of positively and negatively charged ions between the two sides of the plasma membrane. Typically, the inner surface of the plasma membrane is more negatively charged and the outer surface is more positively charged. A difference in electrical charges between two regions constitutes an electrical gradient. Because it occurs across the plasma membrane, this charge difference is termed the membrane potential. The concentration gradient and electrical gradient are important because they help move substances across the plasma membrane. In many cases a substance will move across a plasma membrane down its concentration gradient. That is to say, a substance will move "downhill," from where it is more concentrated to where it is less concentrated, to reach equilibrium. Similarly, a positively charged substance will tend to move toward a negatively charged area, and a negatively charged substance will tend to move toward a positively charged area.

Describe the role of tissue repair in restoring homeostasis

- Tissue repair is the replacement of worn-out, damaged, or dead cells. - New cells originate by cell division from the stroma, (STRŌ-ma-bed or covering), the supporting connective tissue, or from the parenchyma (pa-RENG-ki-ma), cells that constitute the functioning part of the tissue or organ. - stem cells may divide to replace lost or damaged cells - If the injury is supericial; tissue repair involves parenchymal regeneration ; if damage is extensive, granulation tissue is involved Good nutrition and blood circulation ar vital to tissue repair Tissue repair is the process that replaces worn out, damaged, or dead cells. Epithelial cells are replaced by the division of stem cells or undifferentiated cells Not all connective tissue cells have the ability to repair Muscle cells can perform limited repair Some nervous cells can perform limited repair, others cannot Fibrosis is the formation of scar tissue

Describe and compare the building blocks, general structures, and biological functions of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.

- relatively large and complex Organic Compounds- always contain a Carbon, usually a Hydrogen, and always have covalent bonds. ○ CARBOHYDRATES § Include sugares, glycogen, straches, and celluslose § Functions as a source of chemical energy for generating ATP needed to drive metabolic reactions § CHO □ Monosachharides ® Simple sugar ® Monomer ® Ose ® Cells throughout the body break down the hexose glucose to produce ATP □ Disacharides ® A molecule formed by 2 monosaccs by dehydration synthesis ® Glucose + fructose = sucrose ® Can be split by hydrolysos by addition of water □ Poly sachharides ® Contains hundreds of monsachhs joined through dehydration synthesiss ® Insoluble in water ® Not sweet ® EX: Glycogen (glucose monomers) in the lover and skeletal muscles ® Starches ® Hydrolysis reaction to break it down ◊ When the blood glucose level falls, lever cells break down glycogen into glucose and relase it into the blood, making it available to body cellsm which break it dowb to synthesize ATP ® Cellulose cnnot be digested, but helps eliminate feces LIPIDS § CHO § Fewer polar cov bonds § Most are insoluble in water- hydrophobic § Lipoproteins- soluble because the protins are on the outside and the lipids are on the inside § Fatty acids □ Simplest lipids □ Can be catabolized to generate ATP □ Saturated Fatty acid contains single cov bonds between the carbon attoms ® Eacg carbon atom ot the hydrocarbon chain is saturated with H atoms □ Unsatuarated Fatty Acid contains double cov bond ® The fatty acid is not completley saturated with H atoms ® It has a bend in it ® Monunstaurated- just one kink ® Polyunsaturated § Trigycerides (fats and oils) □ Most plentiful □ Highly concentrated form of chemical energy □ Containes 2 types of building blocks: a single gycerol and 3 fatty acid molecules □ A fat is solid at room temp □ Saturated fat- consits of saturated fatty acids ® Heart disease anf colorectal cancer □ Oil is a kiquid at room temp ® Mostly unsaturated ® Can either be monounsaturated(contain triglycerides that mostly consist of monounsat fatty acids) or polyunsaturated(Constits of polyunsaturated fatty acids). ◊ Decrease risk of heart disease, § Phospholipids (lipids that contain Phosphorus) □ Have a glycerol backbone and 2 fatty acid chains attached to the 1st 2 carbns □ Nitrogen to backbone- this part is polar and can mix with water □ Amphiphatic- molecukes that have both polar and nonpolar parts § Steriods (lipids that contain rings of carbon atoms) □ Have 4 rings of carbon atoms □ Sythesize from cholesterol, which has a large nonpolar region consisting of the 4 rings and a hydrocarbon tail □ Sterols ® EX: testosterone, estrogens, bile salts, vitamin D ® They also have at least 1 hydroxl group ® Make steroids a weak amphiphatic § Eicosanoids(20-carbon lipids) □ Arachidonic acid □ Postaglandins ® Modify responces to hormones, prevent stomach ulcers □ Leukotrienes ® Participates in allergic and inflammatory responces PROTEINS § Responsible for the structure of body tissue § Enzymes speed up biochemical reactions § Antibodies defend against invading microbes § Hromones § FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS □ Structural □ Regulatory □ Contactile □ Immunological □ Transport □ Catalyic § Amino Acids and Polypeptides □ Monomers = amino acids □ The diff side chains give each amino acid its distinctive chemical identity □ Peptide Bond- the cov bond joining each pair of amino acids □ Dipeptide reuslts when 2 amino acids combine ® Adding another produced a tripeptide ® More = polypeptide § Level of Structural Organization in Proteins □ Primary structure- the unique sequence of AA that are linked by covalent peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain ® Any changes in a AA sequence can have serious consqequences for the body's cells □ Secondary Structure- repeated twisting of neighboring AA in the polypeptide chain ® Alpha helix and beta pleated sheet □ Tertiary Structure- 3 demensional shape of a polypeptide chain ® S-S cov bonds, called disulfide bridges ® Many weak bonds help determine the folding pattern ® b/c most proteins exist in watery surroundings, the folding process of the AA with hyrophobic side chains in the central core, away from the proteins surface, ® Helper molecules, know as chaperones, aid the folding process □ Quaternary structure ® Similar bonds as tertiary § The function of a protein deoends on its abbility to recognize and bind to some other molecule. § Fibrous proteins- insoluble in wayter □ Callogen- strengthens bones, ligs, and tendons □ Keratin (hair) □ Elastin § Globular protein- pretty much soluble in water □ Meatbolic funtions □ Enzymes □ Antibodies □ Hemoglobin □ Insulin § Denaturation- of a protein encountered an altered enviornment, it may unravel and lose it characteristic shape. No longer functional. ○ Enzymes § Consists if 2 parts: □ Apoenzyme- protein □ Cofactor- nonprotein § Catalyze specific reactions § Enzymes are highly specific- each particular EN biinds only to a specific Substarte- the reactant molecule on which the enzyme acts □ The part of the enzyme that catalyzes = Active Site □ Lock in key modle □ Induced fit = changes shape § Enzymes are very efficient- can catalyze rates that are billions times more rapid § Enzymes are subject to a variety of cellular controls- their rate of synthesis and their concentration at any given time are underr the control of a cell's genes □ Have both actue and inactive forns in cells □ Determined by the chemical enviornment □ Substances within a cel will either enhance or inhibit the activity of a given enzyme § Lower the actication energy needed § How an enzyme works: □ Subtrate makes contact with the active site on the surfacce of the enzyme molecule, forming the enzyme- substrate complex. □ The substarte molecules are transformed by the rearangment of existing atoms, the breakdown or the sub stratye molecule into the products of the reaction. □ After the reaction and prodcts move away from the enzyme, the unchanged enzyme is free to attach to other substrate molecules. ○ Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA § C,H,O,N,P § DNA □ Forms the inherited genetic material inside each human cell □ Each gene is a segment of a DNA molecule ® Genes determine the traits we inherit, and by contolling protein synthesis they regulate most of tge activities that take place in body cells ® When a cell divides, it hereditary info passes on to the next gen of cells § RNA □ Relats intructions from genes to guide each cell's synthesis of proteins fromAA. ® Single stranded ® Sugar is pentose ribose ® A-U ® C-G ® Messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, Transfer RNA § Monmers: nucleotodes □ Nitrogenous Base ® DNA: A, T, C, G □ Pentose Sugar ® A 5 carbon sugar called deoxy ribose attaches to each base in DNA □ Phosphate Groups ® Alternate with pentose sugars to form the " back bone of a DNA strand § DNA = double helix/spiral ladder- two strands of alternating phosphate groups and deoxyribose sugars form the uprights of the latter. Paired bases form the rungs § A-T § C-G § Each time DNA is copied, the 2 strands unwinde. Eah strand serves as the template or mold on which to contruct a new second strand § Mutation- a change in the abse sequence ○ ATP (adenosine triphosphate) § The "energy curreny" of living systems § ATP transfers the energy liberated in exergonic catabolic reactions to power cellular activities that require energy. □ Movment of chrmosomes, muscular contractions, transport of subtance acorss cell membrance, and synthesis of larger molecules from smaller ones. § Removal of the 3rd phospate group produces a molecule called ADP § Anaerobic Phase □ Do not require oxygen § Aerobic Phase □ Requires oxygen

Define atom. List the subatomic particles; describe their relative masses, charges, and positions in the atom.

