ANSC 609 Final Exam

Body Condition Score

1. Emaciated 2. Somewhat emaciated 3. Individual ribs visible 4. Individual ribs not obvious 5. Can feel fat cover over ribs and tail head 6. Pressure needed to feel spine 7. Some fat in brisket, feels spongy over ribs 8. Very fleshy, brisket full, cannot feel spine 9. Extremely fleshy and bulky Look at specific points 5-6 good range

Fall Calving System disadvantages

Adequate supply of good quality forage not available Feed a lactating cow more feed than a pregnant non-lactating cow- Need more energy/grain

Beef's Product Value

Beef is the largest money-generating livestock commodity in agriculture U.S. has 4.7% of world population, raises 7.1% of the world's cattle, and produces 21% of the world's beef and veal- Efficient production in US

first trimester

Calves weaned when cow pregnant 125 DAYS Cow nurses a calf throughout the 1st trimester It begins when the nursing cow settles- Pregnancy Usually pregnant within 80 day window It ends when the calf is weaned Creep feed calf- Nutrient rich feed accessible to calf only Facilitate transition from liquid phase to solid phase Helps develop rumen phase Towards the end of the 1st trimester milk production decreases Calves will consume more forage

Purpose of the Beef Cattle Industry

Convert resources that would otherwise go to waste into high quality meat- Human food production by- products Resources include grass, waste materials (e.g., corn stalks, wheat straw) and by-products (e.g., brewer's grains, distiller's grains, sugar beet pulp, expired bakery and candy) 52% of the agricultural land in the U.S. is grazing land- US one of top beef producers of world

Bovine Terminology

Cow- Adult female bovine Heifer- A female bovine that has not had a calf Bull- Intact male bovine Steer- Castrated male bovine

Beef Cattle Management

Cow-calf operations- Pasture/paddock based Keeps calf until ~6 months Calf sold- Eventually go to feedlots usually Seedstock producers- Sell genetics Purebred animals Certified crossbreds Yearlings or stock operators Finishing operations- Feedlot based- Not all have grain-based diets Grass fed finished on pasture- Longer than grain diet Gain weight slower Often smaller operations

second trimester

Generally dry Nutrient requirement lowest Extremely emaciated and listless80 days When calf is weaned, cow's nutrient requirements are lowest- No longer nursing calf Easiest time to adjust cow's body condition- BCS lower Not usually fat at this point- Unless fed lot of grain or access to high quality pasture Body condition score (BCS)- Assess body fat reserves and overall energy status Beef cattle system 1 to 9- Very emaciated if 1 Cows should calve with BCS of 4 to 7- Depends on spring v fall calving, pasture quality and access, supplementation

The Postpartum Period

Includes the time from parturition until the cow settles- Calving to next pregnancy The postpartum interval must be kept to no longer than about 80 d Cows calving with a BCS <4 will likely have an increased postpartum interval- Not enough nutrition= not enough energy to get back into cycle, nursing calf Cows and especially heifers receiving inadequate nutrition during their pregnancy have poor reproductive performance- Dystocia (calving difficulty)- Mostly heifers Lowered conception rate Increased embryonic mortality- No attachment of embryo in uterus Decreased neonatal survival- Too weak when born After calving, the cow begins to lactate and will peak in milk production (11 to 27 lb/d)- Goal is not to sell milk, just nurse calf The cow's greatest need for nutrients occurs during the postpartum period- Greatest energy requirement If fresh forage is not available, it will be necessary to feed conserved forages (hay, silage) and maybe an energy supplement- Grain sources Grazing cattle should receive a mineral supplement-

Nutrition Goals for the Breeding Herd

Maintain reproductive, healthy brood cows Achieve conception in cows by 80 d post-calving to maintain a 12-month calving interval One calf per year is ideal Need to meet nutrient requirements for calves when born to keep healthy and strong- Sometimes born in winter months Produce strong, healthy, neonatal calves

Calving Systems and BCS

Management strategies Most prefer calving in fall US calf in spring Fall- Calf September-November Nursing in winter- Supplement cow diet to support milk production Gain BCS over summer Weaning July-August More weight in spring Sell in fall = heavier Spring- Calf January-March Lactating in summer- High quality pasture= less supplements Weaned in August-September Lower sale price = not as heavy

Products from the Beef Industry

Meat Leather Medical products Trypsin- Cleaning wounds and ulcers Thrombin- Blood coagulation Fat- Lubricants and fluids Industrial cleaners and fertilizers Printing ink and high gloss for magazines Automobile and bicycle tires- Stearic acid (C18:0 fatty acid)- Helps rubber hold its shape under constant surface friction

Mineral Block

Minerals can be leaking from grain Trace/microminerals more deficient Mineral blocks supplement diets

Top States for Meat Production

Nebraska- Lot of corn production

Open

Not yet pregnant Need to become pregnant in open period to maintain 1 calf born per year Produce milk ~6 months- Open period and first trimester

third trimester

Nutrient requirements go up- Fastest growth of fetus May need higher quality feeds or supplementation at start of lactation 80 days Nutrient requirements of cow increase due to rapidly growing fetus In spring calving programs, third trimester is during winter- Most common in US Cold temperatures will increase the cow's energy requirements if the environmental temperature falls below the cow's lower critical temperature (LCT) Below the LCT, the energy will be partitioned with a greater portion being oxidized to maintain body temperature- Generate heat- Consume lot of feed = produce heat when metabolized Partition energy toward heat production by oxidation LCT will depend on body size, BCS (too thin = not enough fat cover), hide thickness, hair coat, and energy intake- Access to wind break can help

Cattle Paths

Pre-conditioning from October-November (35 d; 600 lbs.) = bought from cow-calf operations, go from mostly milk diet transition to more solid diet (forage, dry feeds, grain), can go to feedlot or winter grazing Backgrounding from October-January (100 d; 800 lbs.) = forage grain silage, go to feedlots after Dry lot winter from October to April (175 d; 725 lbs. )= feeding basically forage, not lot of grain Stocker from April-September (160 d; 1,000 lbs.) = buy calves to add weight, pretty much on pasture, some grain supplementation, can go straight to feedlot Winter grazing from November-April (175 d; 725 lbs.) = pasture in winter, go to feedlots after Most calving takes place in spring Birth weight size ~ 45 pounds Usually wean about 6 months Feedlots not only options to finish

Creep Feeding Beef Calves

Quicker rebreeding of brood cows- Produce a lower amount of milk Energy used for heat production Increase calf weight gain More uniform calf weights Reduces weaning stress- VFAs produced when consuming solid feed Promote rumen development - Butyric acid/butyrate increases rumen absorption capacity Increases cost Market value of calves vs. feed price Availability and quality of forage- Decrease need for grain Age- 3 wks old Creep feeder location- Water, shade, and salt Consumption- 1 lb/d for each 100 lb of BW

