Animal Physiology Final Exam

Describe and explain oxygen and carbon dioxide transport from air to tissues.

-ventilation: exchange of the air between atmosphere and alveoli by bulk flow -exchange of O2 and CO2 between alveolar air and blood in lung capillaries by diffusion -transport of O2 and CO2 through pulmonary and systemic circulation by bulk flow -exchange of O2 and CO2 between blood in tissue capillaries and cells in tissues by diffusion -cellular utilization of O2 and production of CO2

Explain how cardiac output and the elasticity of the arteries affects arterial blood pressures.

Arterial blood pressure depends on the volume and the elasticity of the arteries.It is a lot like a balloon filled with water.

Describe/explain how the renal system responds to insufficient or excess water, to produce either low amounts of concentrated urine or large amounts of dilute urine.

By retaining as much water as possible, the kidneys minimize the rate at which dehydration occurs during water deprivation. In contrast, when plasma vasopressin concentration is low, both the cortical and medullary collecting ducts are relatively impermeable to water. As a result, a large volume of hypoosmotic urine is excreted, thereby eliminating an excess of water in the body.

Describe how cardiac output is neuro hormonally regulated to match tissue needs for oxygen.

Cardiac output is the volume of blood the heart pumps per minute. It is also referred as work done by the heart in response to the body's need for oxygen. Blood supply is reorganized to reflect these differences in metabolic need. The heart meets the demand of oxygen by pumping blood more rapidly which can be observed as an increase in absolute cardiac output.

Describe the neurons and control system for the control of breathing, and for homeostatic regulation of internal oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.

Control of neural activity resides in the neurons in the medulla. Neurons of the DRG primarily fire during inspiration Neurons in the VRG are located in the medulla. These neurons also are located in the pre-Botzinger complex (respiratory rhythm generator)

Describe/explain effects of smoking and other lung diseases.

Damages elastic fibers of bronchi, destroys alveolar walls, increases inflammation and mucous

What side-effects might glucono have?

Diarrhea, abdominal cramping, abdominal pain/discomfort, dyspepsia, bloating, gas

Describe hemoglobin-oxygen binding and transport, and explain the effect of pH and CO2 on this binding.

Each hemoglobin can carry 4 oxygen molecules in each of its 4 heme subunits. When oxygen bonds to a heme some of the tight junctions that hold the subunits together allowing for the rest of the subunits to bind to oxygen. CO2 reduces the rate of oxygen binding at heme sites and has deleterious effects.

Describe the structure and function of the heart valves, and of arterioles, explaining how these regulate blood flow

Heart Valves: Are like a one way door letting blood exit or enter then closing to keep blood from flowing backward. Arterioles:(Variable resistance outflow tubes made of smooth muscle) Control blood flow to specific tissues, control mean arterial pressure itself

Describe/explain heart attacks, and the mechanisms of action of common drugs that are used to treat high blood pressure and cardiac infarctions.

Heart attacks most commonly occur when arteriosclerosis leads to blockages of coronary arteries, leading to inadequate blood and oxygen delivery to heart tissue. vasodilator drugs such as nitroglycerin (which is a vasodilator because it is converted in the body to nitric oxide) help by dilating the coronary arteries and the systemic arterioles and veins.

Describe experiments that would test whether the absorption of glucono is active vs. passive (e.g. just leaking through cracks, or diffusing through membranes). What results will you get if the transport is active vs. passive? 3 pts.

If glucono is passive it will move through the epithelial walls without the aid of a transporter, so the saline outside of the intestine will just have glucono. If the transport is using the secondary active transporter then it will show up in the saline along with the glucono. In order to test this in an experiment you would look specifically look in the saline for the markers of active or passive transport as described above.

If the problem is with the cardiovascular system, then there is insufficient blood flow to the tissues. Measure arterial PO2 and oxygen content (or hemoglobin saturation).