- the smallest units of matter that retain the properties and characteristics of the element - Each element contains atoms which are more or less identical particles or building blocks. Each atom is made up of protons and neutrons which are housed in the nucleus and electrons which surround the nucleus. Protons have a +1 charge and weigh 1amu. Electrons have a -1 charge and weigh 0amu. Neutrons have a 0 charge and wiegh 1 amu.

Describe he effects of aging on tissues

- tissues heal faster and leave less obvious scars in the young than the aged; fetus sugery = no scars - the extracellular components of tissues, such as callogen and elastic fibers, change with age.

Describe the anatomical position.

-A position of the body universally used in anatomical descriptions in which the body is erect, the head is level, the eyes face forward, the upper limbs are at the side, the palms face forward, feet are flat on the floor - Standard position- anatomical position - If a body is lying facedown, it is in the prone position - If a body is lying faceup, it is in the supine position

List several roles of membrane receptors and that of voltage-sensitive membrane channel proteins

-contact signaling-important in normal development and immunity -electrical signaling-voltage-regulated "ion gates" in nerve and muscle tissue chemical signaling-neurotransmitters bind to chemically gated channel-linked receptors in nerve and muscle tissue G protein linked-receptors-ligands bind to a receptor which activates a G protein, causing the release of a second messenger, such as cyclic AMP *Operation of a G protein -An extracellular lignad (first messenger) binds to a specific plasma membrane protein -The receptor activates a G protein that relays the message to an effector protein -The effector is an enzyme that produces a second messenger inside the cell -The second messenger activates a kinase -The activated kinase can trigger a variety of cellular responses

Define gene and genetic code and explain the function of genes

. 1) Gene-as a segment of a DNA molecule that carries instructions for creating one polypeptide chain -The 4 nucleotides bases (A, G, T, and C) are the 'letters' used in the genetic dictionary, and the information of DNA is found in the sequence of these bases (2) Genetic Code- the set of rules that relate the base triplet sequence of DNA to the corresponding codons of RNA and the amino acids they specify.

Name the different levels of structural organization that make up the human body, and explain their relationship.

1. Chemical a. Atoms, smallest units b. Molecules c. Essential: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Calcium, Sulfur 2. Cellular a. Molecules combine to form cells b. Smallest living units in the human body c. EX: msucle cells, nerve cells, epithealial cells 3. Tissue a. Groups of cells and the material surrounding them that work together to perform a particular function b. Epithealial tissue (covers body surfaces), connective tissue(Connects, support, and protects body organs while distributing blood vesels to other tissues), muscular tissue(contracts to make body parts move and generate heat) and nervouse tissue (carries information from one part of the body to another through nerve impulses). 4. Organ a. Different types of tissue are joined together b. Organs are structures that are composed ot 2 or more different types of tissues c. Have specific functions and recognizable shapes d. EX: skin bones, smomach, lungs 5. System a. Related organs with a common function b. Organ System c. EX: digestive system d. An organ can be apart of 2 systmes 6. Organismal levels of organization a. Any living individual All of the parts of the human body functioning together together

Describe the process of DNA replication

1. DNA replication begins with the "unzipping" of the parent molecule as the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs are broken. 2. Once exposed, the sequence of bases on each of the separated strands serves as a template to guide the insertion of a complementary set of bases on the strand being synthesized. 3. The new strands are assembled from deoxynucleoside triphosphates. 4. Each incoming nucleotide is covalently linked to the "free" 3' carbon atom on the pentose (figure) as the second and third phosphates are removed together as a molecule of pyrophosphate (PPi). 4. The nucleotides are assembled in the order that complements the order of bases on the strand serving as the template. Thus each C on the template guides the insertion of a G on the new strand, each G a C, and so on. 5. When the process is complete, two DNA molecules have been formed identical to each other and to the parent molecule.

Identify the four basic types of tissues that make up the human body and describe structural and functional characteristics and be able to make a comparison

1. Epithelial Tissue Consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets, in either single or multiple layers. - It serves as (1) a selective barrier that limits or aids the transfer of substances into and out of the body; (2) a secretory surface that releases products produced by the cells onto its free surfaces; and (3) a protective surface that resists the abrasive influences of the environment. - avascular 2. Connective Tissue ○ It binds together, supports, and strengthens other body tissues; ○ protects and insulates internal organs; ○ compartmentalizes structures such as skeletal muscles; ○ serves as the major transport system within the body (blood, a fluid connective tissue); ○ is the primary location of stored energy reserves (adipose, or fat, tissue); ○ and is the main source of immune responses. Connective tissue consists of two basic elements: extracellular matrix and cells The structure of the extracellular matrix determines much of the tissue's qualities. For instance, in cartilage, the extracellular matrix is firm but pliable. The extracellular matrix of bone, by contrast, is hard and inflexible. - usually highly vascular except for cartilage 3. Muscular Tissue consists of elongated cells called muscle fibers or myocytes that can use ATP to generate force. As a result, muscular tissue produces body movements, maintains posture, and generates heat. It also provides protection. Based on location and certain structural and functional features, muscular tissue is classified into three types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth 4. Nervous Tissue nervous tissue consists of only two principal types of cells: neurons and neuroglia. Nervous tissue consists of (1) Neurons (nerve cells), which consist of cell body and processes extending from cell body (one to multiple dendrites and a single axon); and (2) neuroglia, which do not generate or conduct nerve impulses but have other important supporting functions. Location: Nervous system. Exhibits sensitivity to various types of stimuli; converts stimuli into nerve impulses (action potentials); conducts nerve impulses to other neurons, muscle fibers, or glands.

Contrast the operation of negative and positive feedback systems.

1. Negative Feedback Systems- a. Reverses a change in a controlled condition. b. Regulation of blood pressure These mechanisms change the variable back to its original state or "ideal value" The control of blood sugar (glucose) by insulin is another good example of a negative feedback mechanism. When blood sugar rises, receptors in the body sense a change . In turn, the control center (pancreas) secretes insulin into the blood effectively lowering blood sugar levels. Once blood sugar levels reach homeostasis, the pancreas stops releasing insulin. 2. Positive Feedback Systems-Tends to STREGTHEN or reinforce a change in one of the body's controlled condition. a. Effector produces a physiological response The output enhances the original stimulus. A good example of a positive feedback system is child birth. During labor, a hormone called oxytocin is released that intensifies and speeds up contractions. The increase in contractions causes more oxytocin to be released and the cycle goes on until the baby is born. The birth ends the release of oxytocin and ends the positive feedback mechanism.

Identify the 11 systems of the human body, representative organs present in each, describe their general function, and briefly explain their relationships.

11 systems of the Human Body 1. Integumentary System- Skin, hair, fingernails, toenails, sweat glands a. Protects body, help regulate body temp, eliminates some waste 2. Skeletal System- Bones and Joints and associated cartilage a. Supports and protects body, aids body movement, stores minerals and lipids (fats) 3. Muscular System- Skeletal muscle tissue- muscle usually attached to the bones (smooth and cardiac muscles) a. Participates in body movement, maintains posture, produces heat 4. Nervous System- Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves, Eyes, and Ears a. Generates action potentials to regulate body activities, detects changes in body's internal and external environment, interprets changes, and responds by causing muscular contractions or glandular sceretions 5. Endocrine System- Hormone producing glands and cells- Pineal glad, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries(secrete hormones—primarily estrogen and progesterone—that are vital to normal reproductive development and fertility) and testes(secrete testosterone—a hormone that is vital to the normal development of male physical characteristics)) a. Regulates body activities by releasing hormones 6. Cardiovascular System- Blood, Heart, and blood vessels a. Heart pumps blood through blood vessels, blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and carbon dioxide and wastes away from cells and helps regulate acid-base balance, temperature, and water content of body fluids 7. Lymphatic system and immunity- Lymphatic fluids and vessels; spleen thymus, lymph nodes and tonsils. Cells that carry out immune responces a. Returns proteins and fluid to blood; carries lipids from gastrointestinal tract to blood; contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B and T cells that protect agianst disease-causing microbes 8. Respiratory System- Lungs, Pharnyx(thoat), larnyx(voice box), trachea(windpipe), and broonchial tibes, ;eading in and out of the lungs a. Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air, helps regulate acid-base balance of body fluids, air flowing out of lungs through vocal cords produces sounds. 9. Digestive system- Organs of gastrointestinal tract, mouth, pharynx(throat), esophagus(food tube), stomach, small and large intestines, and anus.( Salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder). a. Achieves physical and chemical breakdown of food; absorbs nutrients; eliminates solid waste. 10. Urinary System- Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra a. Produces, stores and eliminates urine, eliminates wastes and regulates volume and chemical composition of blood, maintains bodys mineral balance, helps regualte production of red blood cells 11. Reproductive systems- Gonads (testes and ovaries), fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, vas deferebs, prostate a. Gonads produce gametes that unite to form a new organism, gonads also release hormones that regulates reproduction, organs transport and store gametes, mammary glands produce milk.