Fall Calving System

Weather generally mild- Warm days and cool nights, and dry High quality forage during spring lead to heavier calves Calf sold as weaned feeder calf in August = $$

Swine Body Condition Score

o "Too thin"- § Hips and backbone are somewhat prominent o "Good"- § Hips and backbone are not visible o "Over-conditioned"- § Hips and backbone cannot be felt

Horse small intestine

o 30% of the capacity of the digestive tract o Protein, peptides, starch, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and fat digestion by pancreatic enzymes- § Polymers § In horses, bile secretion is constant straight from the liver because they lack the gall bladder- · No storage for bile salts or acids · Goes well with the smaller more frequent food consumption o Key location for absorption of simple sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, and minerals & vitamins

horse cecum and colon

o 62% of the capacity of the digestive tract- § Big fermentation chambers o High rate of microbial fermentation- § Allows for digestion of fiber (cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin)- · Fiberlytic § Digest starch o Products- § Volatile fatty acids (acetate, propionate, and butyrate) § Vitamins (K and B-complex) § Microbial protein (lost in the feces- · Not take advantage of high-quality amino acids from bacterial protein o Location of fermentation chamber- § After the major site for absorption (i.e., the small intestine) o Survive on high forage diet

Horse BCS

o Areas- § Neck § Withers § Back crease § Tailhead § Ribs § Behind shoulder

Structure of Long Bones

o Articular cartilage attaches to epiphysis- § Location of bone growth o Growth too quickly- § Adds pressure and can lead to inflammation of epiphysis § Forms cysts- · Degeneration occurring

Exercise Nutrition

o As exercise begins, increased muscle contraction rate demands ATP- § Becomes more conditioned with more exercise o As a result, more glucose is oxidized (glycolysis), more fatty acids oxidized to acetate/acetyl CoA, more oxidation in the TCA cycle, more NADH2 (reducing agent) into the electron transportation chain, and more ATPs are produced- § Aerobic exercise- · Oxygen needed for reactions to take place (final acceptor) · Highly trained = higher oxygen intake- o Burn fat and glucose o Endurance- § Longer times § Glucose in glycolysis = up to 38 ATP § Microbes in cecum produce acetate/acetyl CoA through fermentation process- · Also produced when cells oxidize glucose- o Not the same produced by bacteria o If exercise continuous in a moderate pace, these set of biochemical pathways can supply enough energy for hours o If more fatty acids are needed, they will be released from the adipose tissue and moved to the muscles o As exercise intensity increases, rates of the fatty acid-oxidizing pathway continue to increase as well o If intensity continues to go up, these reactions will be proceeding at their maximal aerobic exercise rates- § Reach threshold o During aerobic exercise, cells are at their aerobic threshold and O2 supply to the cells is maximal- § Keep going by anaerobic respiration- o However, any additional energy must come from anaerobic reaction, which is the oxidation of glucose to 2 pyruvates in glycolysis and then pyruvate to lactic acid- § Does not require oxygen § Build-up of lactic acid in muscles as result o These reactions provide only 2 net ATPs for every mole glucose (low efficiency) o Problem with anaerobic exercise is when animal reaches maximal ability to do work and take in O2, the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate forms lactic acid o Some of this lactic acid can return to the liver, be converted with almost 100% efficiency back to glucose, can return to muscle to supply 4 more ATPs o The recycling of lactate from the muscle, and conversion of lactate to glucose in liver, with glucose returning to muscle to supply more ATP, known as Cori cycle (second and third picture)- § Not sustainable o However, depending on the genetic makeup of the animal and the amount of physical training done, either the pain stimuli from the nerves in the muscle or the building up of lactic acid (also causing pain), or the limit of O2 delivery to the cells, or the build-up of CO2 in the blood, slow the animal down o As goes from resting to intense exercise- § Use glucose in glycogen stores § Total energy use goes up § Lactic acid output increases § Fats decrease- · Glycogen stores depleted § More trained horses have better oxygen intake- · More RBCs o Hitting the wall- § Cannot keep up with oxygen uptake § Anaerobic respiration- · Slows down

Mineral Balance

o Because of the rapid rise in heat production due to exercise metabolism, the horse can lose 1 L of sweat for about 600 Kcal of heat generated in 7 to 8 min of moderate trot o A maximum sweat rate can range from 9 to 15 L/h- § Loss of water and electrolytes § Need to be replenished o Na, K, and Cl are lost in significant amounts while Ca and P in lesser amounts o Grain supplement formulated to increase the amount of these minerals should be used or a balanced free-choice mineral mix- § Replenish lost minerals o Minerals or salt should not be added to drinking water- § Reduce water intake

grower

o Birds are fed the grower diet from 6 wk to sexual maturity (start to lay eggs) o By the end of this phase (21 wks after hatching) birds are sexually mature o Weigh approximately 3.25 lbs (1,475 g)

Swine Terminology

o Boar- § Intact male hog kept only for breeding purposes o Barrow- § Castrated male hog o Gilt- § Female pig that has not yet given birth o Sow- § Female pig that has given birth o Farrow- § Term used to indicate giving birth

Anaerobic Fermentation

o Can take advantage of fiber due to microbiota § Located in cecum o Plant cell walls- § ADF § Carbohydrates fermented by fibrolytic bacteria - · Sugars initial product § Lignin not digestible o Non structural CHO- § Fermented and split to produce glucose o Glucose- § Microbes use to grow and energy o Microbes in cecum- § Utilize glucose (energy), protein (amino acids), fats (lipid degradation) § Amino acids taken up by other microbes § Fatty acids can be used to make cell membranes § Produce fermentation end products- · Carbon dioxide, methane gasses (methane less of an issue in horses) · Acetate, and butyrate absorbed and used for energy/fat · Propionate converted into glucose in intestinal lining and liver o Bacterial cells and bacterial protein lost in feces

Energy Partition

o Cannot calculate digestible energy, use metabolizable energy- § Urine and feces excreted together § Very little gas production

layers

o Chickens that produce eggs intended for food use o Leghorn-type chicken o Most common breed - leghorn o Most producers use cage system o Enrich colonies simulate natural behaviors slightly more than conventional cages- § Enriched colonies in between of conventional cages and aviary

Layer Diets

o Chicks grow very fast o All purpose is single feed potentially used for all ages- § Not recommended for commercial enterprises FEED PROTEIN LEVEL (%) AGE OF BIRDS FEED INTAKE/10 BIRDS/ AGE PERIOD Chick starter 20-22 0-6 weeks 20-29 lbs Pullet grower 14-16 6-20 weeks 120-130 lbs Layer 15-18 20 weeks on 18-24 lbs/week All purpose* 16 All ages