If these are high, but Mr. X still gets tired, this points to a problem with the cardiovascular system. Perhaps cardiac output is impaired, or some tissues have poor vascular supply. 1.5/2 pts can also look at PO2 to see is cardio is working in conjunction with resp

If the problem is with the respiratory system, then there is insufficient delivery of oxygen from air to blood. Measure arterial PO2 and oxygen content (or hemoglobin saturation)

If these are normal, then the respiratory system is likely working well. If these are low, this points to a problem with the respiratory system.

Explain the effect of exercise and endurance training on cardiac structure and resting heart rate.

Long term endurance exercise causes the enlargement and strengthening of the heart which increases the stroke volume. This causes one beat of the heart to consume twice the oxygen and lower the heart rate.

Describe explain how cardiac function and blood pressure are measured

Pressure in the cuff is raised to stop blood flow through the artery under the cuff. The pressure is slowly released until it is possible to hear the sound of blood spurting through under the cuff-this is systolic pressure. When the sounds disappear, this occurs because the pressure in the artery is always greater than the pressure in the cuff, so this is diastolic pressure.

Explain how digestion and absorption of nutrients (sugars, fats, proteins, vitamins, ions) occurs.

Proteins are absorbed as amino acids, Carbohydrates are broken into simple sugars (monosaccharides) for absorption and fats are broken down into monoglycerides. These are absorbed after

Calculate total peripheral resistance from blood pressure and cardiac output

R= change in P/G r is resistance P is the change in pressure Q is is the flow through the casulature

Describe the neuroendocrine regulation of cardiovascular function and blood pressure (heart and arterioles).

Regulation of cardiovascular function and blood pressure happens in arterioles. responsible for regulating the pattern of blood-flow distribution to the various organs; participate in the regulation of arterial blood pressure.

Suppose you determine that the problem is with the respiratory system. How can you determine whether the problem is with ventilation (for example, problems with getting adequate fresh air to the alveoli) vs. with diffusion (for example, a problem like pulmonary edema that increases the diffusion distance from air to blood in the alveoli). What should you measure, and what should the numbers be if the problem is with ventilation? What should you measure, and what should the numbers be if the problem is with the lung diffusive capacity?

So, arterial PO2 is low, and/or oxygen content/hemoglobin saturation is low, indicating a problem with the respiratory system. A next step could be to measure alveolar PO2. If alveolar PO2 is lower than normal, this suggests a problem with ventilation of the alveoli. There could be a problem such as a blockage or inflammation that is making it difficult for the air to be delivered to the alveoli. 1.5/2 pts correct testing just need to make clear that alveolar PO2 would be expected to be lower Conversely, if alveolar PO2 is higher than normal (despite the low arterial PO2) then there is a problem with diffusion.This could be a problem such as pulmonary edema, which increases the diffusion distance from air to blood, causing poor oxygen delivery from air to blood. 0/3 pts One could also measure ventilation, but these data are hard to interpret. Ventilation can be higher than normal for many reasons, and total ventilation is not necessarily a good index of alveolar ventilation if there is a problem with partial blockages of the bronchioles.

You calculate their total peripheral resistance, and it is higher than normal. Describe three possible causes of high total peripheral resistance that are plausible, given the evidence, and indicate how you would test for these.

TPR= MAP/CO Possible causes of high blood pressure could be increased peripheral vascular resistance, decreased vessel elasticity as in peripheral artery disease, or increase in viscosity of blood. To test for blood viscosity drawing a sample of blood and testing each component to check if it is not within normal limits. Performing a complete blood count (CBC) would show if the patients blood showed increased viscosity. To test peripheral vascular resistance you could monitor blood pressure with a noninvasive sphygmomanometer or an invasive Swan-Ganz device. Finally, to test vessel elasticity, imaging such as ultrasound can be obtained to determine if the vessels have stiffened or not.

Describe experiments that will test whether the active transport of glucono requires luminal Na+

Test the transport of glucono with and without the addition of luminal and measure which is more effective.

Explain how the chemical properties of hemoglobin relate to its ability to transport oxygen

The amino groups are what make it able to have hydrogen bonding with oxygen. This is also what makes it a better fit to bond with CO.