List the three major regions of a generalized cell and indicate the function of each.

3 Main parts of a cell: 1. Plasma Membrane a. Forms the cell's flexible outer surface, separating the cell's internal environment (everything inside the cell) from the external environment (everything outside the cell). It is a selective barrier that regulates the flow of materials into and out of a cell. This selectivity helps establish and maintain the appropriate environment for normal cellular activities. The plasma membrane also plays a key role in communication among cells and between cells and their external environment. 2. Cytoplasm a. consists of all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. This compartment has two components: cytosol and organelles. Cytosol (SĪ-tō-sol), the fluid portion of cytoplasm, also called intracellular fluid, contains water, dissolved solutes, and suspended particles. Within the cytosol are several different types of organelles (or-gan-ELZ = little organs). Each type of organelle has a characteristic shape and specific functions. Examples include the cytoskeleton, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria. 3. Nucleus a. The nucleus (NOO-klē-us = nut kernel) is a large organelle that houses most of a cell's DNA. Within the nucleus, each chromosome (KRŌ-mō-sōm; chromo- = colored), a single molecule of DNA associated with several proteins, contains thousands of hereditary units called genes that control most aspects of cellular structure and function.

Describe the important life processes of the human body.

6 most important life processes; 1. Metabolism- the sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body. a. Digestive process catobolize proteins in food into amino acids b. Catabolism = the breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components c. Anabolism = the building up of of complex chemical subtsances from smaller components. 2. Reesponsiveness- the body's abiloty to detect amd respond to chagnes a. EX: an increase in body temp during a fever represents a change in the internal envoironment b. Different cells in the body respond to the enviornmental changes in characteristic ways i. Nerve cells respond by generating electrical sugnals known as nerve impulses 3. Movement- includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even tiny structures inside cells a. When a body tissue is damaged or infected, white blood cells move from the bloodstream to the affected tissue to help clean up and repair the area 4. Growth- an increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of exsisting cells, an increase in the number of cells, or both a. In a growing bone, mineral deposits accumulate between bone cells, causing the bone to grow in lengths and width. 5. Differentiation- The development of a cell from an unspecialed to a specialed state. a. Red blood cells i. Red blood cells and white blood cells all ariise from the same unspecialized precursor cells in red bone marrow b. Fertilized egg - embryo - fetus - infant - child - adult. c. Stem cells i. Precursor cells, which can divide and give rise to cells that undergo differentiation 6. Reproduction- refers to either the formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacment, or the production of a new individual. a. Cell divison = formation of new cells b. Production of a new individual occurs through the fertilization of an ovum by a sperm cell to form a zygote, followed by repeated cell divisions and the differentiaion of these cells

Explain the role of ATP in cell metabolism.

ATP transfers the energy liberated in exergonic catabolic reactions to power cellular activities that require energy. - • transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism

Indicate the value of apoptosis to the body

Apoptosis is the programmed cell death of stressed, surplus developing cells A good part of the value of apoptosis is that the body can get rid of large numbers of unneeded cells without inducing inflammation which damages healthy tissue as well.

Outline the major body cavities, the organs they contain, and their associated linings.

Body Cavity It is a space that holds and protects your organs Holds the brain and has meninges which encloses it Cranial cavity Holds the spinal cord and has meninges which encloses it Vertebral cavity The cavity that contains three smaller cavities. chest cavity. is formed by the ribs, the muscles of the chest, the sternum, and thoracic portion of the vertebral column Thoracic cavity The cavity that contains your viscera and is encircled by the abdominal walls and the bones and muscles of the pelvis Abdominopelvic cavity The cavity that contains your heart and lungs Thoracic cavity The three smaller cavities within the Thoracic cavity: Pleura Cavity is a space around the lungs Pericardial is a fluid filled space around the heart Mediastinum is the central portion of the thoracic cavity between the lungs and contains all thoracic prgans except the lungs themselves Plueral cavity Pericardial cavity Mediastinum Pleural cavity Situated in your thoracic cavity Covers and protects your lungs L and R cavities Mediastinum Medial to lungs and extending from sternum to spinal column and from rib 1 to the diaphragm. Contains all thoracic organs, including the heart (inside of the pericardial cavity), thymus, esophagus, taches, and several larges blood vessels except for the lungs Pericardial cavity Surrounds the heart Serosa / serous membrane Double layered membranes that function to protect organs and reduce friction between organs (as in when your lungs expand) Located in thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities Named based on what they surround singular: serous membrane Parietal layer and visceral layer between is the serous fluid Abdominopelvic cavity contains both your abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity, which are not separated from one another by any space or wall. separated from the thoracic cavity by the diaphragm Organs in the abdominal cavity (Called viscera): stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine Organs in the pelvic cavity: portions of L intestine, urinary bladder, and internal organs of the reproductive system Layers of a serous membrane Visceral layer covers organs (or viscera) Parietal layer lines walls of a cavity Types of serosa Pleural - covers lungs, lines thorax; found in the pleural cavity Pericardial - covers heart, lines central part of thorax; found in the pericardial cavity Peritoneum - covers organs, lines abdominopelvic cavity Quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity System used by clinicians to distinguish the site of pain, masses, or abnormalities Separates the region into 4 parts: Upper Right Quadrant (URQ), Lower Right Quadrant (LRQ), Upper Left Quadrant (ULQ), Lower Left Quadrant (LLQ) Regions of the abdominopelvic cavity Used by anatomists Separates the cavity into 9 regions: 1. Right Hypochondriac region 2. Epigastric region 3. Left Hypochondriac region 4. Right Lumbar region 5. Umbilical region 6. Left Lumbar region 7. Right Inguinal region 8. Hypograstric (pubic) region 9. Left Inguinal region Remember that L and R correspond to the individual's body being studied (not your L and R if you're looking at the person) Organs in the Epigastric region Liver and Stomach Organs in the Hypochrondriac regions (L and R) Diaphragm Organs in the Umbilical region Gallbladder Large Intestine Small intestine Organs in the Hypogastric region Appendix Urinary Bladder Organs in the R and L Lumbar Regions L intestine

Define pH and explain the role of buffer systems in homeostasis.

Buffer System - The PH of fluids inside and outside of cells remain constant - The Buffer System functions to convert strong acids or bases into weak acids or bases - String acids or bases ionize easily and contriubute many H+ or OH- to a solution - Weak a/b do the opposite- less of an effect on PH - The chemical compounds that can convert strong acids or bases into weak ones are called Buffers- they do so by adding or removing protons ○ EX: carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system. CA can act as a weak acid and BC can act as a weak base. This buffer system can compensate for either an excesss or shortage of H+

Identify the main chemical elements in the human body, the lesser elements, and the trace elements. Be able to provide examples of each.

CHON Calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulfur (S), sodium (Na), chlorine (Cl), magnesium (Mg), iodine (I), and iron (Fe) I,Zinc... Al

Describe the roles of centrioles in mitosis and in formation of cilia and flagella.

Centiole • Helps with cell dividion ○ The centrioles help in the formation of spindle fibers that separate the chromosomes during mitosis • Produces Cilia and Flagella: Celiogenesis ○ Initiates the assmebly of cilia and flagella Helps the cell move

Describe the structure and function of the nucleus

Consists of a nuclear envelope with pores, nucleoli, and chromosomes, which exist as a tangled mass of chromatin in interphase cells. Nuclear pores control the movement of substances between the nucleus and cytoplasm, nucleoli produce ribosomes, and chromosomes consist of genes that control cellular structure and direct cellular functions.

Discuss the structure and function of mitochondria.

Consists of an outer and an inner mitochondrial membrane, cristae, and matrix; new mitochondria form from preexisting ones. Site of aerobic cellular respiration reactions that produce most of a cell's ATP. Plays an important early role in apoptosis.

Describe the structure and function of cytoplasm, cytosol, and organelles

Cytoplasm consists of all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus, and has two components: (1) the cytosol and (2) organelles, tiny structures that perform different functions in the cell CYTOPLASM Cellular contents between plasma membrane and nucleus—cytosol and organelles. Site of all intracellular activities except those occurring in the nucleus. Cytosol Composed of water, solutes, suspended particles, lipid droplets, and glycogen granules. Fluid in which many of cell's metabolic reactions occur. The cytoskeleton is a network in the cytoplasm composed of three protein filaments: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. The cytoskeleton maintains shape and general organization of cellular contents; responsible for cell movements. Organelles Specialized structures with characteristic shapes. Each organelle has specific functions.