Role of Fat

o Commercial product better than mixing oil into grain- § Messy § Fat can go rancid- · Loose quality o If you decide to mix oil, mix thoroughly, and only mix what the horse will eat in a couple of days o Main question is: "If, when, and why" one should feed more fat than is normally present in foods horses consume- § Account for energy difference when in exercise § Better to purchase supplements than try to use vegetable oils o Prolonged or strenuous exercise or work is the major situation in which horses can benefit from fat o Improves power to weight ratio (energy density)- § Decreases bulkiness in the digestive tract- · Fat takes up less space o Decreases heat production- § Metabolic & microbial § Not metabolized extensively by microbes § More heat partitioned toward performance o Fat spares glycogen- § Glycogen = sugar reserves § More energy available- · Save some glycogen stores

β-Glucans and Xylans in chickens

o Comprise a group of β-D-glucose polysaccharides naturally occurring in the cell walls of cereals, yeast, bacteria, and fungi, with significantly differing physicochemical properties dependent on source o Non-starch polysaccharide o Typically form a linear backbone with 1-3 β-glycosidic bonds but vary with respect to molecular mass, solubility, viscosity, branching structure, and gelation properties, causing diverse physiological effects in animals o Viscous digesta- § More solid § Damage intestinal lining of small intestine § Villi length decreases- · Less absorption § Drop in intake and feed efficiency

Obesity Issues

o Consuming more calories than using o Too much body fat increases stress on the circulatory, respiratory, and skeletal systems, ultimately shortening the animals' life span o Excess fat gain during pregnancy can lead to problems foaling- § Dystocia o Feed slightly less than the animal would willingly eat- § Specifically grain § More so if not consistent exercise program o Moderate and regular exercise program

Purpose of the Swine Industry

o Convert surplus grain and by-product feeds to meat- § Pigs are the most efficient converters of grain to red meat o As omnivores, pigs can eat a variety of feedstuffs o Swine industry accounts for 6% of the agricultural sales ($22.5 billion) in US

Horse Body Condition Score 8

o Crease along back o Difficult to feel ribs o Very soft fat over tailhead o Area around withers filled with fat o Should avoid, becoming obese

Horse Body Condition Score 9

o Deep crease along back o Thick fat over ribs o Bulging fat over tailbone o Bulging fat along withers o Avoid

Layer and Broiler Feeding and Nutrition Issues

o Dry matter intake (DMI)- § Knowledge of DMI essential to be able to fortify the diet properly- · Adjust diets to satisfy requirements § The equations developed to predict DMI by poultry consider- · Environmental temperature · Energy concentration in the diet · Rate of egg production · Good overall § Water flow meters sometimes used to estimate actual feed consumption o Energy requirement- § Urine and feces are excreted together through the cloaca- · Cannot separate urinary and fecal energy § Chickens produce negligible amounts of gaseous products- · Don't move a lot of energy as heat § Chickens energy requirements expressed in terms of metabolizable energy-

Broilers Nutritional Phases

o Egg incubation- § Eggs hatch in 21 days o Starter (fed for 2-3 weeks)- § Capable of a more rapid growth than Leghorn-type pullets, § Nutritionally balanced ration will be of greater nutrient density o Grower (fed for 2 weeks)- § It is lower in nutrient density compared with the starter diet o Finisher (withdrawal rations/no antibiotic)- § It is lower in nutrient density compared to the grower diet § At 7 weeks = male have reached 5.7 lbs, female reach 4.7 lbs

Horse Digestive Tract

o Esophagus- § 4.5 ft long o Stomach- § Small compared to rest of digestive tract § 8-17 quarts § Acid and enzyme digestion of protein o Small intestines- § 70 feet § 48 quarts § Enzymatic digestion of peptides (peptidase), carbohydrates (amylase), and fats (lipase) § Major site of nutrient absorption § Evolved to consume smaller meals frequently throughout day § Absorption of amino acids, glucose, and fatty acids o Large intestine- § Cecum, colon, rectum § 29 feet § 130 quarts o Cecum- § 4 feet § 28-32 quarts § Bacteria growth to digest fiber § Cellulase (bacterial) breakdown of fiber o Large colon- § 10-12 feet § 80 quarts § Absorption of VFA- · Acetate (make fat), propionate (glucose making), and butyrate/butyric acid (make fat) · More efficient in absorption o Small colon- § 14 quarts § 10-12 feet o Rectum- § 1 foot § Microbial protein excreted through feces- · Not absorbed o Anus- § Excretion of colonic bacteria

Glycine (Gly) and Serine (Ser) in chickens

o Essential for growing chicks- § Rapid growth § Need a lot of muscle mass o Interconvertible- § Each can be used to make the other o Requirements of Gly and Ser met in one of three ways- § Enough Gly to meet the need of Gly and support synthesis of Ser § Enough Ser to meet the need of Ser and support synthesis of Gly § Adequate amounts of both Gly and Ser

Colic Causes

o Excessive gas production in large intestine as result of intense microbial fermentation- § NCS reaching lower tract § Poorly digested feeds reach large intestine § High concentrate diet § Rapid rate of passage- · Forage has more bulk, move slower, occupy space in GI tract o Tendency of some horses to bolt their feed- § Eat very quickly § Favor high rate of passage o Overfeeding (too much grain) o Improper feeding management leading to constipation- § Diet too dry § Too little access to water o Component feeding- § Feed grain and hay separately § Consume too much grain in one sitting o One large meal per day- § Smaller meals more often § Regular feeding schedule- · Produce acids to anticipate feeding o If fed a large meal- § Time to rest before exercise § Competition of blood supply to GI tract or muscles o Diet changes without an appropriate transition

Exertional Rhabdomyolysis (ER)