Describe the cellular mechanisms at the sinoatrial node and how these set heart rate.

The brain controls the heart via the autonomic nervous system. The parasympathetic nervous system reaches the heart via the vagus nerve, which releases acetylcholine onto the pacemaker cells of the sinoatrial node, slowing heart rate. The sympathetic nervous system reaches the heart via sympathetic nerves which secrete norepinephrine onto the sinoatrial node and ventricle. The SNS can also secrete epinephrine into the blood. Both norepinephrine and epinephrine can, speed up heart rate. Both can also increase the strength of the ventricular contraction.

Describe the cellular mechanisms of neurohormonal regulation of the heart and vasculature

The brain controls the heart via the autonomic nervous system. The parasympathetic nervous system reaches the heart via the vagus nerve, which releases acetylcholine onto the pacemaker cells of the sinoatrial node, slowing heart rate. The sympathetic nervous system reaches the heart via sympathetic nerves which secrete norepinephrine onto the sinoatrial node and ventricle. The SNS can also secrete epinephrine into the blood. Both norepinephrine and epinephrine can, speed up heart rate. Both can also increase the strength of the ventricular contraction.

Describe/explain the components of the circulatory system and how flow is regulated by the microvasculature

The components of the circulatory system are the cardiovascular(heart), pulmonary (lungs) and the systemic (arteries, veins, coronary and portal vessels). These are all connected by blood vessels and the blood flow is regulated by microvasculature

Explain the hypoxia induces production of new red blood cells via erythropoietin responses

The decreased O2 in circulation is recognised by kidneys and kidneys releases hormone called erythropoietin. Erythropoietin is produced by peritubular capillary lining cells of the kidney. It is critical to the production of red blood cells.

Describe the many systems involved in red blood cell production, and how these are regulated

The decreased O2 in circulation is recognised by kidneys and kidneys releases hormone called erythropoietin. Erythropoietin is produced by peritubular capillary lining cells of the kidney. It is critical to the production of red blood cells. The erythropoietin circulates in the plasma and acts on specific target cells in the bone marrow through receptors. Finally the bone marrow produces red blood cells.

Describe how the diaphragm and intercostal muscles drive ventilation and the mechanics of breathing

The diaphragm and the intercostal muscles create intrapleural pressure and this causes the lungs and thoracic wall to move in and out together during normal breathing.

Describe/explain how the heart functions to pump blood

The heart is a dual pump in that the left and right sides of the heart pump blood separately—but simultaneously—into the systemic and pulmonary vessels. Efficient pumping of blood requires that the atria contract first, followed almost immediately by the ventricles. Contraction of cardiac muscle, like that of skeletal muscle and many smooth muscles, is triggered by depolarization of the plasma membrane. Gap junctions interconnect myocardial cells and allow action potentials to spread from one cell to another. The initial excitation of one cardiac cell eventually results in the excitation of all cardiac cells

Describe the structure of the lungs and alveoli, and how these facilitate ventilation and diffusion of gases between lungs and blood.

The lungs have negative pressures that lead to expansion in the intrapleural space. Alveoli are spherical and small, but there are a lot of them this means that there is a large surface area

Explain how the renal system contributes to blood pressure regulation.

The renin-angiotensin system or RAS regulates blood pressure and fluid balance in the body

Vomiting causes the loss of acid from the body, and is often accompanied by a rise in blood pH. How does the ventilatory system compensate?

The ventilatory system compensates by reducing ventilation in relation to metabolic rate. This causes PCO2 to rise and that lowers the pH toward the homeostatic setpoint

Describe/explain the chemosensory control of cardiac output and vasoconstriction.

The volume of blood each ventricle pumps as a function of time in liters/minute is cardiac output. It is controlled by heart rate and stroke rate and they balance eachother

You discover that heart rates, stroke volumes and heart size are all normal. What possible causes of high blood pressure does this eliminate?

There are four possible causes of high blood pressure that are eliminated, left ventricular hypertrophy or other myocardium conditions, conditions affecting chronotropy, conditions affecting ejection fraction, conditions affecting contractility

Explain a pneumothorax.