Compare and contrast: DNA, RNA, ATP

DNA: ACGT, Deoxyribose, double helix, A with T, G with C, Self replicating, Encodes info for making protein, Nuclear/ mitochondrial RNA: ACGU, Ribose, single stranded, A with U, G with C, Made by suing DNA as a blue print, carries genetic code and assists in making protein, mRNA, tRNA, rRNA ○ ATP (adenosine triphosphate) § The "energy curreny" of living systems § ATP transfers the energy liberated in exergonic catabolic reactions to power cellular activities that require energy. □ Movment of chrmosomes, muscular contractions, transport of subtance acorss cell membrance, and synthesis of larger molecules from smaller ones. § Removal of the 3rd phospate group produces a molecule called ADP § Anaerobic Phase □ Do not require oxygen § Aerobic Phase Requires oxygen

Describe structural features and functions of the nervous tissues

Description Nervous tissue consists of (1) Neurons (nerve cells), which consist of cell body and processes extending from cell body (one to multiple dendrites and a single axon); and (2) neuroglia, which do not generate or conduct nerve impulses but have other important supporting functions. Location Nervous system. Function Exhibits sensitivity to various types of stimuli; converts stimuli into nerve impulses (action potentials); conducts nerve impulses to other neurons, muscle fibers, or glands.

Discuss some theories of cell differentiation and aging.

Differentiation: • Embryonic cells are exposed to different chemical signals that cause them to follow different pathways in development • Chemical signals influence development by switching genes on and off • Cell differentiation is the process of cells developing specific and distinctive features Aging: • The wear and tear theory considers the cumulative effect of slight chemical damage and the production of free radicals • Cell aging may also be a result of autoimmune responses and progressive weakening of the immune response • The genetic theory of cell aging suggests that cessation of mitosis and cell aging are genetically programmed

Describe the components of a feedback system.

Feedback System - A cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored, reevaluate... ○ Contolled Condition: body temp, blood pressure, blood glucose level. ○ Simulus= disruption that changes a contolled contidion - Includes three basic Components ○ Receptor a body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends input to a control center § Pathway = afferent pathway, since info flows towards the control center □ EX: nerve endings in skin senses temp and can detect change ○ Control Center in the body, such as the brain, sets the range of values within which a contorlled condition should be maintined, evaluates the input it recieves from receptors, and generates output commnds when they are needed § Output- occurs as nerve impulses or hormones § Pathway = efferent since info flows away from the control center § Brain acts as a control center, receiving nerve impulses from the skin receptors amd genrating nerve impulses as output. ○ Effector is a body structure that recieves output from the control center and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition. § When ur body shivers, which generates heat and raises ur body temp - FEED BACK SYSTEMS WILL EITHER NEGATE IT (NEGATIVE FEEDBACK) OR ENHANCE IT (POSTIVE FEEDBACK)

Define anatomical planes, anatomical sections, and directional terms used to describe the human body.

Frontal (coronal) plane- plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior portions (front and back) Transverse plane or cross sectional or horizontal plane plane that divides the body into superior and inferior portions Sagittal plane plane that divides the body into left and right parts frontal section is the surface formed by a cut in a frontal plane Tranverse sections are fromed by cuts along tranverse planes midsagittal plane passes through the midline and divides the body into equal left and right halves Parasagittal plane cuts the body in unequal left and right parts Oblique plane any diagonal section

Describe the major types of connective tissue with regard to their location and function

I.Embryonic connective tissue A. Mesenchyme Location Almost exclusively under skin and along developing bones of embryo; some in adult connective tissue, especially along blood vessels. Function Forms almost all other types of connective tissue. B. Mucous connective tissue Location Umbilical cord of fetus. Function Support. II. Mature connective tissue C. Loose connective tissue Areolar connective tissue Location In and around nearly every body structure (thus, called "packing material" of the body): in subcutaneous layer deep to skin; papillary (superficial) region of dermis of skin; lamina propria of mucous membranes; around blood vessels, nerves, and body organs. Function Strength, elasticity, support. Adipose tissue Location Wherever areolar connective tissue is located: subcutaneous layer deep to skin, around heart and kidneys, yellow bone marrow, padding around joints and behind eyeball in eye socket. Function Reduces heat loss through skin; serves as an energy reserve; supports and protects organs. In newborns, BAT generates heat to maintain proper body temperature. Reticular connective tissue Stroma (supporting framework) of liver, spleen, lymph nodes; red bone marrow; reticular lamina of basement membrane; around blood vessels and muscles. Forms stroma (support) of organs; binds smooth muscle tissue cells; filters and removes worn-out blood cells in spleen and microbes in lymph nodes. D. Dense connective tissue Dense regular connective tissue Location Forms tendons (attach muscle to bone), most ligaments (attach bone to bone), and aponeuroses (sheetlike tendons that attach muscle to muscle or muscle to bone). Function Provides strong attachment between various structures. Tissue structure withstands pulling (tension) along long axis of fibers. Dense irregular connective tissue Location Often occurs in sheets, such as fasciae (tissue beneath skin and around muscles and other organs), reticular (deeper) region of dermis of skin, fibrous pericardium of heart, periosteum of bone, perichondrium of cartilage, joint capsules, membrane capsules around various organs (kidneys, liver, testes, lymph nodes); also in heart valves. Function Provides tensile (pulling) strength in many directions. Elastic connective tissue Location Lung tissue, walls of elastic arteries, trachea, bronchial tubes, true vocal cords, suspensory ligaments of penis, some ligaments between vertebrae. Function Allows stretching of various organs; is strong and can recoil to original shape after being stretched. Elasticity is important to normal functioning of lung tissue (recoils in exhaling) and elastic arteries (recoil between heartbeats to help maintain blood flow). C. Cartilage Hyaline cartilage Location Most abundant cartilage in body; at ends of long bones, anterior ends of ribs, nose, parts of larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchial tubes, embryonic and fetal skeleton. Function Provides smooth surfaces for movement at joints, flexibility, and support; weakest type of cartilage and can be fractured. Fibrocartilage Location Pubic symphysis (where hip bones join anteriorly), intervertebral discs, menisci (cartilage pads) of knee, portions of tendons that insert into cartilage. Function Support and joining structures together. Strength and rigidity make it the strongest type of cartilage. Elastic cartilage Location Lid on top of larynx (epiglottis), part of external ear (auricle), auditory tubes. Function Provides strength and elasticity; maintains shape of certain structures. D. Bone tissue Location Both compact and spongy bone tissue make up the various parts of bones of the body. Function Support, protection, storage; houses blood-forming tissue; serves as levers that act with muscle tissue to enable movement. E. Liquid connective tissue Blood tissue Location Within blood vessels (arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins), within chambers of heart. Function Red blood cells: transport oxygen and some carbon dioxide; white blood cells: carry on phagocytosis and mediate allergic reactions and immune system responses; platelets: essential for blood clotting. Lymph Lymph is the extracellular fluid that flows in lymphatic vessels. It is a liquid connective tissue that consists of several types of cells in a clear liquid extracellular matrix that is similar to blood plasma but with much less protein. The composition of lymph varies from one part of the body to another. For example, lymph leaving lymph nodes includes many lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, in contrast to lymph from the small intestine, which has a high content of newly absorbed dietary lipids.

Distinguish differences between ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and hydrogen "bonds".

Ionic Bonds- The force if attraction tha holds together ion with opposite charges (metal and nonmetal) - Cation = positvkey charge, loses e - Anion = neg charged, gains e Covalent Bonds- 2 or more atoms chare electrons - electronegatuvity- the power to attract elecrtons on itself Hydrogen ATTRACTIONS - Form between hydrogen atoms - Result from attraction of oppostiley charged parts of molecules - WEAK - Hydrogen binds that link neighboring molecules give water considerable Cohesion- like particles stick together Creates very high surface tension, a measure pf the difficulty of stretching or breaking the surface of a liquid

Compare the functions of lysosomes and peroxisomes

Lysosome Vesicle formed from Golgi complex; contains digestive enzymes. Fuses with and digests contents of endosomes, pinocytic vesicles, and phagosomes and transports final products of digestion into cytosol; digests worn-out organelles (autophagy), entire cells (autolysis), and extracellular materials. Peroxisome Vesicle containing oxidases (oxidative enzymes) and catalase (decomposes hydrogen peroxide); new peroxisomes bud from preexisting ones. Oxidizes amino acids and fatty acids; ***detoxifies harmful substances, such as hydrogen peroxide and associated free radicals.