o Exertional rhabdomyolysis (ER) or "tying-up" has been recognized in horses for more than 100 years as a syndrome of muscle pain and cramping associated with exercise o ER continues to be a performance-limiting or career-ending disorder for many equine athletes- § Different severities o The term ER literally means destruction of muscle cells with exercise o The most common sign is firm and painful muscles over the lumbar (loin) and sacral (croup) regions of the topline, including the large gluteal muscles- § Compromised muscle mass o Can be genetic o Excessive sweating, as well as quick, shallow breathing, rapid heart rate, and muscle tremors are also noticed o Initially can be subdivided into sporadic and chronic (e.g., recurrent ER) forms- § Recurrent = happens regularly o Horses that experience a single episode or infrequent episodes of ER are categorized as having sporadic ER o Horses that have repeated episodes of ER accompanied by increased muscle enzyme activity, even with mild exertion, are classified as having chronic ER- § Often associated with increased muscle activity or certain enzymes linked to plasma § Type 1 polysaccharide storage myopathy (PSSM), type 2 PSSM, malignant hyperthermia, and recurrent exertional rhabdomyolysis § Avoid breeding those with genetic precursors o Horses with sporadic ER have no intrinsic defect in their muscle- § Sporadic occurs most commonly in horses exercised in excess of their level of conditioning § Malformations of polysaccharides § Most common in those not well conditioned o Endurance competitions on hot, humid days may elicit sporadic ER in susceptible horses due to high body temperatures, loss of fluid/electrolytes in sweat, and depletion of muscle energy stores o In some instances, horses seem more prone to sporadic after respiratory infections- § May not be able to uptake enough oxygen § Leads to cramps and muscle soreness § Should not be exercised if they have a fever, cough, nasal discharge, or other signs of respiratory conditions o After the first episodes of ER, horses should be rested for the first 12-48 h in a stall until they can move comfortably without pronounced stiffness o A well-designed exercise program and a nutritionally balanced diet with appropriate caloric intake (DE) and adequate vitamins and minerals are the core elements of preventing future episodes of ER o Vitamin E and Se, electrolytes and minerals, gradual/regular exercise programs- § Antioxidants o Check creatine kinase (specific to muscle necrosis), aspartate transaminase, lactate dehydrogenase- § Elevated may result in ER o Test for genetic component before planning to compete o Reduce grain concentrates, rely more on fat

Horse Body Condition Score 3

o Fat halfway covering spinous process o Slight fat over ribs o Prominent tailhead o Lean withers but no clear bone definition

Replacement Heifers

o Fed to attain puberty and bred at 13 to 14.5 months of age (55 to 60% of mature BW)- o First calf by 2 years of age- § Challenging because still growing § Requirements increase due to fetal growth and lactation § Avoid breeding too early o Fed during gestation to achieve 85% of mature BW by calving- § Avoid compromised long term sustainability of animal § May not be showing signs of heat within 80 day window

PSSM Prevention

o Feed a balanced ration in small meals to avoid excess glycogen storage o Exercise moderately and regularly- § Avoid long periods of hard work followed by days of little or no work o Too much dietary glucose at once can lead to too much glycogen formation, making the problem worse o More frequent, smaller meals with a minimum of grain will keep glycogen storage to a minimum- § May have to eliminate grain from diet, low starch high fat o A low intake of Ca can affect the muscle tone and contraction, altering glycogen use and making the problem worse- § May need increase in intake o Feed grass hay and oat hay mixed with alfalfa hay (high in Ca) o Feed a diet with low NSC (starch and sugars) concentration to susceptible horses, little or no grain, and added fat (10% of diet DM)

Growing Flock Replacements

o Feed represents about 60% of total cost of raising flock replacements o Chickens will produce eggs to hatch into chicks to be sold as broilers or kept to produce hens that lay eggs for human consumption o Compared to hens producing eggs for food, the nutrient requirements for birds producing hatching eggs are greater for I, Mn, Zn, and vitamins E, K, B12, folic acid, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine and riboflavin

Structure of the Swine Industry

o Feeder pig production- § Produces weaned pigs for sale at 10-15 lbs or § Produces feeder pigs for sale at 35-50 lbs § Pigs are then shipped for finishing o Feeder pig finishing- § Feeder pigs are purchased and fed to a market weight of 230-260 lbs o Farrow-to-finish operation- § A breeding herd is maintained § Pigs are produced and fed to market weight on the same farm § Only growing segment of the industry o Purebred or seedstock operations- § Primary saleable product is purebred or controlled crossbred boars, gilts, and show pigs § Genetics based o Inventory and litter rate steadily increasing

Growing/Finishing Cattle

o Final feeding phase before slaughter o Diets contain about 85% grain- § Remaining may not necessarily be forages o Rate of gain about 3.5 lbs/d or more- § Roughly 7 pounds feed for 1 pound gain o A transition or receiving program is usually implemented first- § High forage diet transitioned gradually to high grain diet § Avoid compromising health issues § About 2 weeks o Antibiotics as prophylactic medication- § Additive § Sub therapeutic levels § Ionophores = no withdrawal phase needed § Prophylactic = very low doses o Roughly 100 days o Not all finishing cattle will go to high grain diet, can be finished on high forage diet, take longer to gain more weight- § More expensive beef

Horse Body Condition Score 5

o Flat along back o No visible ribs but can be felt o Spongy fat around tailhead o Rounded withers o Normal, good

Foal Nutrition

o Foals first requirement- § Immunoglobulins in colostrum o Epitheliochorial placenta prevents immunoglobulins/antibodies transference from the mare to the fetus- § In colostrum § Born with naive immune system o Horses grow slower than dogs and cats and the amount of milk produced as a % of BW is less for the horse o If the mare is well fed, her milk should provide all the nutrients needed by the foal for the first 3 months of age- § No shortage of nutrients § Usually weaned around 6 months o The growing foal should have access to forage in addition to milk- § Relive stress on mare and transition from liquid to solid diet o High-quality hay (more protein/energy and less fiber) free choice o Access to good pasture- § Stand of legume and grass mix § Want good mixture § Legumes high and grasses low in calcium- · Important for bone formation o Introduce grain early (1 to 2 months of age)- § Reduces stress at weaning and feed transition § High nutritional demand as older o Creep feed containing high-quality milk protein and soybean meal, as well as high-energy feeds such as corn, barley, and oats- § Be aware of allergies

Factors Involved in the Etiology of Bloat

o Forages and finely ground grains lead to- § Increased surface area o Legumes high in potassium and calcium- o Lead to foam in rumen (caria) o Trap gas- § Expelled through belching normally § Accumulate in rumen o Broken down into very small pieces when chewing- § Increases surface area = bacteria grow quickly § Facilitates fermentation by rumen bacteria o Rumen pH drop facilitates foam formation o Finely ground grains can also lead to bloat- § Facilitate bacteria growth § Produce gas and acid § pH dropped § Slime formation § Trap gasses

egg production

o Free choice feed- § No limit on feed consumption o Methionine is usually the first limiting AA o Laying hens require large amounts of Ca- § Shell strength o Ca content determines egg strength (automated collection, processing, packaging)- § Lack = soft shells o Ca:P = 12:1 (NRC)- § Ca requirement affected by- · Rate of lay · Egg size · Size of bird · Age

Bloat

o Gases produced in rumen during fermentation cannot be expelled through eructation- § Accumulate in rumen § Distension of rumen wall § Can push against lungs, make hard to breathe, can lead to death o Genetic predisposition o Bloat risk can be minimized in animals that are to graze less legumes- § Legumes in diets can cause o Detergents, surfactants, and vegetable oils o Dyspnea and grunting are marked and are accompanied by mouth breathing, protrusion of the tongue, extension of the head, and frequent urination o Rumen motility does not decrease until bloat is severe o Advanced stage of maturity = bloom stage or later = quality of legume drops = more fiber = digested slower = eat less at once = reduced DMI o Initial turnout should be delayed until midday when pastures are dry = more water concentration earlier in day = drier later in day = consume less water and more feed to meet requirements with less consumption o Managing pastures to contain no more than 50% legumes o Full feed of coarse hay before turnout animals to pasture = consume less legumes from pasture o Pastures containing legumes should be introduced gradually = rumen adjust to high load of legumes