This happens when air leaks into space between your lung and chest wall. This air pushes on the outside of the lung and makes it collapse

Describe how the different regions of the nephron interact to produce kidney function, including the glomerular filtration, reabsorption at the proximal tubule, and the roles of the loop of Henle and collecting duct.

Urine from each nephron flows into collecting ducts and then drain to the renal calyx. The urine then passes through ureters to the bladder for storage. During urination, urine moves from the bladder through the urethra to the outside. order: proximal tubule, descending loop of henle, ascending loop of henle, distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct

Describe experiments that will test whether glucono can reduce secondary active transport of glucose in a dose-dependent manner

Using specific doses of glucono along with glucose. Then you can measure the effectiveness of the transport and determine how much glucose is being transported. This will help to determine the exact amount of glucono needed to optimize performance.

Describe and explain the anatomical and functional variation observed in vertebrate hearts.

Vertebrate hearts are broadly similar in structure and regulation, with differences in chambers arising late in development.

Select the likely consequences of a gallstone that blocks the bile but not the pancreatic duct. (Select all that apply.) Yes, that's correct! a. Poor fat digestion b. Poor carbohydrate digestion c. Jaundice (yellow tint to skin) d. Constipation

a and c

Which of the following statements are likely to occur when a drug blocks beta-adrenergic receptors on the heart? (Select all that apply.) No, that's not the correct answer. a. Decrease heart rate b. Increase calcium levels in heart cells c. Decrease heart contractility d. Increase cAMP

a and c

Which of the following will tend to increase arterial blood pressure? (Select all that apply.) Yes, that's correct! a. Increase in cardiac output b. Increase in urinary output c. Increase in plasma volume d. Increasing parasympathetic output

a and c

Which of the following statements are TRUE about the structure of hemoglobin? (Select all that apply.) Yes, that's correct! a. The hemoglobin molecule is a protein made up of four subunits bound together. b. Each of the four heme groups in a hemoglobin molecule contains one atom of iron (Fe2+), to which molecular oxygen binds. c. 2,3 diphosphoglycerate increases hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen. d. The relationship between the percentage of saturation of hemoglobin and PO2 is linear.

a, b

Select the TRUE statements about pulmonary surfactants? (Select all that apply.) Yes, that's correct! a. They are secreted by alveolar cells b. They lower the surface tension at the alveolar surface c. They reduce airway resistance d. They are made of lipids and proteins

a,b and d

Which of the following effects will occur in case of a severe pulmonary edema? (Select all that apply.) No, that's not the correct answer. a. Alveolar PO2 will rise b. Arterial PO2 will fall c. Alveolar PCO2 will fall d. Arterial PCO2 will rise

a,b,c and d

Which of the following are normal corrective responses of the body to hypoxia? (Select all that apply.) No, that's not the correct answer. a. An increase in erythropoietin increases the production of red blood cells b. A rise in ventilation c. An increase in heart rate d. An increased production of lactic acid

a,b,c,d

Which of the following effects will occur in case of a severe pulmonary edema? (Select all that apply.) No, that's not the correct answer. a. Alveolar PO2 will rise b. Arterial PO2 will fall c. Alveolar PCO2 will fall d. Arterial PCO2 will rise

a,b,c,d

Select the TRUE statement(s) about respiratory diseases. (Select all that apply.) No, that's not the correct answer. a. Severe mountain sickness can cause pulmonary edema. b. Smoking often damages alveolar walls, making oxygen delivery difficult or impossible. c. At high altitudes, humans adapt by enlarging the lungs and increasing the number of alveoli. d. Severe mountain sickness causes pulmonary edema due to high pressures in the pulmonary artery, induced by hypoxia and the sympathetic nervous system.