Describe the three structural classifications of membranes

Mucous Membranes: important feature of the body's defense mechanisms because it is a barrier that microbes and other pathogens have difficulty penetrating. - lines a body cavity that opens directly to the exterior. Mucous membranes line the entire digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts, and much of the urinary tract. serous membrane the cutaneous membrane (or skin). Serous Membranes: lines a body cavity that does not open directly to the exterior (thoracic or abdominal cavities), and it covers the organs that are within the cavity. - Serous membranes consist of areolar connective tissue covered by mesothelium Cutaneous (skin) Membrane: - covers the entire surface of the body and consists of a superficial portion called the epidermis and a deeper portion called the dermis - Protects underlying tissue Synovial Membrane: - line the cavities of freely movable joints (joint cavities). Like serous membranes, synovial membranes line structures that do not open to the exterior. - Synovial fluid lubricates and nourishes the cartilage covering the bones at movable joints and contains macrophages that remove microbes and debris from the joint cavity.

Explain the general and chemical concept of electrically excitable cell tissues

Neurons and muscle fibers are considered excitable cells because they exhibit electrical excitability, the ability to respond to certain stimuli by producing electrical signals such as action potentials. - Action potentials can propagate (travel) along the plasma membrane of a neuron or muscle fiber due to the presence of specific voltage-gated ion channels. - When an action potential forms in a neuron, the neuron releases chemicals called neurotransmitters, which allow neurons to communicate with other neurons, muscle fibers, or gland

Describe the sequence of events in protein synthesis and describe the roles of DNA, mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA in each phase.

Protein Synthesis (1) DNA specifies the structure of protein molecules that act as structural or functional molecules (3) Each gene is a segment of DNA that carries instructions for one polypeptide chain, as well as exons that specify amino acid informational sequences and noncoding sequences called introns (4) Each sequence of three nucleotide bases of DNA is called a triplet, and specifies a particular amino acid (5) The Role of RNA (a) RNA exists in three forms that decode and carry out the instruction of DNA in protein synthesis: transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and messenger RNA (mRNA) (b) All three types of RNA are constructed on the DNA in the nucleus, then released from the DNA to migrate to the cytoplasm while the DNA recoils to its original form (6) There are two main steps of protein synthesis: transcription and translation The DNA molecule separates into two strands, the mRNA makes a copy of the DNA's genetic code, the RNA leaves the nucleus and goes into the cytoplasm, messenger RNA connects to the ribosome, transfer RNA carries amino acid specified by the messenger RNA to the ribosome where they join together to form a protein.

Describe the principles and importance of medical imaging procedures in the evaluation of organ functions and the diagnosis of disease

Refers to techniques and procedures used to create images of the human body. Granparent = x-rays - The newer imaging technologies not only contribute to diagnosis of diease, but they also are advancing our understanding of normal anatomy and physiology 1. Radiography 2. MRI 3. CT 4. Ultrasound scanning 5. Coronary cardiac computed tomography angiography (CCTA) scan 6. Positron emission tomograohy (PET) 7. Endoscopy 8. Radionuclide Scanning

Identify the various types of epithelia and identify specific locations and functions

Simple Squamos Epithelium: L: lines the cardiovascular and lymphatic system where it is known as endothelium and (2) forms the epithelial layer of serous membranes (peritoneum, pleura, pericardium), where it is called mesothelium Also found in air sacs of lungs, kidneys, inner surface of eardrum F: Present at sites of filtration (such as blood filtration in kidneys) or diffusion (such as diffusion of oxygen into blood vessels of lungs) and at site of secretion in serous membranes. Not found in body areas subject to mechanical stress (wear and tear). Simple Cuboidal: L:Covers surface of ovary; lines anterior surface of capsule of lens of the eye; forms pigmented epithelium at posterior surface of retina of the eye; lines kidney tubules and smaller ducts of many glands; makes up secreting portion of some glands such as thyroid gland and ducts of some glands such as pancreas. F: Secretion and absorption. Non ciliated Simple Columnar L: Lines gastrointestinal tract (from stomach to anus), ducts of many glands, and gallbladder. F: Secretion and absorption; larger columnar cells contain more organelles and thus are capable of higher level of secretion and absorption than are cuboidal cells. Secreted mucus lubricates linings of digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts, and most of urinary tract; helps prevent destruction of stomach lining by acidic gastric juice secreted by stomach. Ciliated Simple Columnar L:Lines some bronchioles (small tubes) of respiratory tract, uterine (fallopian) tubes, uterus, some paranasal sinuses, central canal of spinal cord, and ventricles of brain. F: Cilia beat in unison, moving mucus and foreign particles toward throat, where they can be coughed up and swallowed or spit out. Coughing and sneezing speed up movement of cilia and mucus. Cilia also help move oocytes expelled from ovaries through uterine (fallopian) tubes into uterus. Pseudostratified Columnar L: Ciliated variety lines airways of most of upper respiratory tract; nonciliated variety lines larger ducts of many glands, epididymis, and part of male urethra. F: Ciliated variety secretes mucus that traps foreign particles, and cilia sweep away mucus for elimination from body; nonciliated variety functions in absorption and protection. Stratified Squamous L: Keratinized variety forms superficial layer of skin; nonkeratinized variety lines wet surfaces (lining of mouth, esophagus, part of epiglottis, part of pharynx, and vagina) and covers tongue. F: Protection against abrasion, water loss, ultraviolet radiation, and foreign invasion. Both types form first line of defense against microbes. Stratified Cuboidal: Ducts of adult sweat glands and esophageal glands, part of male urethra. Protection; limited secretion and absorption. Stratified Columnar: Lines part of urethra; large excretory ducts of some glands, such as esophageal glands; small areas in anal mucous membrane; part of conjunctiva of eye. Protection and secretion. Transitional Epithelium: Lines urinary bladder and portions of ureters and urethra. Allows urinary organs to stretch and maintain protective lining while holding variable amounts of fluid without rupturing. Endocrine Glands: Examples include pituitary gland at base of brain, pineal gland in brain, thyroid and parathyroid glands near larynx (voice box), adrenal glands superior to kidneys, pancreas near stomach, ovaries in pelvic cavity, testes in scrotum, thymus in thoracic cavity. Hormones regulate many metabolic and physiological activities to maintain homeostasis. Exocrine Glands: Sweat, oil, and earwax glands of skin; digestive glands such as salivary glands (secrete into mouth cavity) and pancreas (secretes into small intestine). Produce substances such as sweat to help lower body temperature, oil, earwax, saliva, or digestive enzymes.

Compare three types of muscle tissue and their locations in the body and their control mechanisms

Skeletal Muscle Usually attached to bones by tendons. Motion, posture, heat production, protection. Cardiac Muscle Heart wall. Pumps blood to all parts of body. Smooth Muscle Iris of eyes; walls of hollow internal structures such as blood vessels, airways to lungs, stomach, intestines, gallbladder, urinary bladder, and uterus. Motion (constriction of blood vessels and airways, propulsion of foods through gastrointestinal tract, contraction of urinary bladder and gallbladder).

Identify the differences between a solution, colloid, and suspension.

Solutions - Solute particles are very tiny, do not settle out or scatter light(mineral water) - Solutions are mixtures in which the particles have actually dissolved. As a result, there are no particles to see when you shine a light on it. Salt water is an example. Colloids - Solute particles are larger than in a solution and scatter light, do not settle out.(gelatin) - Colloids have small particles that float around and never settle. If you shine a light on them, you'll see the scattering characteristic of the Tyndall effect. Incidentally, colloids usually appear cloudy when a light is shined on them, unless there's not very much stuff floating around. Suspension - Solute paricles are very large, settle our and may scatter light(blood) - Suspensions are mixtures in which the particles that are floating around are big enough to sink to the bottom - mud is an example. If you shine a light through it after this has happened, you won't see anything because there are no particles to see.