Growing Nutrition

o Goals in growth include establishing good eating habits; providing optimal, not maximal growth; avoiding obesity and osteochondrosis- § Avoid developmental problems o A moderate to severe lack of protein or energy will slow growth and can reduce adult size- § Well balanced diet needed- · Not want to limit = slow growth § Too much energy can lead to degeneration of bones o Grazing young horses on pastures with only grasses and not providing a supplement with vitamins and minerals can lead to a shortage of protein, energy, and Ca o Horses cannot survive well on one plant species- § Grasses are low in Ca and legumes are too high o At 2 months of age, foals are interested in something other than milk- § Milk supplying majority of nutrients o By 6 months of age, milk plays a minor role in supplying needed nutrients assuming foals have been fed grain and hay earlier in life o Foals are generally weaned between 4 to 6 months of age- § High nutrition demand- · Growing · Deprived from major nutrient source o Weanling foals should be fed balanced diets that supply enough nutrients to support a reasonable rate of gain o Weanling foals tend to sort through a grain mix- § Pellet feeds can prevent sorting § Select parts liked best § Lead to unbalanced diet o Forage- § More mature = more fiber = energy drop further from requirement o 60 to 70% of the total ration as concentrate- § Young foals- · First month after weaning · High grain = still growing o As the animals ages, increase the forage content over time up to 60 to 70% for 2-year olds with minimal or no exercise- § Different programs change needs- · Training = more physical activity = more energy = more grain · Recreation = greater forage amounts o Some nutritionists may recommend a higher ratio of grain- § Up to 50% for 2-years old o 1.5 to 2.0 kg of grain per 100 kg BW (nursing foals) o 1.5 kg of grain per 100 kg BW (yearlings) o 0 to 1 kg per 100 kg BW (2-year olds) o Higher quality forages tend to need less grain o Energy density of the diet should decrease (DM basis) from 2.9 Mcal DE/kg to 2.0 Mcal DE/kg from weaning to 2-years old o This is easily done by reducing grain, and feeding more forage, and ideally a lower energy and protein forage (e.g., more mature alfalfa & grasses)- § Change with physical activity levels o Ca and P requirements will drop from 0.8 and 0.5% to 0.25 and 0.20%, respectively, from weaning to 2-years old o Zn and Cu needs will also decrease from weaning to 2- years old o Increase forage as ages, less grain needed to be fed

Polioencephalomalacia (PEM)

o High levels of sulfur in grain- § More common in feedlots with high grain diets § Product of high grain diets o Thiamin/B1 deficiency most common cause o Thiaminases cause PEM by destroying thiamin in rumen- o Thiaminases found in- § Raw fish products § Bracken fern § Field horsetail § Other plants o High grain diets increase growth of thiaminase-producing bacteria- § Leads to drop in ruminal pH o Blindness, seizures, coma, anorexia, teeth grinding o "Star gazers" or opisthotonus o Plants that can Cause PEM- § Field horsetail § Bracken fern

Lactating Sows

o Highest nutrient requirements o The lactating sow will eat 5 lb of feed + 1 lb for each pig she is nursing o Even when properly fed, the sow will not be able to consume enough energy to meet the needs of lactation, and will lose weight = negative energy balance o Capable of producing 20 lb of milk- § One of the most nutrient-dense milk of all domesticated animals § However, very low in Fe o Most reproductive problems occur during this phase...why?? o Negative energy balance and Lys deficiency = increased weaning-to-estrus interval. o Sows can store some nutrients during period of excess intake o Stored nutrients may be withdrawn from body reserves when nutrient use exceeds intake (e.g., lactation) o Ca may be withdrawn from bones for milk production o Body fat and body protein may be mobilized to help supply the energy and amino acids used in lactation o Sows fed inadequate Lys during lactation may have a prolonged weaning-to-estrus interval o Energy is the most critical nutrient for the lactating sow o A sow that farrows will mobilize body fat to meet the energy demands of milk production o However, energy from body fat is used much less efficiently than energy from feed sources

Microbial Protein and B Vitamins

o Horses do not derive any AA from microbial protein- § Bacteria in the large intestine use the remaining AA for their own growth § Bacteria are then excreted in the feces without any further digestion o Vitamins B and K are synthesized in the large intestine of horses- § Large intestine not major site of absorption o However, a large portion of these vitamins end up in the manure o Given the uncertainty regarding availability of the nutrients synthesized in the horse's large intestine, it is prudent to feed a high-quality forage source to growing horses- § Beneficial to supplement vitamins

Fat Digestion in Horses

o Horses have evolved primarily consuming forages; therefore, they have not been adapted to high-fat diets- § Made to digest lot of fiber o The gall bladder is the small sac under the liver that stores bile acids, which helps in the emulsification of fat and recycling of cholesterol- § Not present in horses o Although horses do not have a gall bladder, they do synthetize bile acids in the liver- § Important for cholesterol recycling- · Through bile salts to liver · Building blocks for bile acids and cell membranes o The horse can use fat (between 10 to 15% of the diet DM)

Nutritionally Induced Laminitis

o Inflammation of the laminae (i.e., folds of tissue connecting the pedal bone to the hoof) caused by increased release of histamine- § In large intestine by imbalance in diet- · Too fast transition, no regular schedule § Too low pH decreases beneficial bacteria § Produce toxins which produce histamine o Starch overload = enterotoxemia- § Proliferation of undesirable bacteria § Increase production of endotoxins § Histamine production o Pasture NSC (nonstructural carbs) and laminitis- § Horses suddenly turned out onto lush pasture- · Often higher in sugar than starch · Can be high in both § High concentration of sugars- · NSC · Too much grain · Lush pastures (high quality, immature) · Sugars fermented, drop pH, change microbiota, opportunistic bacterial growth § Enterotoxemia § Susceptible horses- · Some more than others · Sensitive to sugar should have limited access to pasture- o Not late in day · Sugar levels higher at end of day- o Photosynthesize with sunlight during day o Sugars accumulate