a,b,d

Choose the TRUE statement(s) about animal respiratory systems. (Select all that apply.) No, that's not the correct answer. a. Water breathers have to work harder to get oxygen because there is less oxygen in water than air and water is heavy. b. All animals have respiratory systems. c. Unlike air-breathers, water-breathers tend to be the same temperature as their medium, because water has a higher thermal conductivity than air. d. Water-breathers tend to have higher PCO2 levels than air-breathers because it is more challenging for them to exchange gases.

a,c

Which of the following factors influence the rise in ventilation during exercise? (Select all that apply.) No, that's not the correct answer. a. A rise in K+ in the blood during heavy exercise b. A drop in PO2 in the blood c. Feedback from sensory neurons in the skeletal muscles d. Input from centers of the brain driving locomotion

a,c and d

Describe/explain altitude sickness, pulmonary edema, sickle-cell anemia, and blood doping.

altitude sickness: hypoxia that stimulates sympathetic nervous system, raising pulmonary arterial pressures. pulmonary edema: fluid accumulation in tissue and air spaces of the lungs that lead to impaired gas exchange sickle cell anemia: abnormal protein that alters the structure of hemoglobin, making it hard for it to deliver oxygen blood doping: deliver oxygenated blood into the receiver and increases hemoglobin in the blood stream.

A drug that blocks the NaCl cotransporter on the cortical collecting duct apical membrane will have what effect on urinary sodium and water loss? No, that's not the correct answer. a. Urinary sodium and water output will decrease. b. Urinary sodium and water output will increase. c. Urinary sodium output will increase but water output will decrease. d. Urinary sodium output will decrease but water output will increase.

b

Blood flow through vessel A, 1 mm in diameter, occurs with a 10 kPa pressure gradient from one end to the other. Blood flow through vessel B, 2 mm in diameter, occurs with a 1 kPa pressure gradient from one end to the other. Other conditions are identical. Compared to vessel A, blood flow in vessel B is ____. No, that's not the correct answer. a. 1/10 as fast b. 1.6 times faster c. 16 times slower d. 10 times faster

b

Calculate the partial pressure of oxygen at a barometric pressure of 500 mm Hg if oxygen is 20% of the air. Yes, that's correct! a. 500 mmHg b. 100 mmHg c. 20 mmHg d. 160 mmHg e. 10,000 mm Hg

b

Choose the TRUE statement about dialysis. Yes, that's correct! a. Toxins are actively removed from the blood by the dialysis machine. b. Potassium levels in the dialysis tubing should be similar to the normal regulated blood potassium level. c. Creatinine levels in the dialysis tubing should be similar to the normal regulated blood creatinine level. d. Dialysis treatment should eliminate an anemia caused by renal damage.

b

Compared to the arteries, speed of blood flow in the capillaries is __________. Yes, that's correct! a. faster b. slower c. the same

b

Excessive consumption of calcium, and high calcium levels in the blood will likely cause ____________. Yes, that's correct! a. raising levels of aldosterone b. lowering levels of parathyroid hormone c. lowering secretion of vasopressin d. decreasing atrial natriuretic hormone

b

Protein deficiency tends to cause edema because __________. Yes, that's correct! a. blood pressure rises, pushing fluid out of the capillary b. a decrease in plasma protein levels reduces the osmotic force driving fluid into the capillary c. a rise in angiotensin promotes vasoconstriction d. activation of the parasympathetic nervous system

b

The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is one liter per min, and compound X has a plasma concentration of 2 mmol/liter. Urine production rate is 0.1 liter per min, and the concentration of compound X 30 mmol/liter. What do these data indicate? Yes, that's correct! a. Compound X is mostly reabsorbed. b. Compound X is not reabsorbed and is also secreted. c. Complete reabsorption of compound X can account for these data. d. Compound X is not filtered.

b

What does it mean to be anemic? No, that's not the correct answer. a. Your hemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen. b. You have less hemoglobin in your blood. c. The hemoglobin tertiary and quaternary structure is altered. d. Your hemoglobin has a higher affinity for CO2.