Discuss the stages, events, and significance of somatic and reproductive cell division

Somatic Cell Division Interphase Period between cell divisions; chromosomes not visible under light microscope. G1 phase Metabolically active cell duplicates most of its organelles and cytosolic components; replication of chromosomes begins. (Cells that remain in the G1 phase for a very long time, and possibly never divide again, are said to be in the G0 phase.) S phase Replication of DNA and centrosomes. G2 phase Cell growth, enzyme and protein synthesis continue; replication of centrosomes complete. Mitotic phase Parent cell produces identical cells with identical chromosomes; chromosomes visible under light microscope. Mitosis Nuclear division; distribution of two sets of chromosomes into separate nuclei. Prophase Chromatin fibers condense into paired chromatids; nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear; each centrosome moves to an opposite pole of the cell. Metaphase Centromeres of chromatid pairs line up at metaphase plate. Anaphase Centromeres split; identical sets of chromosomes move to opposite poles of cell. Telophase Nuclear envelopes and nucleoli reappear; chromosomes resume chromatin form; mitotic spindle disappears. Cytokinesis Cytoplasmic division; contractile ring forms cleavage furrow around center of cell, dividing cytoplasm into separate and equal portions. Cell Type Somatic-mitosis Gamete-mieosis Number of divisions 1-mit 2mie Stages Interphase.- mit Interphase I only.-mie Prophase.-mit Prophase I and II.- mie Metaphase. Metaphase I and II. Anaphase. Anaphase I and II. Telophase. Telophase I and II. Copy DNA? Yes, interphase.-mit Yes, interphase I; No, interphase II.-mie Number of cells 2.-mit 4.-mie Number of chromosomes per cell 46, or two sets of 23; this makeup, called diploid (2n), is identical to the chromosomes in the starting cell.- mit One set of 23; this makeup, called haploid (n), represents half of the chromosomes in the starting cell.-mie

Describe how cells differ in size and shape

The largest cell (can be seen by the naked eye) is the oocyte which is usually around 140µm in length whereas red blood cells are usually around 8µm in length/diameter( needs a high powered microscope). Shape: Cells may be round, oval, flat, cube-shaped, column-shaped, elongated, star-shaped, cylindrical or disc shaped depending on its function in the body. RELATES TO ITS FUNCTION IN THE BODY:For example; a sperm cell has a long tail (flagellum) which helps it move and travel (swim) toward the oocyte for fertilisation. Disc shapes of the red blood cells give them a larger surface area which aids in its passing of oxygen to other cells around the body. The long, spindle shape of a muscle cell helps it to contract and lengthen depending on the body's needs. Nerve cells also have long extensions called axons which help them to communicate and conduct nerve impulses over great distances throughout the body.

Describe the chemical composition of the plasma membrane and relate it to membrane functions.

The membrane lipids allow passage of several types of lipid-soluble molecules but act as a barrier to the entry or exit of charged or polar substances. Some of the proteins in the plasma membrane allow movement of polar molecules and ions into and out of the cell. Other proteins can act as signal receptors or as molecules that link the plasma membrane to intracellular or extracellular proteins. ○ 75% phospholipids- phosphate heads that are polar and hydrophilic to act as a barrier ○ 5% glycolipids- acts as a marker for cellular recognition ○ 20% cholesterol- increases membrane stability and fluidity a. The bilayer arrangement occurs because the lipids are amphipathic (am-fē-PATH-ik) molecules, which means that they have both polar and nonpolar parts. In phospholipids the polar part is the phosphate-containing "head," which is hydrophilic (hydro- = water; -philic = loving). The nonpolar parts are the two long fatty acid "tails," which are hydrophobic (-phobic = fearing) hydrocarbon chains. Because "like seeks like," the phospholipid molecules orient themselves in the bilayer with their hydrophilic heads facing outward. In this way, the heads face a watery fluid on either side—cytosol on the inside and extracellular fluid on the outside. The hydrophobic fatty acid tails in each half of the bilayer point toward one another, forming a nonpolar, hydrophobic region in the membrane's interior. b. Cholesterol molecules are weakly amphipathic and are interspersed among the other lipids in both layers of the membrane. The tiny —OH group is the only polar region of cholesterol, and it forms hydrogen bonds with the polar heads of phospholipids and glycolipids. The stiff steroid rings and hydrocarbon tail of cholesterol are nonpolar; they fit among the fatty acid tails of the phospholipids and glycolipids. The carbohydrate groups of glycolipids form a polar "head"; their fatty acid "tails" are nonpolar. c. Glycolipids appear only in the membrane layer that faces the extracellular fluid, which is one reason the two sides of the bilayer are asymmetric, or different. 1. Acts as a barrier separating inside and outside of the cell. 2. Controls the flow of substances into and out of the cell. 3. Helps identify the cell to other cells (e.g., immune cells). 4. Participates in intercellular signaling.

Compare the structure and function of tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.

Tight Junctions Tight junctions consist of weblike strands of transmembrane proteins that fuse together the outer surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes to seal off passageways between adjacent cells (Figure 4.2a). Cells of epithelial tissue that lines the stomach, intestines, and urinary bladder have many tight junctions. They inhibit the passage of substances between cells and prevent the contents of these organs from leaking into the blood or surrounding tissues. Desmosomes Like adherens junctions, desmosomes (DEZ-mō-sōms; desmo- = band) contain plaque and have transmembrane glycoproteins (cadherins) that extend into the intercellular space between adjacent cell membranes and attach cells to one another (Figure 4.2c). . Instead, a desmosome plaque attaches to elements of the cytoskeleton known as intermediate filaments, which consist of the protein keratin. The intermediate filaments extend from desmosomes on one side of the cell across the cytosol to desmosomes on the opposite side of the cell. This structural arrangement contributes to the stability of the cells and tissue. These spot weld-like junctions are common among the cells that make up the epidermis (the outermost layer of the skin) and among cardiac muscle cells in the heart. Desmosomes prevent epidermal cells from separating under tension and cardiac muscle cells from pulling apart during contraction. Gap Junctions At gap junctions, membrane proteins called connexins form tiny fluid-filled tunnels called connexons that connect neighboring cells (Figure 4.2e). The plasma membranes of gap junctions are not fused together as in tight junctions but are separated by a very narrow intercellular gap (space). The transfer of nutrients, and perhaps wastes, takes place through gap junctions in avascular tissues such as the lens and cornea of the eye. Gap junctions allow the cells in a tissue to communicate with one another. In a developing embryo, some of the chemical and electrical signals that regulate growth and cell differentiation travel via gap junctions. Gap junctions also enable nerve or muscle impulses to spread rapidly among cells, a process that is crucial for the normal operation of some parts of the nervous system and for the contraction of muscle in the heart, gastrointestinal tract, and uterus.

Describe the structure and functions of the five main types of cell junctions

Tight Junctions- fluid tight seals between cells Cells of epithelial tissue that lines the stomach, intestines, and urinary bladder have many tight junctions. They inhibit the passage of substances between cells and prevent the contents of these organs from leaking into the blood or surrounding tissues. Adherens Junctions- anchor cells to oneanother - contain plaque (PLAK), a dense layer of proteins on the inside of the plasma membrane that attaches both to membrane proteins and to microfilaments of the cytoskeleton - adherens junctions often form extensive zones called adhesion belts - Adherens junctions help epithelial surfaces resist separation during various contractile activities, as when food moves through the intestines. Desmosomes-spot welds between adjacent epithelial cells. contain plaque and have transmembrane glycoproteins (cadherins) that extend into the intercellular space between adjacent cell membranes and attach cells to one another - This structural arrangement contributes to the stability of the cells and tissue. These spot weld-like junctions are common among the cells that make up the epidermis - Desmosomes prevent epidermal cells from separating under tension and cardiac muscle cells from pulling apart during contraction. Hemidesmosomes - anchor cells not to each other but to the basement membrane. - contains integrins Gap Junctions-: they are channels between neighboring cells that allow for the transport of ions, water, and other substances Are cytoplasmic bridges between cells, within each gap junction and a series of connexons like straws. - The transfer of nutrients, and perhaps wastes, takes place through gap junctions in avascular tissues such as the lens and cornea of the eye. - Gap junctions also enable nerve or muscle impulses to spread rapidly among cell - Gap junctions allow the cells in a tissue to communicate with one another. Ex Smooth muscle and Cardiac Muscle.

Describe the reactions: synthesis, decomposition, exchange, and reversible reactions; explain the importance of oxidation-reduction reactions as well as their nature.