Polysaccharide Storage Myopathy (PSSM), Type 1

o Inherited muscle disease that affects many and diverse breeds of horses- § Some breeds more prone o Clinical signs vary across breeds, from muscle pain, stiffness, cramping, reluctance to move to sweating and cell damage with exercise to progressive muscle atrophy and increased creatine kinase activity- § Destruction of muscle tissue o Dominant genetic mutation in GYS1 gene responsible for PSSM Type 1 in many o GYS1 codes for the skeletal muscle isoform of glycogen synthase, the enzyme responsible for the formation of glycogen in skeletal muscles- § Normally gene will promote healthy glycogen synthesis § Defective gene will synthesize enzyme, crystalize it, cause muscle damage o Creatine kinase (CK) also known as creatine phosphokinase (CPK) or phospho-creatine kinase- § Enzyme expressed by various tissues and cell types § Catalyses the conversion of creatine and utilizes adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to create phosphocreatine (PCr) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) § Enzyme reaction is reversible and thus ATP can be generated from PCr and ADP o Quarter Horses (6.6%), Paint (7.7%), Appaloosa (5.9%), Percheron (62%), Belgian (39%), Trekpaard (74%), Comtois (80%), Breton (63%)- § Higher incidence rate in larger, draft breeds o Clinical manifestation of skeletal muscle glycogen storage diseases is typically rhabdomyolysis (damage of muscle cells, necrosis) and/or fixed, progressive weakness due to an inability to maintain adequate ATP levels- § Unable to use glycogen stores for energy § Other energy producing metabolic pathways can be affected o Skeletal muscle energy deficit and rhabdomyolysis is due to altered regulation of glycogen synthase activity or other energy-producing metabolic pathways o Acculuamte lot of glycogen in muscles if peroiod between work too long- § Crystalize and cause necrosis

Recurrent Exertional Rhabdomyolysis (RER

o Intermittent form of tying up that past research point to an abnormality in intracellular calcium regulation as the possible cause- § Ca important to muscle contraction o At present there is no specific diagnostic test for RER o Diagnosis is best made based on several observations- § History of repeated episodes, demonstrated elevation in serum creatine kinase activity with exercise, and muscle biopsies without evidence of abnormal polysaccharide o Horses with RER often develop tying-up when they are overly excited o May inherit predisposition; unless exposed stressful factors may not be apparent o Prudent to feed little to no grain- § <20% NSC DE = sugars § Replace grain (DE) with fat (DE) § Soak hay to remove sugars

Nutritional Phases of the Breeding Sows

o Lactation- § 28 days § Weaning ~4 weeks age o Breeding- § 3 days § Up to 2 weeks o Gestation- § 112 § Don't want to gain too much weight

Induced Molting

o Layers are sometimes molted to extend the production period- § Egg production greater than when started § Less flock replacement needed o During a molt, light can be restricted but water and feed should not o A molt can also be induced by feeding a nutrient deficient diet o The molt may last 3 to 6 wks o After molt, layers return to a balanced diet- § Egg production usually increases o Must be a carefully monitored and controlled procedure, with special attention paid to flock health, mortality, and bird weight o Neither water nor food should be withdrawn to induce molting o Acceptable practices include reduction of photoperiod (day length) and specific nutrient restrictions that result in cessation of egg production o Induced molting extends the productive life of commercial chicken flocks and results in a substantial reduction in the number of chickens needed to produce the nation's egg supply

Developmental Orthopedic Diseases (DOD)

o Major goal is to avoid improper rapid growth by feeding too much grain- § Proper energy and protein balances o Provide a proper balance of Ca, P, Zn, and Cu- § Used in bone formation and growth o DOD is a general term used to describe various problems that can exist with bone development in young horses o Epiphysitis and osteochondrosis are conditions that are strongly linked to nutritional problems- § Can be caused by obesity or excessive exercise o Usually caused by too much growth too fast- § Feeding too much grain or too high quality forage § Adjust energy and protein as ages (drop) o Depending on the breed, diets, management, and training programs, incidence of DOD can range from 0 to 40% o Epiphysis is where the cartilage is made and where the bone crystallization occurs o Epiphysitis is an inflammation of the growing part of the bone- § The epiphyseal plate § Can be unrelated to nutrition- · Physical- o Excess training o Continued damage can lead to osteochondrosis, which range from a mild temporary joint problem to debilitating lameness o Osteochodrosis is improper formation of growing bone- § Chips, cysts, and dislodged pieces § Painful, may lead to lameness o Too much energy being fed- § Too much grain, not enough forage § Obesity § Too rapid growth for breed specification o Improper copper/zinc balance- § Related to growth § Promote improper or too much growth- · Pressure on growth plates o Protein- § Promotes growth § Too much

broiler

o Meat birds o Originally was a by-product of the egg industry- § Now much bigger enterprise than eggs o Usually 5 to 7 weeks to reach market age and weigh (4.5 to 5.7 lb)- § Breed and purpose make little differences o Not rely on microbial fermentation o Egg incubation- § 21 days o Broiler starter- § 21 days o Broiler grower- § 14 days o Broiler finisher- § 14 days

Adulthood and Maintenance Nutrition

o Most of the horse life span will be spent at maintenance- § Constant BW & composition- · Fat or muscle gain o Maintain a regular exercise program with 15 to 30 min of moderate exercise every day or every other day- § Will not increase requirements too much § Moving to expend some energy o Provide primarily a forage diet- § Mix of legumes & grasses o Legumes (e.g., alfalfa)- § Too high in energy & Ca for maintaining horses- · Not fed to adults with minimal exercise = too much energy- o Lead to weight gain and more issues o Grass hay (e.g., bromegrass, orchardgrass, bermuda grass)- § Lower energy & Ca compared with legumes o Small amount of grain (<5% of total intake)- § If in exercise mainly § "treat" o Don't need super high quality to maintain adult horse o Pregnant and lactating need more energy- § Better quality § Grain increase o Light/moderate work needs more energy as strenuous increases- § Forage goes down § Grain goes up o Higher quality forage = potentially less grain needed

Horse Body Condition Score 1

o No fat over spinous process o Prominent ribs o Prominent tailhead o Visible bones in withers o Could be neglect or severe sickness o May not be able to recover

gall bladder

o None in horses o Continuous secretion of bile acids into the duodenum- § Via bile duct

Breeding Swine

o Nutrient needs of boars, gestating sows, and sows to be bred are relatively similar o Replacement boars and gilts are selected from those raised for market within a month of marketing or at 5-6 months of age...limit fed to 70% of full feed to achieve breeding weight (260-300 lb) at 7-8 months of age o Most sows will come into heat within 3 to 8 d after pigs are weaned o However, nutritional and management factors can affect the length of the weaning-to-estrus interval o FLUSHING...good or bad? § Practice whereby gilts or sows are feed an enhanced diet for 2 weeks prior to and within the breeding period o The productive life of animals in the breeding herd is dependent on management of body condition