b

Which structures are restricted, causing an asthma attack? Yes, that's correct! a. Trachea b. Bronchioles c. Alveoli d. Capillaries

b

Why does vomiting often cause a reduction in breathing rate? Yes, that's correct! a. Reduced breathing occurs to allow PCO2 to rise to aid in the increase in blood bicarbonate. b. Reduced breathing causes an increase in PCO2 which lowers pH toward the setpoint after vomiting causes a loss in acid and rise in blood pH. c. Reduced breathing causes a fall in PCO2 which lowers the pH, moving blood pH toward its homeostatic setpoint. d. Reduced breathing causes a fall in blood PCO2, raising the pH, moving blood pH toward its homeostatic setpoint.

b

Choose the TRUE statement(s) about neural control of breathing. (Select all that apply.) No, that's not the correct answer. a. The breathing rhythm is generated by neurons in the hypothalamus. b. Breathing rate is modified by peripheral receptors that sense levels of oxygen in the carotid artery. c. An elevation in blood PCO2 will increase breathing rate. d. An elevation in blood pH will increase breathing rat

b and c

Which of the following will tend to increase blood flow to skeletal muscle? (Select all that apply.) No, that's not the correct answer. a. A rise in muscle pH (more alkaline) b. A rise in muscle CO2 level c. A rise in plasma epinephrine d. Activation of the parasympathetic nervous system

b and c

Choose the TRUE statement(s) about a drug that blocks the ability of vasopressin to bind to its receptors on the collecting duct. (Select all that apply.) Yes, that's correct! a. There will be more aquaporin molecules on the apical membrane of the collecting duct. b. Urinary water output will increase. c. More water will be reabsorbed across the collecting duct. d. This drug could be very dangerous for a person deprived of water in the desert.

b and d

What effects would a tumor that caused chronic secretion of renin expected to have? (Select all that apply.) Yes, that's correct! a. Elevated plasma concentration of angiotensin I b. Elevated blood pressure c. Lower aldosterone levels d. Increased water and salt reabsorption by the nephron

b and d

What intestinal processes would be inhibited by a toxin that blocked the basolateral Na+/K+ ATPases on the intestinal epithelium? (Select all that apply.) Yes, that's correct! a. Movement of fatty acids across the apical membrane b. Transport of glucose into the epithelium across the apical membrane c. Transport of fructose into the epithelium across the apical membrane d. Transport of potassium into the epithelium across the basolateral membrane

b and d

Which of the following usually occur during exercise? (Select all that apply.) Yes, that's correct! a. Increase in blood flow to the kidneys b. Increase in sympathetic nervous system output c. Increase in total peripheral resistance d. Increase in stroke volume

b and d

Choose the TRUE statement(s) about micturition. (Select all that apply.) No, that's not the correct answer. a. In a patient with a spinal injury (no neural connection between brain and bladder or urinary sphincters), urine will flow constantly from the bladder to the outside. b. During the filling phase, smooth muscles in the wall of the bladder are inhibited and relaxed, but smooth muscles of the urinary sphincters are stimulated and contracting. c. During the micturition phase, the detrusor muscle is stimulated to contract by a spinal reflex via parasympathetic neurons. d. The internal urinary sphincter is under voluntary control.

b,c

Select the TRUE statement(s) about saltwater fish when compared to freshwater fish. (Select all that apply.) No, that's not the correct answer. a. Have much higher blood osmotic pressure b. Drink more water c. Excrete more NaCl at the gill d. Urinate less

b,c,d

Select the statement(s) associated with heavy exercise in high heat, with lots of sweating and no eating or drinking. (Select all that apply.) No, that's not the correct answer. a. Activation of the parasympathetic nervous system b. High plasma levels of aldosterone c. High plasma levels of atrial natriuretic peptide d. High plasma levels of vasopressin

b,d

Explain the many possible causes of anemia.

blood loss, decreased production of faulty red blood cells or destruction of red blood cells

Choose the statement that is TRUE. Yes, that's correct! a. Most digestion occurs in the stomach. b. Most of the fluid absorbed by the gut is absorbed by the large intestine. c. Cells in the stomach wall include muscle cells, neurons, endocrine cells, acid-secreting cells, and mucous-secreting cells. d. The liver secretes acidic bile.