Typed of Chemical reactions synthesis reactions-Anabolism - when atoms or molecules combine to form a larger, more complex molecule, the process is a synthesis or combination reaction. a synthesis reaction always involves bond formation. it can be represented (using arbitrary letters) as - A+B--->AB. they are the basis of constructive, or anabolic activities in body cells, such as joining small molecules called amino acids into large protein molecules. synthesis reactions are conspicuous in rapidly growing tissues - EX: combine simple molecules like amino acid to form a large molecule like a protein Decomposition reactions- catabolism - occur when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or its constituent atoms: - AB--->A+B. essentially, they are reverse synthesis reactions: bonds are broken.they underlie all degradative, or catabolic, processes in body cells. ex: the bonds of glycogen molecules are broken to release simpler molecules of glucose sugar. - Breakdoen of glucose and pyruvic acid Exchange or displacement reactions - involve both synthesis and decomposition. bonds are both made and broken. parts of the reactant molecules change partners, so to speak, producing different product molecules. AB+C--->AC+B and AB+CD--->AD+CB. occurs when ATP reacts with glucose and transfers its end phosphate group to glucose, forming glucose-phosphate. at the same time, the ATP becomes ADP. this important reaction occurs whenever glucose enters a body cell, and it effectively traps the glucose fuel molecule inside the cell. Reversibility of chemical reactions - if relation conditions remain unchanged, all chemical reactions eventually reach a state of chemical equilibrium in which the reaction proceeds in both directions at the same rate. all chemical reactions are theoretically reversible, but many biological reactions go in only one direction because of energy requirements or the removal of reaction products. - The product can revert to the original reactant Oxidation and Reduction - Enzymes in the human body regulate oxidation-reduction reactions. These complex proteins, of which several hundred are known, act as catalysts, speeding up chemical processes in the body. Oxidation-reduction reactions also take place in the metabolism of food for energy, with substances in the food broken down into components the body can use. - Oxidation = loss of electrons - Reduction = gain of electrons - Are always parallel

Define atomic number, atomic mass, isotope, radioisotope, and ion; be able to distinguish when atoms are isotopes vs. ions vs. neither of those two terms.

are in the nucleus. - Atomic number - Number of protons = its identity - Mass number - Sum of its protons and neutrons - Isotopes of the same elements have different number of neutrons = diff mass - Radioactive isotpes are unstable ○ Emit radiation - Unit = dalton - Atomic mass - The average mass of all its natually occuring isotopes Ions, molecules, and Compounds - If an aton either gives up or gains elcetrons, it becomes an Ion - Ion- an atom that has a postive or beg charge because it has unequal numbers of protons and electrons

Explain why chemical reactions in the human body are often irreversible.

many biological reactions go in only one direction because of energy requirements or the removal of reaction products.

Describe the signals that induce somatic cell division

• "Go" Signals: protein signals that promote growth & division "Stop" proteins tell the cells to stop dividing Within cells, there are cdk's that are involved in the attachment/detachment of phosphate groups to/from protein. Switching the cdk's on and off, controlled by cyclin proteins, AND the joining of a cyclin to a cdk molecule is what triggers various events that control cell division

Describe enzyme action.

• An enzyme attracts substrates to its active site, catalyzes the chemical reaction by which products are formed, then allows the products to dissociate § Enzymes are highly specific- each particular EN biinds only to a specific Substarte- the reactant molecule on which the enzyme acts □ The part of the enzyme that catalyzes = Active Site □ Lock in key modle □ Induced fit = changes shape § Enzymes are very efficient- can catalyze rates that are billions times more rapid § Enzymes are subject to a variety of cellular controls- their rate of synthesis and their concentration at any given time are underr the control of a cell's genes □ Have both actue and inactive forns in cells □ Determined by the chemical enviornment □ Substances within a cel will either enhance or inhibit the activity of a given enzyme § Lower the actication energy needed § How an enzyme works: □ Subtrate makes contact with the active site on the surfacce of the enzyme molecule, forming the enzyme- substrate complex. □ The substarte molecules are transformed by the rearangment of existing atoms, the breakdown or the sub stratye molecule into the products of the reaction. □ After the reaction and prodcts move away from the enzyme, the unchanged enzyme is free to attach to other substrate molecules.

Describe the differences between matter and energy. Identify the different types of energy.

• Energy is the capacity to do work while matter is anything that occupies space and has mass Matter exists in 3 states; solids, liquid, and gas - All forms of matter is made up of Chemical Elements - Matter is "defined" as "anything that has mass and occupies space" while energy is described as "the ability to do work". However, these are not complete descriptions. At a basic level, we could say that the main difference between energy and matter is that matter refers to "objects" whereas energy refers to a property that an object could have Forms of energy: Energy = capacty to do work - Potentional engergy ○ Energy stored by matter - Kinetic energy ○ Matter in motion - Chemical energy ○ Potential energy that is stored in bonds of compounds and molecules ○ Law of conservation of energy- neither created nor destroyed, merely converted Energy Transfer - Exergonic reaction- releases energy (ex = out) - Endergonic reaction- abosrb energy (end = within) ○ Occurs as nutirents, glucose, are brocken down Activation energy - The collision energy needed to break the chemical bond of the recatants **In the body, thermal energy helps us to maintain a constant body temperature,mechanical energy helps us to move, and electrical energy sends nerve impulsesand fires signals to and from our brains. Energy is stored in foods and in the body aschemical energy.

Describe how a protein can become denatured. Explain the role of molecular chaperones.

• If a protein encounters an altered environment , it may unravel and lose its characteristic shape • proteins that assist the covalent folding or unfolding and assembly of other macromolecular structures - Denatured proteins are no longer functional Most proteins must fold into defined three-dimensional structures to gain functional activity. But in the cellular environment, newly synthesized proteins are at great risk of aberrant folding and aggregation, potentially forming toxic species. To avoid these dangers, cells invest in a complex network of molecular chaperones, which use ingenious mechanisms to prevent aggregation and promote efficient folding. Because protein molecules are highly dynamic, constant chaperone surveillance is required to ensure protein homeostasis

Relate plasma membrane structure to active and passive transport mechanisms

• Passive process- Substance crosses the membrane without using any energy. (simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis). High to low. • Active Process-Substance uses its own cellular energy to cross the membrane (against its gradient, uphill) a. In passive processes, a substance moves down its concentration or electrical gradient to cross the membrane using only its own kinetic energy (energy of motion). Kinetic energy is intrinsic to the particles that are moving. There is no input of energy from the cell. An example is simple diffusion. b. In active processes, cellular energy is used to drive the substance "uphill" against its concentration or electrical gradient. The cellular energy used is usually in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). An example is active transport. Another way that some substances may enter and leave cells is an active process in which tiny, spherical membrane sacs referred to as vesicles are used. Examples include endocytosis, in which vesicles detach from the plasma membrane while bringing materials into a cell, and exocytosis, the merging of vesicles with the plasma membrane to release materials from the cell.

Compare and contrast pinocytosis, phagocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.

• Pinocytosis- Form of endocytosis in which tiny droplets of extra cellular fluid are taken up (absorbs the fluid into the cell) • Phagocytosis-A form of endocytosis in which the cell engulfs large solid particles (worn-out cells, bacteria, viruses) • Recpetor-mediated endocytosis-Process by which a cell absorbs nutrients into the cell Receptor-mediated endocytosis substances bind to specific receptor proteins, enabling the cell to ingest and concentrate specific substances in protein coated vesicles. Ligand-receptor complexes trigger infolding of a clathrin-coated pit that forms a vesicle containing ligands. Ligands: transferrin, low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), some vitamins, certain hormones, and antibodies. Phagocytosis "Cell eating"; movement of a solid particle into a cell after pseudopods engulf it to form a phagosome. Bacteria, viruses, and aged or dead cells. Bulk-phase endocytosis (pinocytosis) "Cell drinking"; movement of extracellular fluid into a cell by infolding of plasma membrane to form a vesicle. Solutes in extracellular fluid.

Compare and contrast simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis relative to substances transported, direction, and mechanism