Phase Feeding for Laying Hens

o Nutrient requirements adjusted according to expected requirements for maintenance and egg production o Not adopted by all producers- § Potentially 3 different diets o Phase 1 (252 d)- § Onset of egg production until past the time of maximum egg mass output o Phase 2 (112 d)- § High but declining egg production (65% of maximum) & increasing egg weight o Phase 3 (196 d)- § Egg production continues to decline (<65% of maximum) while egg weight increases only slightly o Adjust amounts to reductions in nutrient requirements as laying period progresses o During the first phase, birds are growing and increasing in production, and at this time the feed formulation is at maximum nutrient density o During subsequent phases, the rate of lay declines as does nutrient density

Gestating Swine

o Nutrients ingested by the gestating sow are used for 3 functions- § Maintain the sow § Accrete mammary tissue in late gestation § Development of the fetuses o A major challenge is to keep sows from getting too fat o Sows weight generally increases from farrowing to farrowing: 15 lb net gain- § Gestation weight gain, 80 lb § Farrowing weight loss, 40 lb § Lactation weight loss, 25 lb o To manage gestation weight gain, sows should be limit fed 3-5 lbs depending on the energy density of the diet o An alternative is time restricted meal feeding or interval feeding (free-choice access to feed for 2 to 6 h only every third day)

Strategies to Reduce Bone Problems

o Observe animal daily for tenderness- § Touch § Movement o Optimize growth rate at 90-95% expected breed maximum- § Maximum growth is not goal o Feed foundation of mixed forage o Supplement with grain only as needed- § High concentrate diet when nursing § High forage diet after weaning o Check and ensure that calcium, phosphorus, zinc, copper are optimal- § Diet formulation o Reducing energy and protein content of the diet- § Feed more fiber § Reducing intake o Keeping Cu and Zn at about 50-60 ppm of the diet o Cereal grains and grasses are very low in Ca (< 1%) while legumes are very high in Ca (>1.5%)- § Proper mix in diet

Colic

o Often nutrition related in some aspect, not always o Symptoms that are due to adverse conditions within the digestive tract- § Almost always nutritionally related o Signs- § High anxiety § Biting, kicking at abdomen § Rolling § Groaning

Horse stomach

o Only 8% of the capacity of the digestive tract, it does not allow for much storage- § Consume small frequent meals o Works like the stomach of humans or abomasum of ruminants- § Mechanical digestion- · Physical feed breakdown § HCl production- · Lowers pH § Pepsin for protein breakdown- · Acidic pH needed o Rapid passage of digesta into the small intestine- § Due to small capacity

developer

o Optional change in diet, transitional o Better addresses the changing nutritional needs of growing pullets o Cost associated with management o Usually fed from 12 wks of age to 5% egg production- § 5 eggs per 100 birds

Polysaccharide Storage Myopathy (PSSM), Type 2

o PSSM Type 1 is caused by a mutation in the GYS1 gene o Not all cases diagnosed by muscle biopsy are caused by the GYS1 mutation o 25% of PSSM cases in Quarter Horses are not due to the GYS1 mutation and no GYS1 mutation was found in 18 breeds of horses previously tested for PSSM o Many horses with PSSM Type 2 share similar clinical signs of PSSM Type 1 including excessive glycogen in their muscles- § Respond to a low starch, high fat diet and regular daily exercise o Similar to PSSM Type 1, PSSM Type 2 likely has a genetic basis- § Underlying genetic mutation yet to be identified

Enzymes in chickens

o Phytase addition to poultry diets shown to improve utilization of phosphorus- § Economic and environmental benefits- · Adds costs to rations § Breaks down phytic acid- · Traps phosphorus, not all absorbed § Increases phosphorous bioavailability o Xylanase and β-glucanase supplementation- § Some studies have been shown improvements in weight gain, feed intake, and feed efficiency in broilers- · Carbohydrates in cereal grains, high levels non-starch polysaccharide

Xanthophylls & Carotenoids

o Pigments that produce a deep yellow color in- § Beak § Feet § Skin § Shanks § Fat tissue § Egg yolks o Some carotenoids can be converted to Vitamin A

Spring Calving System

o Preferred in most of US o On pasture when producing milk

starter

o Pullets weigh about 0.09 lb (40 g)- § Young birds § Grow fast o Nutritional deficiencies can impair growth rate and future egg laying performance o Generally fed for 6 wk o Diet generally contains antibiotics and coccidiostats- § Sub therapeutic levels o Coccidia (Coccidiasina)- § Subclass of microscopic, spore-forming, single-celled obligate intracellular parasites belonging to the apicomplexan class Conoidasida § Obligate intracellular parasites = must live/reproduce within animal cell § Coccidian parasites infect the intestinal tracts of animals § The largest group of apicomplexan protozoa

Preventing Colic

o Reduce bolting of feed- § Undigested feed can pass through lower tract § Scatter feed § Place rocks in feed bucket § Feed chopped hay o Don't overfeed- § Undigested feed reaches large intestine § Overfeeding = increased rate of passage o Regular feeding schedule- § Body prepares for meal time § Produces acids o Reduce component feeding- § Hay and grain together preferable § Hay first- · Provides some bulkiness to GI tract § Grain second o Feed multiple meals per day- § Horses are designed for continuous eating- · Small stomach capacity · Constant bile salt/acid release from liver o Change diet slowly- § Minor diet changes- · No more than week needed § Major diet changes- · 10+ days · Work load, exercise program changes § Rely a lot on microbiota o Water before feeding- § Large quantities after eating wash feed down digestive tract = increased rate of passage § Increase bacteria growth o No feed before or after exercise ("hot horses")- § Work, exercise and digestion require blood supply- · Low digestion = colic · Slow muscles recovery = cramping, injury · When abdominal cavity is full it impacts the respiratory system by compressing the lungs, difficulty breathing

chicken industry

o Relatively steady overall growth o Improved technology = quick turn around o Developments in genetics and nutrition o Higher levels of producers in states with more grain production o Majority comes from broilers (~50%)

Amino Acids in chickens

o Rely a lot on ground corn and soybean meal o First limiting amino acids in corn-soy based diets are most often- § Methionine, lysine, arginine (cannot produce at all, essential), tryptophan o Cysteine- § Made from methionine o Tyrosine- § Made from phenylalanine o These 2 nonessential AA may become limiting without enough precursors o Tryptophan (essential) is converted into niacin (Vit. B3) o Methionine is converted into choline o While the mammalian dietary requirement for arginine is due to inadequate synthetic activity to meet metabolic needs, the poultry need for arginine is due to a complete lack of synthesis

PSSM Treatment

o Rest!! o Sedatives, muscle relaxants, and medicines to adjust the acid balance of the blood upset by the waste products coming out of the damaged muscles o In most cases, can recover but, unfortunately, o In some cases, severity of muscle damage means horse may be debilitated to a large degree for a long time or life o In some severe cases, euthanasia is the only humane alternative- § Very extreme scenarios