c

If the mean arterial pressure is 100 mm Hg and cardiac output is 5 liters per minute, calculate the total peripheral resistance. No, that's not the correct answer. a. 500 mm Hg liters min-1 b. 0.05 liters min-1 mm Hg-1 c. 20 mm Hg min liter-1 d. 5 liters per min

c

Select the correct order of blood flow through the heart. Yes, that's correct! a. Pulmonary vein - Right atria - left atria - left ventricle - right ventricle - aorta b. Vena cava - left atria - left ventricle - pulmonary vein - pulmonary artery - right atria - right ventricle -aorta c. Vena cava - right atria - right ventricle - pulmonary artery - pulmonary vein - left atria - left ventricle - aorta d. Pulmonary vein - right atria - left atria - aorta - vena cava - left atria - left ventricle - pulmonary artery

c

Select the correct sequence of structures that inulin (a filtered, non-absorbed compound) will travel through in the urinary system. Yes, that's correct! a. Renal artery, proximal tubule, distal tubule, loop of Henle, collecting duct, bladder b. Renal artery, Bowman's capsule, proximal tubule, pericapillary network, renal vein c. Renal artery, afferent arteriole, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, collecting duct, ureter, bladder, urethra d. Renal artery, afferent arteriole, efferent arteriole, Bowman's capsule, loop of Henle, collecting duct, ureter, bladder, urethra

c

Select the statement that is TRUE during expiration? Yes, that's correct! a. Transpulmonary pressure (Ptp)= 0 b. Alveoli pressure (Palv)− atmospheric pressure (Patm)= 0, and Palv = Patm c. Palv is greater than Patm, Palv − Patm is positive and airflow is outward d. Intrapleural pressure (Pip) becomes more negative

c

Which of the following drugs are likely to reduce blood pressure: (Select all that apply.) Yes, that's correct! a. An agonist of alpha and beta adrenergic receptors b. An antagonist of muscarinic receptors c. A drug that increases sodium excretion d. A drug that blocks calcium channels on myocardial cells

c and d

Which of the following are consequences of hyperventilation? No, that's not the correct answer. a. Increasing H+ levels b. Increasing alveolar PCO2 c. Decreasing arterial PCO2 d. Higher blood pH

c, d

Choose the statement that is TRUE. Yes, that's correct! a. Fat absorption from lumen to blood occurs completely by diffusion. b. Peristalsis of the stomach requires coordination of multiple motor neurons from the spinal cord. c. Histamine inhibits acid secretion by the stomach. d. Most digestive enzymes are produced by the pancreas.

d

If heart rate is 100 beats per minute and cardiac output is 5000 ml/min, then stroke volume is ______. Yes, that's correct! a. 5,000 ml b. 500,000 ml c. 100 ml d. 50 ml

d

Select the TRUE statement. Yes, that's correct! a. During ventricular diastole, arterial pressure drops to zero. b. During ventricular systole, the semilunar valves remain closed. c. During atrial systole, the atrioventricular valves are closed. d. The P wave occurs during ventricular diastole.

d

Explain the cellular mechanisms of the autonomic nervous system on the heart.

the autonomic nervous system affects the rate and force of heart contractions. The autonomic nervous system is regulated by the hypothalamus. The sympathetic nervous system has control on and releases the hormones such as catecholamines, epinephrine and norepinephrine to accelerate the heart rate. The parasympathetic nervous system releases the acetylcholine to slow the heart rate.

Be able to explain how the structure of the respiratory system allows aquatic animals to breathe underwater

the branches of the respiratory system are what allows aquatic animals to breath underwater.

Explain the control of digestive enzyme production and secretion.

the digestive enzymes are released by exocrine glands by exocytosis in the duct that connects to the GI tract

Insects have a heart. True or False? Yes, that's correct! a. True b. False

true

Calculate blood flow through vessels based on the Hagan Poiseulle law

v=Q/A (blood flow/cross sectional area)