• Simple diffusion-Substances move through the lipid bolster w out the help of membrane transport proteins (non polar, hydrophobic molecules). Moves in the direction of the gradient (high to low) • Facilitated diffusion-Membrane protein assists in substances that are too polar or highly charged to cross the membrane. Moves against gradient. (High to low). Uses channels to do so Osmosis-Movement of water through a partially permeable membrane (low to high Simple diffusion is a passive process in which substances move freely through the lipid bilayer of the plasma membranes of cells without the help of membrane transport proteins (Figure 3.5). Nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules move across the lipid bilayer through the process of simple diffusion. Such molecules include oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen gases; fatty acids; steroids; and fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K). Small, uncharged polar molecules such as water, urea, and small alcohols also pass through the lipid bilayer by simple diffusion. Simple diffusion through the lipid bilayer is important in the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and body cells, and between blood and air within the lungs during breathing. It also is the route for absorption of some nutrients and excretion of some wastes by body cells. Facilitated Diffusion Solutes that are too polar or highly charged to move through the lipid bilayer by simple diffusion can cross the plasma membrane by a passive process called facilitated diffusion. In this process, an integral membrane protein assists a specific substance across the membrane. The integral membrane protein can be either a membrane channel or a carrier. a. CHANNEL-MEDIATED FACILITATED DIFFUSION In channel-mediated facilitated diffusion, a solute moves down its concentration gradient across the lipid bilayer through a membrane channel (Figure 3.5). Most membrane channels are ion channels, integral transmembrane proteins that allow passage of small, inorganic ions that are too hydrophilic to penetrate the nonpolar interior of the lipid bilayer. Each ion can diffuse across the membrane only at certain sites. In typical plasma membranes, the most numerous ion channels are selective for K+ (potassium ions) or Cl− (chloride ions); fewer channels are available for Na+ (sodium ions) or Ca2+ (calcium ions). Diffusion of ions through channels is generally slower than free diffusion through the lipid bilayer because channels occupy a smaller fraction of the membrane's total surface area than lipids. Still, facilitated diffusion through channels is a very fast process. A channel is said to be gated when part of the channel protein acts as a "plug" or "gate," changing shape in one way to open the pore and in another way to close it (Figure 3.6). Some gated channels randomly alternate between the open and closed positions; others are regulated by chemical or electrical changes inside and outside the cell. When the gates of a channel are open, ions diffuse into or out of cells, down their electrochemical gradients. The plasma membranes of different types of cells may have different numbers of ion channels and thus display different permeabilities to various ions. b. CARRIER-MEDIATED FACILITATED DIFFUSION In carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion, a carrier (also called a transporter) moves a solute down its concentration gradient across the plasma membrane (see Figure 3.5). Since this is a passive process, no cellular energy is required. The solute binds to a specific carrier on one side of the membrane and is released on the other side after the carrier undergoes a change in shape. The solute binds more often to the carrier on the side of the membrane with a higher concentration of solute. Once the concentration is the same on both sides of the membrane, solute molecules bind to the carrier on the cytosolic side and move out to the extracellular fluid as rapidly as they bind to the carrier on the extracellular side and move into the cytosol. The rate of carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion (how quickly it occurs) is determined by the steepness of the concentration gradient across the membrane. The number of carriers available in a plasma membrane places an upper limit, called the transport maximum, on the rate at which facilitated diffusion can occur. Once all of the carriers are occupied, the transport maximum is reached, and a further increase in the concentration gradient does not increase the rate of facilitated diffusion. Thus, much like a completely saturated sponge can absorb no more water, the process of carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion exhibits saturation. Substances that move across the plasma membrane by carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion include glucose, fructose, galactose, and some vitamins. Glucose, the body's preferred energy source for making ATP, enters many body cells by carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion as follows 1. Glucose binds to a specific type of carrier protein called the glucose transporter (GluT) on the outside surface of the membrane. 2. As the transporter undergoes a change in shape, glucose passes through the membrane. 3. The transporter releases glucose on the other side of the membrane. Osmosis ○ Osmosis (oz-MŌ-sis) is a type of diffusion in which there is net movement of a solvent through a selectively permeable membrane. Like the other types of diffusion, osmosis is a passive process. In living systems, the solvent is water, which moves by osmosis across plasma membranes from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration. Another way to understand this idea is to consider the solute concentration: In osmosis, water moves through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration. During osmosis, water molecules pass through a plasma membrane in two ways: (1) by moving between neighboring phospholipid molecules in the lipid bilayer via simple diffusion, as previously described, and (2) by moving through aquaporins (ak-wa-POR-ins; aqua- = water), integral membrane proteins that function as water channels. - A solution's tonicity (tō-NIS-i-tē; tonic = tension) is a measure of the solution's ability to change the volume of cells by altering their water content. - Cells placed in an isotonic solution maintain their shape because there is no net water movement into or out of the cells. A different situation results if RBCs are placed in a hypotonic solution (hī′-pō-TON-ik; hypo- = less than), a solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than the cytosol inside the cells(Figure 3.9). In this case, water molecules enter the cells faster than they leave, causing the RBCs to swell and eventually to burst. The rupture of RBCs in this manner is called hemolysis (hē-MOL-i-sis; hemo- = blood; -lysis = to loosen or split apart); the rupture of other types of cells due to placement in a hypotonic solution is referred to simply as lysis. Pure water is very hypotonic and causes rapid hemolysis. A hypertonic solution (hī′-per-TON-ik; hyper- = greater than) has a higher concentration of solutes than does the cytosol inside cells (Figure 3.9). One example of a hypertonic solution is a 2% NaCl solution. In such a solution, water molecules move out of the cells faster than they enter, causing the cells to shrink. Such shrinkage of cells is called crenation (kre-NĀ-shun).

List the survival needs of the body.

• nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temp 98.6, appropriate atmospheric pressure

Define Anatomy and Physiology; name and describe several branches of these sciences

○ Anatomy- Study of structure ○ Physiology- Study of how the body structures function Branches of Anatomy: 1. Embrology 2. Developmental Biology 3. Cell Biology 4. Hostology 5. Gross Anatomy 6. Systemic Antamoy Branches of Physilology 1. Neurophysiology 2. Endrocrinology 3. Cardiovalcular physiology 4. Immunology 5. Respiratory physiology 6. Renal physiology 7. Exercise Physiology 8. Pathophysiology

Define homeostasis and explain its importance.

○ Homeostasis- a condition of equilibrium, or balance, in the body's internal environment and is maintained by regulatory processes ○ Important aspect of homeostasis is maintaining the volume and compostion of Body Fluids, which are dilute watery solutions containing dissolved chamicals that are found inside cells and surrounding them ○ Intracellular fluid (ICF) - is the fluid within the cells. ○ Extracellular fluid (ECF)- the fluid outside the body cells. ○ Interstitial Fluid- ECF that fills the narrow spaces between cells of tissues § ECF differs depending on where it occurs □ Blood plasma- ECF within Blood vessels □ Lymph- within lymphatic vessels □ Cerebrospinal fluid- in and around the brain □ Synovial fluid- in or around joints □ Aqueous humor and vitreous body- The ECF of the eyes Control of Homeostasis - In most cases, the disruption of homeostasis is mild and temporary, and the responcses of body cells quickly restore balance in the internal enviornment. - Most often, the nervous system and endocrine system provide needed corrective measures. - Nerve system = nerve impulses - Endocrine System = hormones

Describe the major functional groups of organic molecules.

○ Hydroxyl § Alcohols contains an OH group, which is polar and hydrophilic. Dissolve easily in water ○ Sulfhydryl § Thiols have an SH group, which is polar and hydrophillic. Certain AA contain SH groups ○ Carbonyl § Ketones contain a carbonyl group within the carbon skeleton. Polar, hydrophillic ○ Carboxyl § Acids contain a carboxl group at the end of the carbon skeleton. Amino acids have COOH at the end. hydrophilic ○ Ester § Dietary fats and oils and occurs as triglycerides ○ Phosphate § Very hydrophillic § Ex: ATP ○ Amino § NH2 Act as a base

Explain the concept of selective permeability

○ The control that a cell membrane has in terms of what is allow to cross it (choose which molecules enter or leave) So, the more hydrophobic or lipid-soluble a substance is, the greater the membrane's permeability to that substance.

Explain how homeostatic imbalances are related to disorders.

○ The way you live your life can either support or interfere with your body's ability to maintain homeostasis ○ EX: smoking- easier to not smoke a all because smoking can lead to lung cancer due to the chemicals you expose to it. ○ A Disorder is an abnormality / disfunction. Disease is a more specific term for an illness characterized by a recognizable ste of signs and symptoms ○ Local disease- affects one part or a limited region of the body ○ Systemic diease affects either the entire body or several parts of it. ○ May experience symptoms- not apparent to observer ○ Signs-Objective changes that a clinician can observe and measure ○ Epidemiology- why when and where diseases occur and how they ate transmitted among individuals ○ Pharmacology- deals with the effect and suses of drugs in the treatment of disease.

Describe the properties of water and those of inorganic acids, bases, and salts; describe their importance to homeostasis in the body.

○ Water § Most important and abundant § It'S polar □ Makes it an excellent solvent for other ionic or polar substances, gives water cohesion, and allows it to resist temperature § Soltutes that are charges or contain polar covalent bonds are hydrophilic § Nonpolar cov bonds = hydrophobic (fats and oils) ○ During digestion, decomposition reactions break down large nutrient molecules into smaller molecules by th addition of water (Hydrolysis) ○ Dehydration synthesis reaction- a water molecule is one of the products formed ○ Thermal properties of water: § Water can absorb or release a relativley large amount of heat with only a modest change in its own temperature § High heat capacity § It lessens the impact or enviornmental tmep chanes § High heat of vaporization - it removes a large qauntity of heat when evaporating- cooling mechanism ○ Lubricant § Mucus § Needed in chest and abdomen where interal organs touch and slide over one another Inorganic Acids, Bases, Salts - When inorganic acids, bases, and salts dissolve in water, they dissociate; sperate into ions and become surrounded by water molecules - Acid is a proton donor - Base (alkaline) is a proton acceptor - Salts are electrolytes important for carrying electrical currents Acid- base balance: PH - Intracellular and extracellulat fluids must contain almost balanced quantityes of acids and bases - PH scale is based on the concentraton of H+