Horse Body Condition Score 6

o Slight concave ridge on back o Spongy fat over ribs o Soft fat over tailhead o Fat along sides of withers

Horse Body Condition Score 4

o Slight convex ridge along back o Faint outline of ribs o Fat can be felt on tailhead o Some fat on withers o Thin to moderate, normal dependent on purpose

Role of Protein

o Slight increase in exercise load does not lead to a major change in protein synthesis in the muscle- § No additional protein is needed o As the length or intensity of exercise increases, the muscle does increase the rate of protein synthesis & breakdown- § Amino acids removed through turnover of protein o As a result, there is an increase in the AA needed to maintain muscle mass o However, if an animal increases food intake by 1 kg/d to meet about 2.5 Mcal/kg of BW of DE, an extra 100 to 140 g of protein will be consumed- § More than enough to meet increased metabolic need § Grains will also contain protein o Growing horse in early training or if you wish to increase the horse muscle mass- § Increase diet protein (1 to 2% increase; NRC, 2007) § Higher energy requirement o Use common sense when feeding protein o Too much protein- § Expensive- · Most expensive of diets § Increase N load on the environment- · Excess protein = ammonia = converted to urea in liver = excreted § Increase N load on kidneys § Rapid growth § Increased risk of Developmental Orthopedic Disease (DOD)

Horse Body Condition Score 2

o Some fat on spinous process o Prominent ribs o Prominent tailhead o Slightly visible bone structure in withers

Layer Nutritional Phases

o Starter- § 42 days o Grower- § 42 days o Developer- § 63 days § Optional, grower § Transition from grower to layer o Layer phase 1- § 252 days o Layer phase 2- § 112 days o Layer phase 3- § 196 days o Change diets as egg production starts to decline- § Not all productions will change § Some try to better match nutrient requirements

Market Hogs

o Suckling Piglet- § Apart from Fe, the sow's milk provides a balanced diet for the suckling piglet § A single IM injection of 150 mg or 2 cc of iron dextran at 1-3 days of age to prevent anemia...a 2nd injection at 3 wk of age may be given § Immediate consumption of colostrum is important: epitheliochorial placenta § Do not make own antibodies until 3-4 wk of age § Offer a palatable "creep feed" at 1 wk of age, usually wean 3-4 wk of age o Nursing Piglets- § Early weaning (3-4 wk), segregated early weaning (SEW) as early as 5 d of age § Early weaning requires intensive nutritional management o Growing Hog- § In farrow-to-finish farms, growing pigs are fed 3 diets: the nursery diet (weaning to about 40-lb BW), the grower diet (40 lb to about 110 lb BW), and the finisher diet (110 to 250 lb BW) § To achieve maximum gain, pigs should be on full feed and the primary goal is to maximize feed intake o Finishing Hog- § Concentration of nutrients in the ration for the finishing hogs will be lower than that for the growing hogs § 60% of the cost of pork production is due to feed purchases § Finishing hogs should be managed to maximize feed intake- · Feeder space § Finishing hogs are poor masticators: poor utilization of unprocessed grains § Market weight 250 lb (feed conversion from 40 lb to market weight = 3 to 4 lb of feed per lb of gain)

Nutritional Phases of Market Hogs

o Suckling- § 21 days o Nursery- § 30 days o Grower- § 59 days o Finisher- § 58 days

The Swine Industry

o Swine is the dominant meat-producing species- § Account for 38% of world's meat; 1.7 times more than cattle o The US holds 6.3% of the pigs and produces 9.3% of the world's pork o China is the world's largest producer o Chinese Meishan swine breed - prolific breeders (15-16 piglets)

Feeding Enzymes to Broilers

o The antinutritive effects of non-starch polysaccharides are attributed to an increase in intestinal digesta viscosity o Indigestible polysaccharides, which are known to be viscous, can act directly by increasing bile acid excretion o Or indirectly through the intestinal microflora, which affect the morphology of the small intestine wall o Therefore, the addition of exogenous enzymes is necessary to reduce the antinutritive effects of viscous non starch polysaccharides- § Increase villi length and width

Horse Body Condition Score 7

o Visible crease along back o Area between ribs filled with fat o Soft fat on tailhead o Fat along sides of withers o Not ideal

Swine Breeds

o Yorkshire o Landrace o Spotted o Duroc o Hampshire o Chester White

The energy requirement of swine

§ Based on rate of gain (lean gain + fat gain), body size and reserves, number of piglets nursing, milking ability, environment § Pigs in thermal environment below their optimal temperature will use feed energy as fuel to generate heat needed to maintain body temperature § Cold stressed pigs will require additional energy and their appetite will increase: free-choice access to feed § Crowding of growing swine has a negative impact on performance § For pigs weighing <44 lbs, 45 to 110 lbs, and >110 lbs, the minimum spaces required are 4.4 ft2, 11.4 ft2, 11.8 ft2, respectively

Protein in Swine Nutrition

§ In corn-based diets, protein is the nutrient most likely to be deficient § A deficiency in protein results in: 1) reduced feed conversion efficiency, 2) increased days to market, and 3) a fatter carcass § The AA profile of corn protein matches up poorly with the animal's need for AA to make lean gain § Mixtures of soybean meal and corn meal have an AA profile that is relatively close to that required by swine to make lean gain § Lys is the first limiting AA

Spring Calving System advantages

§ It allows the cows to get most of nutrients via grazing § It does not require lots of good quality feed to winter a dry cow and she will have abundant, high quality pasture when her nutrient demands peak (60 d after the calf is born)

Nutrient Supplementation in Swine Nutrition

§ Microbes in the digestive tract & microbial protein synthesis § Most microbial production in the digestive tract of swine takes place in the large intestine, downstream from the primary site of absorption § Therefore, the pig must be fed high-quality sources of protein § Microbes in the digestive tract also produce the B vitamins but these nutrients are synthesized downstream from the major site of absorption, and the usual energy and protein sources fed to swine are poor in B vitamins § For these reasons, swine diets are usually fortified with B vitamins

Feedstuffs used in swine diets

§ The choice of which feedstuffs to use in formulating swine diets will depend on 3 factors- · What works to balance the ration · Feedstuff cost and availability · Feedstuff palatability § Low palatability issues- · Moisture contaminants (toxins, mold), physical conditions of feedstuff § In large swine operations in the US, swine diets are generally made by fortifying a corn meal and soybean meal mix with minerals and vitamins § On small operations, balanced swine rations are formulated using a greater variety of feedstuffs

Spring Calving System disadvantages

§ Weather more erratic during this time period § Breeding season April to late May- · Hot weather may affect conception rates · Pregnant but dry over winter § Calves weaned during the fall- · Lower weights, poor forage quality § Weaning and selling calves in October- · Low $$